Contents

Page.No.

Acknowledgement I-II

Introduction III-VII

Chapter I 1-45

Veda and Vedanta : Samhita upanisad and Gita.

Chapter II 46-73

Non Vedic systems of philosophy and Ayurveda

Chapter III 74-89

Nyaya Vaisesika system on Body

Chapter IV 90-166

SANKHYA -YOGA : An Ontological and

Metaphysical view

Conclusion 167-172

Biblography 173-187
 Acknowledgement

Since my school days I have great inclination to learn Sanskrit

and study ancient literature. For this purpose my adorable teacher and
Supervisor Prof. J.P.Semwal V.V.I.B. and I.S.Hoshiarpure, Prof.
Dharmanand Sharma Deptt. of philosophy P.U. Chandigarh and Pt.
Sadhu Ram Ji of Sanskrit vidyalaya Fazilka have been kind to me and
tausht Sanskrit. I ever bow down before them for this grace.
Km*

There are many respectable personalities who have guided me in

completion of my project. I would like to make a special mention of
Prof. Vikram Kumar Chairman, Dr. Dhanraj Sharma, Dr. Varinder
Kumar and Dr. V.P.Upadhaya and Mr. K.K.Kalia Deptt of Sanskrit P.U.
Chandigarh.
I would like to acknowledge my indebtness to Dr. Asha Maudgil
Chairperson Dr. Veena kapoor Dr. Sebastian Velassery, Prof Rekha
Jhanji and prof S.P.Gautam and other staff Deptt. of philosophy P.U.
Chandigarh.
It is my humble duty and obligation to express my sincere thanks
to prof. R.C.Pradhan member secretary ICPR New Delhi for awarding
me residential fellowship to study at Lucknow and also thankful to
M.P.Pandey reader, Rtd Prof G.B.Thatte state Ayurvedic college
Lucknow. I am sincerely thankful to Mrs Rekha Verma Chairman, Mrs
Kanchan sexena reader, Deptt of Philosophy Lucknow University.
I would like to put on record my sincere thanks to Dr. T.S.Bindra
chairman, Dr. Satish Rehani, Dr. K.L.Prasher, Dr. Ganasyam Uniayal
and Mr shiv kumar Verma for guiding and providing me library
facilities through out my study period.
I can not forget most respectable Mahant Raminder Dass Dera
Baba Charan shah whose grace and blessings able me to complete this
project.
I am really grateful to Miss Kavita, Mr Amit Kumar, Sh. Pankaj
Vastava research scholars and Mr Munish Kumar student of Deptt. of
Philosophy.
I extend my thanks to Mr. Hoshiar Singh who composed and
computerised this thesis very carefully It is difficult to forget to
sewadars deptt. of philosophy Mr. Faujdar singh and Mr. madan lal
serving me at the time of need.
In the last I feel sincere indebtness to all those scholars whose
valuable knowledge have enlightened me.
I apologize for all errors to the learned scholars and request them
to excuse me for the inconvenence that will be caused to them bv such
errors.

cl

Harbans Lal Bawa

 Introduction

H l-M'H IrH I eT«T:

"If men care for gold they must dig for it, otherwise they must be
content with straw."
Nothing in the world is regarded as so wonderful as the human
being. The more we discover about man, the more wonder-ful and
exciting he reveals to be. From the point of view both the inner structure
and the outer expression, there is nathing more enigmatic than the
human person.
It is innate in the human heart a metaphysical hunger to know and
understand, what lies beyond the mysterious and illusive veil of
nature.This is equally applicable to both a savage or savant. From the
beginning of time, philosophers have tried to bridge the gap between the
seen and the unseen, and attempted to show causes for the inescapable
experience of man's sorrow and suffering that engulfs him. But man as a
being escapes from his own act of knowing. There are certain
ontological questions relating to human existence and human spirit i.e.
what is the ultimate goal of human existence and which are the methods
of achieving it. From the simplest superstitious to the most subtle
philosophical speculations have been offered by philosophers for its
explanation and solution.
In the western view perceptual knowledge is the only criterion of
measuring man's reality. Sctientist are making experiments for
examining the depth of matter with the microscope and sweeping the

III
heavens with therir telescope inorder to show the basic structure of the
universe and human person but is still remains a mystery.
Not theory about person is claimed to be complete. There can be
two distinct approaches to understand the nature of human person, one
is outside -in and the other is inside-out. The out-side-in appraoch is the
basis of empirical sciences, judging man from his behaviour. Man is
looked upon as a product of historical forces, governed by multiple-
socio-cultured circimstances that determine his life and acticities. The
west denies to accept any postulate which lies beyond the perceptions of
sense experiences which are considered a magnified and powerful
instruments of percision.
The body of man, according to upanishads considered to be the
outer most layer of the human person and has been named as annamaya-
kosa, others kosas are pranamaya kosa, manomaya kosa, Vijnanmaya
kosa and anandmaya kosa. Manomaya kosa has been endowed with the
faculty of mind. Conceptual development is clearly seen through
thinking, reasoning, planning, expressing and analysing the matter. The
power of reasoning is said to be the distinguished biophysical aspect of
human person.
On the other hand, materialistic philosophers maintain that human
personality is as evolute of material phenomena. According to Darwin,
"human personality is an evolute of anthropoid apes...." the behaviour is
also maintain that human personality is basically a biophysical
phenomena. According to them man is a systematic organisation of cells
and nerves. Human memory, thought, imagination and so on are the
functions of the nurophysiological aspects of the personality. Still some
psychologists think that human personality is analogous to a computer
IV
or to a calculating machine. In their view, the brain has a built in
mechanism which is capable of thinking logically.
But the materialistic and bilophysical explanation of human
personality are extremely in-edequate for the following reason : (a)
There is no conclusive evidence which establish that vital and
consciousness phenomena are the by products of matter, (b) Cells and
nerves by themselves are incapable of producing organised behaviour
and thinking in human beings. The functions of cells and nerves are
regulated by psychic phenomena in human personality, (c) The human
personality as a whole is not a kind of automation which functions in a
mechanistic fashion in response to inputs coming from the external
environment, Eccles, Nobal prize winning brain scientist, has cautioned
in the following words: "I warn you against philosophies that
exclusively claim to build upon the nature of man as a behaving being
and lead to some cari-cature of man, to some computer or cybernetic or
robot man."

Goal of Life : According to Indian view of life, the ultimat goal of life
is to achieve Moksa through dharma, artha, kama. Dharma has been
variously translated as, 'law', moral duty, right action, conformity with
the truth of things. Dharma is the means through which man approaches
towards the desired goal of human life.
Artha is very impotant factor to lead a common life. Man is a
social being. His life is governed by social circumstances. He performs
obligatory duties towards his family, society and naton. Hence he must
be financially sound so that he may be in a position to perform his duties
without constraints.
V
 All Indian philosphical schools except Carvakas are of the view
that the ultimate goal is to realise truth and attain emacipation. But in
western theology the concept of Moksa implies that the soul has fallen
in the dearth of the world at some perticular time due to certain sin and
aim is to release the soul from it. But the Indian conception of Moksa
implies that the soul is eternally free, but it has wrongly identified itself
with certain extraneous elements and our aim is to realize its true nature.
The out look of man should be equanimity towards good and evil,
pleasure and pain, gain and loss, also he has to work for the welfare of
human being, (Sarvam bhuta hitam, Samattvam yoga ucchayate).

Importance of Body : Whatever may be the aim of life either it be

regarding this physical world or the metaphysical one, the goal cannot
be attained without the support of the physical body. Body is the sole
resort for the soul and is the only means to achieve one's end. The
means of realization of self can be observed and availed of only through
the assistence of body, senses and mind, such an ascetic upnishad as the
mundaka declares that the spirit cannot be realized by one who lacks
physical strength. The Kena upanishad opens with a prayer for
strengthening of all limbs and senses of the body. The prasna upanishad
also opens with a prayer for physical fortitude and firmness of organs
and senses by body.
It is one the most important and sacred duty to take care of the
body and to keep it in good health and strength an make it as beautiful
as one can. Beauty does not lie in the skin but lies deep in the soul. Life
without good health is a sheer burden. A sick person puts his relatives
and friends to needless troubles.
VI
 The opening saloka of Bhagvadgita i.e. "Dharma-kshetra,
Kurukshetra" has a symbolic meaning. Dharma-kshetra means the field
of duty and kuru-kshetra the field of action. Human life circles round
these two fields. Life is a battle field of two opposite forces : negative
and positive: Negative forces must be suppressed and defeated and that
cannot be possible without sound body and mind. Kalidas, the rare most
gem of Sanskrit literature emphasizes this aspect in the following way.
"STfkwr "udwFm" (Kumara sambhavan 5.33)
Yoga- bhasya admits that the Japa of Ishvara cannot be done
without the body. cTCFT ^FT: sfft yum14^
(^TtTFTP2T <3.^)

Here is a beautiful saying regarding to the sound body in Sanskrit

which reads this:

9lfl<"*4 fcR^Zffrt I I

Rgveda and Atharvaveda speak of the same idea that man hold
right and duty in hands.

^ it ^EZT onflcT:
One of the most orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, the
Mimansa, does not tolerate the idea of renuniciation. According to it,
man should remain in the world discharging his duties and
responsibilties as had been laid down in the vedas.
There is no glorification of poverty in the Indian classics; no ode
is sung in the honour of a poor lady by the ancient poet. Indian
philosphy emphasizes on the practical life through it preaches
renuniciation. What is commended here is Gita's advice so as to live a
VII
balanced life. One must be moderate in one's food and movements in
one's engagements, actions, in sleep and in wakefulness.

^cfrile?R-Rl5?k'W spftj |
^T-tc|Hld^£TPT ^TTcf 11

The span of earthly life is the life for progress. Nalima Kanta
Gupta says, "whatever you avoided in one life, you will find reappearing
in amore difficult form." So do not renunciate the world and do not
ignore the importance of body.
Efficience and excellence of senses are necessary for fulfillment
of secular as well as aspiritual life, developed senses organse of human
body have increased his conative, cognitive and effective efficiency to
such an extent that he is capable of contemplating and of endeavouring
to realize highest realities of life. In other words, the body is not a
person of the soul but the habitat for it or a temple in which the soul can
work out its salvation by worship and meditation. That is why the
Kathoupnishad treats the human body as an abode of spirit. These
considerations suggests that the spirit is called 'dehi' as one residing in
the body not only to signify the evident empirical fact of body being the
basis of spirit but it also suggests the importance of the body as the
vehicle and instrument of spirit.

VIII
 Chapter I

Veda and Vedanta : Samhita upanisad and Gita.

3TT ^fr 'H3T: •o
raVcRT:

( Let noble thoughts come to us from every side)

Introduction :
The word 'veda' means knowledge as it is derived from the root
/vid (to know). Vedas are four in numbers . The Vedas are regarded as
the repositories of Aryan wisdom,and are also called shruti which means
the wisdom transmitted from the teacher to the taught or from sire to son
by means of oral instructions. The traditional "classification of ideas
into four Vedas was done by Maharishi Vedavyas as originally the vedic
wisdom was embodied in stray hymns (Mantras) ". These Mantras were
in "poetry, prose and song, were called Rg, Yajur and Sam; Veda
respectively and the Atharvaveda was a miscellaneous composition ."
VedaVyas was the compiler and due to compilation, the mantra section
of the Vedas are called Samhitas.
"RgVeda primarily deals with Jnaana (Knowledge), Yajur Veda
with Karma (action); and Samveda with Upasana (worship) and
Atharvaveda deals with miscellaneous subjects.13" 2

1. Heritage of Vedic Culture P.XXIII

2. Heritage of Vedic culture Ed. by Stayavarta sidhantalankar ,
Prologue XXIII
3. Heritage of Vedc Culture Introduction XXIV

1
 "The discovery of Sanskrit in the 18th century by Coeurdeau, a
French missionary and Sir William Jones, a British Judge, was a new
wonder in the scholastic world of Europe. It was like the discovery of a
new and very important planet by the astronomers. "
"Very cautiously, Fredrich Max Muller puts the date of
composition between 1,500 B.C. and 1,200 B.C. and though the limits,
upper and lower have been pushed up and pushed down by certain
writers. There is a sort of general agreement about it. 2 "

Fredich Max Muller further writes about the Vedas "Although

there is hardly any department of learning which has not received new
light and new life from the ancient literature of India, yet nowhere is the
light that comes to us from so important, so novel and so rich as in the
study of religion and mythology. "
"Vedic culture believes that the various objects of this world have
been created for our enjoyment. It does not teach us to run away from or
to close our eyes to them. It only warns us against excessive indulgence
in them.1
4" 2 3
Rgvedic suktas are praying for long life. How can be it possible
that on the one hand we are praying for long life and on the other hand
we are asked to renounce this life.

1. The Vedas by F. Max Muller

Intorduction Page VII
2. Ibid Introduction P.XI
3. Ibid p. 82.
4. Heritage of vedic culture P. 6
2
Here is a mantra " O God! stand before us for a hundred years, during
which old age brings our bodies to decay and our sons become fathers in
turn. Please do not break in the middle of the fleeting course of our life"1.

Outlook of Vedic Culture :

"According to vedic culture, the body exists but it is the beginning
and the end of human existence ; the satisfaction of our bodily needs is,
and no doubt should be our goal ; but not our final goal in life. Vedic
culture does not teach us to ignore the body or to shut our eyes to the
material aspect of life. The body is real, it is in fact so real that it has
even hidden within itself its spiritual principle. How, then, can we
neglect the body? How is it possible that the saints and sages who
prayed for the span of a hundred years of life could afford to neglect or
hate or abhor the body2?"

Grhasthasrama- The order of a House holder

We have seen that the vedic seers have developed the institution
of marriage and family which was the basic unit of Vedic Social life.
Here, the house-holders enjoyed the worldly life and pleasures of the
world to the full. They earned wealth, enjoyed sex and procreated good
issues3.

1. W RFF
O
?rAT STfr^TT dddlH
o K

Hdidi *r?r 'fAAt ft At wuflR>idi^jRdt: i i

wi^r.
2. Heritage of Vedic culture. P.17
3. ttA W did* FA tTRJ M^ipTFTT sreTC RR^dldl I

3
 The flow of life comes from we know not where and rushes on to,
we know not whether, "The span of life visible to us is only a fragment
cut out from the roll of the fabric of life ."
How to behave or how to live life had been the prime motives of
human mind. According to the Veda, the path of action is as important
as the path of knowledge. "In the later religion and literature, we find a
tendency to consider action useless or at best as a necessary evil, but in
2
the Vedas action is accepted as an essential part of life ."
Karma yoga leads man to the building up of the body and
sharpening of the mind, and to live to full life with good health and
vigour and in the joy of being.

The Aim of Life :

Veda suggestes and prays for happy life. Our days should not be
just days, but fair, bright and happy days. O' God give us the best
treasures, the efficient mind and good fortune, increase the wealth and
the health of bodies. We may speak with melodious voice, in this way,
our days would be fair and gay.
The Veda sets a hundred years as the norm of human life.
At another place Rgveda wishes for full term of life attaining the
old age with fully exerting a longer term of existence

1. Heritage of Vedic culture. P.66

2. The call of the Veda by Abinash Grander Bose,
3. ^I'VdPl St%, Mvf ctSTW SIVA

~qh$r <4Tiih cr^yrf, w<tHiT i

4
 May Twasta be gracious and lengthen out the days of your
existence.1 2 3
In Atharvaveda it is also prayed for to see a hundred years. May
we live hundred years, know hundred years, prosper hundred years,
2
even more than hundred years.

The Relevance of the body

In Atharvaveda, it is prayed for good health and strength of four
limbs of the body along with upper part and lower part may become
stout and strong and all the body be in good health.
In another mantras of Atharvaveda it is said that body should
become as strong as stone. The all pervading God shall make the life a
hundred years long.4

1. 3TT cpJ|HI 3FF£f -MdHHI I

W ^'d'l ^v>lp|HI MM ^ I I
2. (^) : MiAlH ?T?FT I I <pJFT

^i ^tctr; i i
'Jf^FT ?TC<?: WRJ SFFf^T. V^.?.

(m) ?r^r^Tc)Bd i trtr-. wf; trrr:

W TFFT: W R sFTFT ¥RT

¥R^T: VldMd, I

ddjTc;, 3 VF'*'.
3. "9T ^ Jlldw ymfrdcKiU TT I

^ 3T^TT<«T: cF% TFT I 3FT=f^\

4. F^T^FFTFT IAW9FT RR^ ct cFT: I

3tF£^ wf; i i Ibid.

5
 In Rgveda similar prayer is found 'O! Indra, give strength to our
bodies, strengthen our off springs that they may live well.1

The Origin of Cosmic

Hiranyagarbha, the golden embryo, was present only, before the
universe existed. It began the creator in the beginning and upheld this
earth and heaven.2
"The God, the supreme ruler of the whole universe, is glorified
here under one more name i.e. Hiranyagarbha in addition to other
names like Brahmanaspati (10.72.2) Vishvakarman (10.81.5, 10.82.2)
Ambhrnivak (10.25) or even Ekam sat (1.164.46) and Vrsabhadhenu
(3.38.7).
There are three leading themes expressed in the first stanza
(1) The origin of reality (in the beginning arose the Goldengerm.)
(2)The lordship of God and (3) The human adventure of returning to the
primeval state.
(a) Golden germ is to be born and has to express itself God, is born
(even to himself). This is the mystery of this hymn.

1. far)
\ /
srft cFN
OO O <3
"T: I

Gief dHA-iw cd % stereo srf^r i i

(^) «hhi : i
^rbrr 1 1 Ibid, yvx.v

twr4 dUdd'dltl ^TRT: I

crrair vj 13dui 1 Ibid .

6
(b) Once bom, the Goldengerm becomes the lord of the Universe, the
lord of Being itself, lord of Being and of beings.
(c) Who and what shall be the object of our worship. To whom shall we
direct it. This question encompasses the whole human destiny. His name
is simply Ka (Who) or to be even more exact Kasmai (to whom).
There are six-seven sukta's about the creation of universe in the
Rgveda, Nasdiya Sukta, Hiranyagarbha and Purusa Suktas are very
famous among them.

Nasadiya Sukta
This is one of the most important creation hymn in Rgveda. It
describes the creation of the world in three stages. In the beginning,
there was neither existent nor non-existent, no mid region, no sky
beyond it. What did it cover, where and under whose shelter was all then
was there deep unfathomable water ?
There was neither death nor immortality at that time. No sign of
2
day and night but one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature .

1. hiwiTWi xnTrsxh H<iud,i

RutM'Oci; ^
<0
viT-'-i S -S
i i

2. -T ^ ?rrff X TT^ITT 3T^T STXflcf I

SHTUdld ^rsmT d^d^l-M-d nT: ‘d'dld I I

Ibid

7
 In the beginning, it could not be called either sat or asat for
obvious reasons. This Ekam is called abhu (10.129.3) that when one was
about to be existing it was surrounded by what the author calls 'tama' or
salila resembling the amniotic fluid surrounding the foetus in the
ordinary creation. This is the first stage1. 2
Sages having meditated in their hearts have discovered by their
wisdom the connection of the existent with non-existent their rays were
stretched out whether across, below or above some were shedders of
seed and others were mighty, "This according to Sayana refers to the
suddenness of creation which was developed in the twinkling of an eye,
like the flash of the sun's ray. It was so quick he continues .
It consists in the Ekam becoming two fold so that it assumed the
procreating form above and the sustaining form below with a connecting
cord bond uniting them together for creation here, the creation followed
its natural course.
Last two stanzas put several agonised queries and rise to a deep-
rooted uncertainty for which no reply is granted, because reality still on
the move ; any definite answer would render impossible preclude its
constant newness. From that depth the fundamental question is raised,

1. W ^ fraT «nprT..............................

cjg;-c-MRH' TTR- ................................................. i i

2. ■Qcf ^ snjcr i
Ibid

8
"What is the origin of this universe. Who or1 what is its purpose, its end,
its direction. In the last stanzas it is said "only, he who is beyond and
above everything may know-or he may not, for how may there be any
assurance concerning it? It is not only that we know that we do not
know which would then be mere pretending, but that we really do not
know even if it is all knowable by any possible knowledge. The hymn
concludes with this query, this constitutive uncertainty which is of
infinite magnitude, because we are all involved in it. To answer the
query would amount to killing the very unfolding of reality. It is the
openess of this interrogation which allows the universe to emerge and to
exist."2
Purusasukta is the second important and frequently quoted hymns
of the Rgveda. "It reveals to us the character of the creation-sacrifice :
its all-embracing function in which the entire universe is involved. It is
neither a merely divine affair, nor a purely human endeavour, nor a
blind cosmic process. It is human, divine, and cosmic all in one. That is,
it is cosmotheandric God, man and the universe are correlates.3"

1. 3TegJ 31 Hid I

2. The Vedic Experience P.58.

3. Ibid P.72

9
Divine Consionsness : Cosmic Reality
The concept of "Purusa, who has a thousand heads, a thousand
eyes, a thousand feet, investing the earth in all directions, exceeds (it by
a space) measuring ten fingers."1 These all are symbolic meanings as
one with all creatures Purusas or Viraj, a thousand being for an infinite
numbers. All however, that seems intended is that the supreme soul,
having animated the universe is moreover present in man either in a
minute form or of definite dimensions, doctrines, as taught in the Veda'
the Purusa is not only the Cosmic man, it is also the personal aspect of
the whole of reality.

Purusa
In Purusa Sukta in verses 8 to 14 the Purusa sacrifices himself by
dismembering himself and scattering the necessary number of portions
for the completion of the work of creation. He performes an act of self
immolation, so that the universe may come into existence. From this
sacrifice offered completely, that is from the limb of the cosmic Man
come all things both animate and inanimate, animals of every type ".

1. Vrt^if i

2. Rg Samhita by H.H. Wilson

Part VII P.249
3. The Vedic experience P.74

10
 "Verse 15 sums up the idea of the sacrifice and the last stanza
repeats the underlying thought of the whole hymn that the cosmic Man
is a total sacrifice. By sacrifice creation reverts turn back to the former
place. The sacrifice of the cosmic Man signifies divine transcendence
investing humanity. This universal sacrifice possesses a two fold
dynamism, for it includes a sacramental downward movement of the all
towards the earth, and sacrificial upward movement of the world toward
the all; These two aspects are inseparable one from the other precisely
because of the unity of the integral sacrifice."1 2
"This hymn........ describes the formation of the world from the
body of the primordial man who is so vast that he covers and even
overlaps the earth, not only in space but also in time, for he covers the
three ages of the past, the present and the future ". Only one quarter of
the cosmic person is visible and emerges into the sphere of the
manifested.3
The social grouping into four types is as follows the man of
knowledge and religion (Brahman)* the man of politics and warfare

1. The Vedic experience P.75.

2. (V) EWf tt^- ^ xrw |

(^r) The Vedic Experience P.74

3 (yh) vretsw f%WT ^vrTf^r f?rerrewFicf i Ibid 10.90.3

!%) The Vedic Experience P.74

Ibid .
o

crew x[fw; nrewt ■gjsfr sremtcr i i

11
(Kshatriya), the man of trade and industry (Vaishya) and the working
(Shudras), but it says that all of them are limbs of the cosmic being they
are respectively the mouth, arms, thighs and feet ofpurusha. This means
in philosophical language, though separated by quality and occupation
all of them are the same in spirits.
Vedic culture pays its tribute to all these ideologies which aim at
solving the problem of hunger and thirst, and its preference must
naturally go to the one which deals with its problem the most efficiently.
It only emphasizes that after having fulfilled their mission of removing
hunger and thirst these ideologies must recede into the background and
they should not keep us in their shackles after they have oulived their
utility.

Jivem sharadah shatam without hunger and thirst

Conclusion
Vedic culture does not ignore mundana life. It regards the body as
a means for achievement of human goal by employing the long life,
"Jiven Sharadah Shatam." Vedic culture is fully commented with the
theory of karma. Man makes his destiny himself through the
performance of karma. Performance is not possible without sound body.

12
Atharva Veda-
Introduction
Among the well known four Vedas, Atharvaveda is the fourth, but
some philosophors and scholoars do not consider it among the Vedas.
As Aitterya Brahman speaks, Tftt smi-m-ci ' Taiterya Brahmanas

But Mundak Upanishada establishes it as fourth Veda, ddiLKi

wTt: TT: and in Brhadaranyak Upanishada,
'3TW ^ *

Reason for consideration of only three Vedas is that in performance of

yajna, only three Veda have to be recited and the fourth Atharvaveda.
has nothing to do with the yajna performance, only it remains as
evidence in silence1
4. 2 3
"The Atharvaveda is a collection of 730 hymns containing some
6000 stanzas divided into 20 books. About one sixth of the mass
including two entire books (15 and 16) are written in prose, in similar
style and language to the Brahmanas the rest is poetry in usual vedic
meters5".
Scholars took special interest in its nature and its subject matter.
According to the western philosophors it is modem but most of the
constituents are more ancient than those of Rgveda. The weird religion

1. i A. |
2. Mundak Upanishada. 1.1.5
3. Brhadamyaka Upanishada. 2.4.10
4. Bhumika of Atharvaveda. Bhase-bhasya vol I
5. The Atharvaveda And the Gopath- Brahmanas M.bloomfield Page 1
13
that the Atharvaveda presence is no doubt older than that of Rg Veda,
Though the Atharvaveda's collection is later on. Rath and Whtling tried
to make it easy and understandable to public. It was first published in
Berlin in 18561.

Human Body
2
Human body is called Brahampuri in Vedas that puri (human
body) is covered up all around with nector and its very foundation is
nector. Human body surrounded with nectar is only known to
Brahamjnani.

Prayer for long life

Atharvaveda prays for welfare and long life of an infant that his
'i

body should become strong like a stone . All the gods may bless him

1. Ibid Introduction- P-III

f^T: 3tt
■gr % Hit'll WTT: I I

t eft ^cRTfctT I

ciVh §r^r wrr^r wT 'R^rf i i

Ibid.
3. I
^5% ^=tT 3n q r^d' ^TcTR; 1 I

Ibid.

14
with long life for hundered of years. It is prayed that God may bestow
on him the gifts of energy, power and strength.1 2 3

About different parts

There is description of various bones: thighs knees, joints of
knees, heels, front feet, hips, hands, fingers, back bones, shoulders, chin
and others . In these mantras, it is prayed to get rid of the diseases like
yaksama. Nervous system was also known at that time as gavine (oftllft)
3
and at another places sinews, tendon, veins are indicated .
At one place, a hundered arteries and thousand4 5veins
6 of red
5 6
colour are described . Pranas are explained of seven types . A man

1. ftpftwlftT ft ^T: W5T I Siqftftq.

Wrfft Wt ft ^T: W5T I Ibid .

2. 3T§ft«rt ft H ilftcH'wrr i
qffftoq fftq^rfft ft I I ? II
dl&MSIWT: ftNwftT I
qsft <h^|uquft|«Tt fft |gqfft ft I I ^ II

Ibid.
3. 3rfftr*qqft TT^nq-; qqqnftT I I
Ibid .
4. yidVM SFpfhTf ^rl^Utq I

Ibid.
5. SPjqf 'Mpd ftrfftftT fft?T clMBcldKrKH: I

Ibid .
6. WIN I *N

15
breathes out (Apanati) breathes (Pranati) within the womb. O breath
thou quickenest, then, he is born .

Breath is called matarisvan wind in breath, what has been and

# 2
what will be, in breath is all established .

Indriyas are taken into account as different numbers. Some times

they are told seven3, some time nine4 gates and even at one place they
are expressed as ten5 in numbers.

1. ymlcl 7T*f sfcTCt i

?ef m i^Fcrr^pq- tt ^rrq% i i

3T2T

2. ^TcTt F M ^T^Mrl I

WT F tfFT I I

Ibid.
3. 1% ?RT<f ^urff^rfr |
i i

q^uPi aqyni<h i

i i

Ibid .
v. OcK d'd&k I
Ibid.
q. I I
Ibid

16
 Atharvaveda strangely and rhetorically gives the pictures of
successful conception of seed from the clouds into the womb of earth .
So, the husband asks his wife as earth sets the seed into its womb
thrown2 from the sky, so you3 receive the embryo. Let Mitra and Varuna
prepare your embryo with good care4.

Atharvaveda. wishes as the great earth receives the embryo of

existence, so the embryo must be maintained in order to take birth after
pregnancy. As the great earth maintains those forest, trees and various
living beings so the pragnancy must be maintained by the wife
properly6.

ftftruT: ?rfr i i
3TUftftr.

Ibid. VRVR.
3. TUTfft ft Tfft ?T?ft cTFTTft ||ft I

Ibid.
Tnf ft ftftt i

ft '^y-cn^yxi 7j^ sfTctr tut?!; ft i i

Ibid. 'v'RV'*'.
V uftft TTftt tjctftt Trftmrft i
ft fftq?rf Trftf sfj ^jft ufftcfft i i
Ibid. V?vs.?.
V uftft -qrfftftt uftt TTURTTUfMftl-y I I

Ibid .

17
Successful child birth

A special care should be taken for the mental and physical fitness
of the foetus in the days of maturity of pregnancy. If the mother is
happy, the child will also be happy. All the material for successful
delivery should be maintained before the due time. In this Veda,
enough information about the state of pregnancy, pregnant and the
precautionary measures have been expressed as the membrane in which
foetus develops partly comes out with the child afterward. At the time of
delivery the membrane automatically departs from navel . Efforts should
be made that the membrane of foetus should come out automatically so
that the child and the mother of the child should escape from any
• 'X
infection. Child and the mother must be kept clean.
Precaution, instruction and direction is imparted for the successful
child birth as mild massage be applied to the parts of the pregnant lady
according to need. It is also informed that at the time of delivery, the

59‘2rm tjyrA cddd cd- lA^e) i i

31^.

^. A^ mA AArfA A^r d^iddiddH, i

■gjA i i
Ibid.
A IA A fAdqpi AfA 1A AtfA 1A nAllA A i
fA did < "jA xT fA <ddI < -<s\ <|U ddJdlH, I I
Ibid .

18
pregnant should undress herself and loosen her parts so that the child
should come out hurriedly as the wind shakes the trees and ocean, so the
child should do.1

Virile power
There are some mantras which pray for virile power. Griffiths has
left the mantra 6.72.2 thinking it to be obscene and lewd But, Pt. Jaidev
Sharma2 found nothing bad in it and translated it. Pt. Trivedi has
interpreted the horse and elephant as a sign of national strength but
Whitney translated it "as much of a limb as is that of the paravant, that
of the elephant and that of the ass as great as of the vigorous (Vajun)
horse so great let your member grow"3

The value and significance of Life

If all our striving were without final consequence, life would be
meaningless and would hardly matter how we live as if all will end in
the dust of death. Atharvedic seers, for the first time discovered the

1. T1STT ^TT Zf^nr o I

UcfT ?ft ^RRjyil I I

2. 3ftlftdi gawk ft ^rft^cr wft ■qr.

3. ^TT T'HWIilKt ^TTcftT I
TCWd: ft^ftd f W: I I

FTfftlft TTTftft ^ ^ I

WWT mf^id^dWd ft ^ftftt W: I I

“N

19
science of life and implemented it in their life. They were of the view
that prana alone is the master of all that breathes and breathes not.1

Welfare and long life

In book 3 sukta 31 all the mantras are prayed for welfare and
long life for energetic and industrious men for maintaining celibacy to
remain stout and strong. So all the men keeping away from sins and
diseases and practising good qualities may become successful in their
life.2 Throughout this sukta it is prayed for life (ayus) life's breath
{Prana etc.) strength and glory (varcas, bala, yasas) and protection for
cattle and other property .

1. (%) yiuiiij wr i
ttt ^ i i
yRy-yT yfd f^6ci h, i

3T£Tcf%^
(^pT) yiuTl F y Tt-ilyy<1 y|u||I^ i|-o-c( i |

Ibid.
2. 1% ^FT: FF'FIcjd^ 3RlcUI I
w f qihi wFr 'yyiyyi
o i i
Ibid. V3?.?.
Wl-rUf FFyiyl FlsF: I
o
f yTui m^H-n yy iqyii i i

Ibid.
3. TTFFT: FFIF aiK^oLtfqy^um|y | |
Ibid.
20
Conclusion
The Atharvadic seers believe that a man must enjoy life to its
fullest length. For this, they prescribed the erotic and medicinal charms.
The erotic charms aim at satisfying the sexual happiness of men and
women, and the medicinal charms aim at curing a person of the various
diseases. So, the Atharvaveda teaches us to enjoy full course of life
keeping all senses and body in perfect order.

21
 Cocept of Body in upanishad

Metaphysical view :
The seers and the philosophers of Upanishadas have meditated
over the body from two perspectives metaphysical and physical. The
principal Upanishadas have discussed the body from the metaphysical
point of view while the latter Upanishadas from the physical. The
physical body is the crudest manifestation of prakrti and it is the most
essential principle for its growth in its present stage of development.
The body is just a temple, a dwelling place for the spirit and it is
only the means to achieve our goal. The realisation of truth is the final
goal of the Upanishadic quest. The truth is Brahman}
Brahman which is the self produced space, from space emerged
air, from air was born fire, fire created water, from water sprang up
earth from earth were born the herbs, from the herbs was produced food
2
and from food was born purusa.

Four stages of conciousness

This embodied self is also critically analysed and examined in
order to find out the ultimate ground of the self. The supreme self is

1. ?1 H i-M

2. cTWTST 3TFFTCT: TT^ct:

sn^mTgrrg: i i arnTmt: i 3rqyq-: i

T^fSp^TT 3TfsrErcr: | I 31—llc^l i i

Ibid.
22
concealed under the several deepest layers of consciousness. Indian
seers have discussed the four stages of consciousness, i.e. jagart, swapn,
sushupti turiya and five sheaths ; as the sword is covered by the sheath,
so body is wrapped through the kosas as said in vedentasara.
One must have to penetrate through these deepest layers to have
direct contact with the self. Self is the Brahman, one and only one
without a second2 and Brahman is the truth. And the truth does not
admit any change whereas its nature is ascertained to be its own, a thing
is said to be unreal when it changes its nature. "Hence a mutable thing is
unreal3". Brahman cannot be comprehended through the common
relationship of words and things denoted by them. Nor can it be denoted
through the relationship of substance and quality.
The individual soul though intrinsically none other than Brahman,
becomes attached to the sheaths made of food5 which are external,
limited and composed of the subtle elements. He begins to think, " I am

1.

2. i

3. Taittriya Upanishads Commentary by Swami Gambhiranand, P.73

4. Ebid. P.79
5. ^ i

23
none other than these non-selves composed of food" etc. In this way
even though Brahman is one's self yet it remain unattained because of
ignorance. That ignorance can only be shunned off through enlightened
instructions of the scriptures.

Five covers of consciousness :

Scriptures tell us the five covers of the self where one has to
penetrate through these are as following.
1. The food sheath (annamayakosha)
2. The vital sheath (pranmaya kosha)
3. The mental sheath (manomaya kosha)
4. The intellectual sheath (vijnanmaya kosha)
5. The bliss sheath (anandmaya kosha)
"These sheaths are like so many bodies which are taken up by the
self in order to function at different levels or spheres of consciousness.
As the material sphere needs a material form, so the other higher
spheres demand similar forms of subtler stuff which make it possible for
the self to function freely and normally at those levels. Every level has
its appropriate body i.e. the instrument for making contacts with that
particular sphere.
It is not easy to attain realization of one's own self, as it is said
that it lies in a deep cave. One has to adopt the mean of the penance,
patience and meditation to penetrate the hard layers of sheaths to have
direct contact with the reality underneath.

1. Studies in Upanishads
by Govindagopal Mukhopadhaya P-234

24
Matter and Conciousness
The personality of which we are ordinarily conscious of is purely
material.1 It is the outer-layer of the spirit which begins with ether and
ends with the earth. Here Upanishadas throw light on it when they say
that the spirit has entered into matter and hence matter does not limit
itself to its narrow limits but moves towards the vast and the limitless.
Upanishadas warn us that matter should not be neglected for whatever
rests2 3upon the earth owes its very existence to it. The food is grown on
the earth and it is the sustainer, resort of living beings, and it is the
foremost of all created things and supreme medicine4 for all which alone
relieves the agony of hunger.5

Metaphysics of Upanishads
Upanishadas further explains how the dead body or the matter is
converted into food stuff and becomes a part and parcel of human
beings. Upanishadas give scientific base for conversion of matter into
life and life is sustained by matter, rather rooted in it.

2. "jMr f^cTT:, Ibid.

3. ^cIPTf ^6% Ibid.
4. cfWIbid.
5. ^t Ibid.

25
 Now there is a second and inner sheath which is other than the
substance of food and it is made of the vital-stuff called prana. The
former is filled with the latter which is also like the shape of man. The
gods, all men and all the beasts live under the domination of prana and
prana is the life of living creatures. Therefore, its name is 'life-stuff of
all. During sleep, spirit leaves the food sheath passing into the subtle
body and in itself without any contact with physical body though both
bodies are connected.13 2
The third one manomaya4 kosha the mental sheath, is composed
of mind, subconscious mind and organs of knowledge called Jnana
indriyas. The self of mind fills the self of prana. Now the self of mind is
made in the image of a man. Yajurveda5 is the head of him and the
Rgveda is his right side and the Samaveda is his left side. Atharvan
Angiras is his lower member where on he rests abidingly. It is supposed
that the prana is the consumer, the enjoyer and the enjoyment, are
presupposed or created by desires which are stored in the manomaya

1. 3K41S-CK STTcBT clFclfldlHplAAt

2. wi 3PTo UWrfAl I '■*-H

o I:
WTt % I I Ibid. ATt
3. The complete illustred Book of Yoga by Swami Vishnudevananda.
Chapter 2 P.15
4. STTcBT UAIU-M:, ftfvtClUlMPl

5. cfW | ttST: | VHIUlrK: TST: I

3TT^T 3TTcTTT I cjf| |

Ibid.
26
Kosha, "The mental self is constituted of desires, samkalpa and vikalpa
and hence it is sometimes called the desire-body the lingasarira.
This manomaya is the source of all desires and lust which impel
life to move forward towards the material objects. In order to gather the
material objects and consume them to fulfil or satisfy the desires,
wherever and whenever they grow, there must be an urge to i.e. the
manomaya. This seeking or urge is signified by the pranamaya but at
the root of the seeking is the manomaya who gives the incentive or the
directive to go forward. The life or self is not a blind movement but one
is led to think it purposefully. It is filled by manomaya. At this state of
manomaya kosha, the mind tries its best to unravel the mystery of the
creation but it is forced to return baffled31 2without attaining a vision of
the source of creation. It indicates that reality does not lie in the reach of
mental sheath (manomaya kosha) and it lies beyond it, so self must go
forward and penetrate to vijnanamaya kosa or the sheath of knowledge.
This cave of vijnanamaya possesses the whole knowledge of creation,
for it is this vijnana that initiates all actions, all movements nay, the very
sacrifice3 of creation. All the gods worship it as the oldest Brahman. So
it is clear that this vijnana is the first evolute, hence the Jyestha4 the
oldest offspring of the supreme reality.

1. Studies in Upnishadas P. 238- line 4

2. srSTT^T WTtU W 3Rlfl4YMpl^cl.2.4.

3. 14?im' w -o T i
cfr cFTRtsfa
-o i Ibid. 2-5-
4. tJT°Tf t I V?.?

27
 "This is further proved by the statement, here that the soul of this
vijnanamaya is yoga or union (yogatma).1 This yoga evidently points to
the bi-une nature of the vijnana, which is called in the Chandogya as
Mithuna or a state of fusion, the state of one in two of uni-in-difference.
Prana or vijnana cannot exist if the two parts that constitute it are
severed or kept asunder. Its very existence depends on the fusion of the
two, the joining of the division. Hence this yoga or fusion has rightly
been called the very soul of the vijnanamaya. With the realisation of this
vijnanamaya, there follows inevitably the fulfilment of all desires and
9
freedom from all sin, even while in the body."
In Chandogya Upanishads the effect of realization is described as
the state of mithuna3. That the freedom from all sin is the very nature of
prana is recounted again and again almost in all the Upnishadas. It is
admitted that yoga is the very soul of vijnanamaya. "Hence it is the link
principle that connects the absolute and the relative, the uncreated and
the created, the infinite and the finite."5 It stands in the middle, joining
two hemispheres, the upper and the lower. So its footing or station has

1. ^rrT-3TTrm
2. (1) Studies in Upanishadas P.240, line 4
(II) 91CR Hl'-H-Ti iHi-uH9Cl-MlHpl 2-5-
3. 3TFTTcTT F t 4IHHI I

jfflPtd.

4. ifpsr: Ibid. 1.2.9.

5. Studies in Upanishadas P.240.

28
been indicated as the vast.1
Ananda , a supreme bliss, eternal, higher in its character than the
highest human joy or pleasure is the essential and original nature of the
spirit. In this state of blissful self becomes composed of bliss from head
to foot and there are different terms described in upanishads as priya,
moda, promoda ananda etc2 3At this state of the self, a spontaneous joy
and happiness are all around it, love is its head, priyameva sirah love
the culmination of delight.

1. TTF: "3^? yl^^l

2. cTRT I TTRt -^RT; -qsr I \3tTT: TO I

3tfr^ 3n?m i Ibid, 2-5

3. i Ibid, 2-5

29
Body as a material composition
In the last section, I have tried to explain the metaphysical view
of prominent Upanishad regarding the body in the cosmic perspective.
Now I would like to elaborate the process of origin of human body, in
this section as dealt with Sarirkopanishad and Garbhopnishad the
formation of body particularly the human body in details. The human
body is defined, in Sarirakopanisad and Garbhoupanishad, as the
collection of five great elements-earth and others. Whatever is hard in
the body is of earth, and this element props up. What ever is liquid is of
water, which converts food into a mass and helps mastication,
deglutition, secretion, digestion, assimilation, exertion and other vital
functions. Whatever is warm is of fire and it helps in the seeing of
forms. Whatever ynoyes from one part to another is of air (relating to
respiration, circulation, alimentation, evacuation and other vital forms)
and whatever is of the nature of a cavity is of ether which affords
sufficient space and full scope for all the subtle vital functions.

1. Sarirakopanishad Tr. in Encylopedia of upanishads P-145

(a) 3P4TcT: ^^rf^qFn^TFTf qj-MW I
qq. <+>[£T qrr qqsq q^hii u^i crcTqf
qq^ qr qrqTcf q^qq^rq;-

(b) qojqrcqqt qdfrrqf tstspsht ci qpqtsnq;

f^FTcf lithlNl' qtjffSTT^TTqw qqltt-

qqfqffqq; i

30
This physical body is supported by six sustenances1 2(stt
3 ^rt) that are
tastes like sweet, acid, saltish, pungent, bitter and astringent which
Jivatma experiences in the various kinds of foods for the fitness and
9
sustenance of the body. Out of these food saps originate seven dhatus“
(y idyTT). That food essence with the help of animal heat of belly is
transformed into blood, then the portion of blood is contributed to the
growth of the flesh, from the flesh develops the fat, from the fat the
bone, from the bone the marrow and from the marrow the semen is
formed.
The mixing of the seminal fluid of male and menstrual fluid of
female form the conception of pregnancy and later develops into human
being. Garbhopnishad gives detail of changes in the embryo stepwise.
The embryo becomes a confused mass for day and night. After seven
days, it assumes the form of a bubble. After fortnight it becomes a mass,
in one month it hardens. In two months it develops the region of the
head. In three months the region of feet, in four months the region of
belly and hip in fifth month the back bone, in six months, the

1. ft )

2. ft Ibid-1
3. dicj+lcl ftyftlrnft<^9TftTf^lft *rftft I Ibid-4
4 'HkKiftifaft '^<^4 srdftTftT^Fftt
^fftftf *ra1ft, '■RHrlsl4d f§R: ftft?tft

^Ift I 3T£T 1 ^4 Pel i

^RTft 4^4ftl '^4% I TTlft -H4pd I

dklh TTTft ft^ddl '*T4fft I °RT^lf *T4fft I

Ibid-3
31
nose, the eyes and the ears, in the seven months the embryo quickens
with life, and in the eigtht months, it becomes fully developed in all
respects.
Garbhopnishad a further explains the basic scientific cause of
birth of male and female, by the preponderance of the father's semen
originates a male and by the preponderance of mother's blood, a female.
In the case of equal strength of father's semen and mother's blood,
hermaphrodite takes birth. If the semen is pressed in by the winds on
both sides then the body also becomes twofold and a twin is born At
the time of copulating, if the partners are worried or disturbed they get a
9
blind, hump backed child.-
Garbhopnishad gives detail of states of embryo in uterines. After
eight months, Jiva in the womb becomes five elemental body. The sense
organ begins to develop and achieve capacity of smell and taste etc.
Author says that at this stage the Jiva acquires an enlightened
mood . It identifies the oneness of its existence with eight prakrties
(productive Prakrti mahat, ahankaras, 5 tanmatras) and sixteen
products (manas, 10 indriyas, and 5 Bhutas).

■qcdft.........
WrRTt I

2. TTT'd’lS^ETT: I Ibid-3
3. RuR I Ibid-3
4. ysficTO: -qt^T cT^ Rf^T: I Ibid-3

32
 Jiva with full developed sense thinks over the imperishable
syllable Om.1 He also remembers his prenatal existence and his previous
2
actions, good or bad, appear before him.

In Garbhopnishad at the stage of taking birth, the author explains

the position ofjiva that how he recalls the journey of thousand births in
different yonis with auspicious and inauspicious nature of its past
actions. Innumerable births have been experienced and lots of food of
several kinds have been taken by him, various mothers have fed him
with their milk.

At the state of nine months an embryo when it has been

developed to its fullest position with consciousness of sense organs a
long series of birth and rebirth passes through his mind. The jivatma is
in miserable condition recalling his good and bad actions and their
consequences. He might have done wrong actions for the sake of his
near and dear ones but now he is alone to have the fruits of his actions.
He is alone to bear the pangs and pains of the deeds. Nobody is here to
share his miseries. He resolves that after taking the birth he will go

ycbd^: lsfTS?T f^FRT: ^f^T: I

Ibid-3

33
straight in shelter of Mahasewera and he will choose the way of
Samkhya. He will meditate on Brahma.
In Garbhopnishad a question is raised why is this body called
sarira. The answer is given because the all three fires i.e the fire of
Knowledge Jnnagni, the fire of seeing (<^IdiPd) and the gastric fire
lives in this body. This is the abiding place of all the three. The fire of
knowledge shows the path of right and wrong. The fire of seeing guides
us to acknowledge the forms of things, whereas the fire of gastric
application helps in what is eaten, drunk, licked and sucked.13 2

1. ■'jT dipt iHi crtt Trarr i

3TTFTCT fdf^TT ifdT dlHlldsTT: WTT: I I

dld^d -dd 'cjyT; Jqd: |

q ~h 4i' ^cf i i
q<*>rTl RcnTtfrpT: i

^ -MV-MI: |
awn i
dfd di'-dl: dCd i<pi-l ■MPld'*d<rl I

#RT: S3TFT RflcH ^ I

2. VlfHfhld I 3RPTT f^m% dHlR-KiTdlRd: Ti^lR'dRlcl,

Ibid-6
3. dMiPd ^ R'-qRl ^vTdfP'd '^muii cr#f Rfrftt i
qd^lRddP-ll[$ldHldcifd "dtR Hdlcl I

Ibid-6

34
 Human body is an excellent and strange work of God. This is the
abode of God. AtharvaVeda asserts that this body is the impregnable
fort of luminious faculties which is surrounded by eight circles and has
nine gates. It is the abiding place of Devas.
There is a story in Aiterya Up that all the gods of senses went to
the almighty God that they had fallen into the great ocean, They wanted
dwelling place where they could take the food.1 So the god made a
body of a cow and then body of a horse2 but gods requested the
almighty God that these bodies were not suitable for their requirements
and at last God made the human body3 and asked them to have their
place most suitable to them. It is certainly a grand work of God.
Gods entred in to this body and settled in to their suitable places4
and param tattva God entered through the skull area tearing it. So it is
called Vidriti (a structure in the shull)5 It is the unique inner experience
and bliss. It is the place of happiness.

1. cTT I Wdd ^T: ylclfedl 31-d J-Kl'Itfcr I

b.dTulPiNct, 1.2.1.

2. cir^rr JiiuMUtii...... ......

■TTsmTcrfhfct i Ibid,1.2.2.
3. cTT^T: 4^*4 -HId4vll d’dyl del Id I Ibid., 1.2.3.
4. ^..... waft '^T dlRl^................ ...................................

y|f^ykdl[£)<aFK:4dTl eilHlfa “JJpTT yrfdyi ^FTT

.......^c^<4ldl Ftf^T 4114^14141 I

Ibid., 1.2.4.
5. F U,d4d ^luid' 14'4fTdUI SRT 414-^d l^lddfd Sl<rd4d—1l-4d I

Ibid, 1-3-12-
35
 The Upanishadas are the s'ruti, they have discussed the concept
of body both from the metaphysical and physical point of view. The
body is just a dwelling place for the spirit and it is only the means to
achieve our goal. The realisation of truth is the final goal of the
Upanishadic quest.

36
 Gita : Metaphysical view

Gita is the essence of Upnishadas. It has a prominent place as a

Smrti Prasthana in the Prasthana Trayi. Instead of giving metaphysical
view of body, it preferred to explore the utility of human life in
connection with karma.
"Gita" literally means some thing sung. It is a celestial song.
Aldous Huxley said, 'the Gita is one of the clearest and most
comprehensive summary of the perennial philosophy even to have been
made.......... The Bagvadgita is perhaps the most systematic spiritual
statement of the perennial philosophy.
"It has been often said that all the philosophies of the world taken
together are like a cow whom Krishna, a shepherd, milked in the Gita,
Arjuna is the calf, while the Gita is the milk of purified intellect of all
2M
ages.
It is a compilation of what was discussed between Krishna, the
charioteer and Arjuna, the bowman when they faced the army of
Kaurvas in the battle of the Mahabharta.
In fact, Gita is dealing with the very complicated situation when
the human being becomes confused and his mental capabilities fail to
handle the situation properly and every human being is engaged in a
continuous fight between his inner and external conditions. Emotional

1. The Gita for all by. P.D.Mishra. P. 15

2. Ibid P.15

37
upsurges on such occasions do not generally let him take a right
decision as he is confused and confounded. At this state of mind, he
wants a dose of wisdom to be administered to him so that balance of his
heart and mind may be achieved.
It has been repeatedly asked whether the Gita sanctions war. It
may be argued that when Jesus, Budha and Mahavira preached non­
violence, Krishna recommended the war through the Gita.
The Gita represents the hard trials of life and maintaining calm
and tranquility. "The Gita leads one to believe and see the absolute
reality of death even beyond death. When the killer and the killed, the
living and the dead, the manifested and the unmanifested are seen
together, war or peace signify nothing. When the whole cycle of
manifestation or destruction is seen as a continuous chain in the cosmic
scheme of affairs, there is no case for any enjoyment or lamentation."

Discrimination between the body and the embodied self

Lord Krishna imparts knowledge by expressing that the body is
2
kshetra (fluid) and the knower embodied self is to be the kshetrajna.
Here is a story of a man who was asked about his land or field,
"The man replied", "This body is my field. My thoughts and actions are

1. The Gita for all by. P.D.Mishra. P. 18

2. ^ -d-M I
tTcRTt %% cf 3TTt|: te?T I I

TftcTT

38
 1 # „
the seeds and karma, good and bad, is the harvest." The Gita is using
the same image of body and personality.
In this mechanical age, we can easily understand the soul and
body. As steam energy cannot be resolved into locomotion unless it is
made to pass through a steam engine. Electricity cannot give you breeze
unless it passes through the machine of a fan. Here energy is like soul
and the equipment through it works is like a body. The capacity of an
organism to receive stimuli and responses is the transaction of life and
when this knower, his individuality has departed from equipment, we
consider him as dead.
After indicating the nature of field and the knower of the field,
Lord Krishna expresses that precise knowledge of the world of the
subject and the world of the objects is essential for a true seeker, so
further that the structure of field or body is explained.
These two verses of chap. 13.5-6 gives exhaustive study of body.
There are five great elements perceptible as space, air, fire, water and
earth. These are combinations of rudimentary elements called tanmatras
sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. Ahankara is the sense of I-ness
and my-ness that arises in us, in our identification with the world of
objects. It is this, who that is the perceiver and enjoyer of this world,
enjoys and suffers of its own world of likes and dislikes, loves and hates
and ever weeps in its innumerable attachments in the world outside.
Ahankar is the cause of five tanmatras, mind and of five

1. The Bhagavad Gita for daily living Vol III

P-27.

39
sense organs and five action organs.
Buddhi respresents mahat the universal mind also and the part of
Antahkarana. It is the determining faculty which judges and takes the
decision.
Unmanifested (Avyakta) unmanifestation is the cause of all
universe which in samkhya is called Pradhana
Desire denotes the man's liking and wishes, to receive things for
enjoyment Mental, capacities and intellectual decisions are determined
in each individual and his aptitudes are ordered by the type of
impressions vasanas left over his subtle body as a result of his previous
ego-centric existence amidst the world of objects.
The twenty four factors so far enumerated are the famous 24
principles (tattwas) of the samkhyan philosophy.
Gross body developed from mahabhutas, is perishable and the soul
is eternal. Gross body is just like the clothes that a man wears in life and
when become old and worn out, the man throws them away and puts on
new one. So the gross bodies are like clothes. When a man dies, he gives
up the body and takes another body according to his previous actions."

1. xT |

i i ^ ii

2. ctKhPr ^UlfPl 'W TTfnPt 'dTlWlPl I

cTOT yifklPl PfjW 'vT|u|Pu-MlPl d'-MlP '-Td'lPf I I

Ibid

40
Sum of Gita
The Gita recognises that formal renunciation of all actions is
wrong. There is no fredom from action, but there is "only freedom in
action." The supreme secret of the Gita is the path of devotion and
surrrender. The ideal man of the Gita is called the Karma-Yogi.
Vedantic view of the body
In the later period, vedanta incorporated entire view prevailing in
the upanishadas regarding the body, universal as well as individual and
tried to understand body at a subtle and gross level. "From the vedantic
standpoint, there is not more than a single fact of existence, the fact of
consciousness. The pure original and unchangeable conciousness is the
basic reality underlying all experience.1" The entire existence is to be
regarded from the transcendental standpoint as not substantially real,
but, as possessing only an appereance of reality. It is the vivarta of
Brahman.2"
Vedantasara
The author asserted that conciousness associated with ignorance
which has a preponderence of the quality of darkness has evolved ether
which, in its turn has produced air from air has come fire, from fire
water, and from water earth3 as shruti has already ascertained it.

1. The system of vedantic thought and culture.

By. Mahendranath sircar, P.121
2. Ibid P-122
3. cFT: 3TRT9TTST-

i *-d <rl l < : By Ram Murti Sharma. P. 42-

4. tTW qcBrBKIcBd 3TRfT?T:

41
 Due to preponderance of tamas, the qualities of sattva, rajas and
tamas are reproduced1 in ether etc., in accordance with the law. The
qualities of the cause determine the qualities of the effect.
In this ether, air, fire, water and earth : the subtle rudimentary
elements (tanmatrasj come into existence in uncompouded
(Apanchikrita) elements. They are subtle elements because they are not
visible and gross elements as ether, air, fire, water and earth after being
compounded they become visible.
From subtle elements are produced subtle bodies and gross
elements.
Subtle Body
Subtle body which is also called linga sharira has seventeen
component parts. These are five organs of perception ; the intellect; the
mind; the five organs of action and the five vital forces.

1. cpj ^n^rf^T cTcT =hK'u|^J I

^Belief;rei

■g.

2. gyring i

Ibid, u. ?<£.

Ibid, j.
4. (^) ^nyiTUifri i
Ibid, j. 1%.

T i i Ibid, ^.w

42
 The author has classified the subtle body into two forms as
samasthi and vyasthi.1 All the subtle bodies when looked upon as one,
like a forest or a reservoir, is called samasthi (aggregate) and when
viewed as many, like trees or quantities of water, is called Vyasthi or
individual.

Conciousness associated with this aggregate is caled Sutratma,

Hirenyagarbha and prana etc. because it is omnipresent and it
identifies itself with the five great uncompounded elements. Thus, do
2
the subtle bodies originate.

Gross body
The gross elements are all compounded.4 The compounding takes
place as each of the five elements, viz, ether etc. is divided into two
equal parts becoming ten parts. The first half of each element and the

Ibid, g. hv.

3. I
Ibid, g. ^^9.
4. ^JeT^cnfA g ^Tl^dlPl I
Vedantsara by Swami Nikhilananda. P.28

43
second half of each element should be subdivided into four equal parts
and from the four subdivided parts, one part of each element added to
the first half of every element in this way each element becomes five in
one.1 2This is the method of compounding, no body should question.
Gross Body
From these compounding elements have evolved the seven planes,
existing one above the other and seven nether plane one below the
other.3 In between the planes, four4 5kinds
6 7 8 of bodies have been created,

these are the womb, the egg, the moisture and the soil. Those that are
r
born of the womb are called men, and those that come out of the eggs
6 7
are the birds and reptiles, and bom of moisture are called the lice ,
Q
mosquitoes and those springing from the soil are trees and creepers etc.

1. H^TT f^TFT M |
^rdPd < Is[d'l'Miyl4R'1d cT I I

Vedantsara by Swami Nikhilananda, P.62

2. d ryi«!;«+>Tld <u|HI|UjMdaiu|rcllcts I

Ibid., P.62
3. qcfRT: *c|4<?4d*dM:

^ .......I Ibid <3. 30.

4. dqjTstyifHiRi i Ibid, 3°.
5. ^idiP i Ibid, 30.
6. 3iu_suii^u^<wifT ^iciiRi ^H-dJ|i<{lPi i Ibid, Cm*

7. P<^iRi widiRi ^*>1^144 41 Pi i Ibid, %'R.

8. 4idiP didi^iTlP i Ibid, ■5.

44
 This is how the four-fold varieties of gross bodies came into
existence and may be spoken of collectively or individually accordingly
as they are thought of as one like a forest or a lake or many like the trees
and the quantities of water.1 2
Consciousness associated with this aggregate of gross bodies is
called Vaiswanara and Virat on account of identification with all
2
bodies; and from its manifestation in diverse ways respectively.
Vedanta admits that "All is Brahman" (sarvam khalvidam
Brahman) and matter and mind are not independent realities but
grounded in the same Brahman. Man occupies a central place in the
Vedanta. He must make efforts not only to discover the truth but to
realize it. It can never be achieved without moral qualification and
cleansing our hearts. Spiritual life does not grow like grass and we
cannot realize it by by-passing moral code of conduct which is possible
only in the worldly life.

1. 3T?TTrft siy-<*>elIMUdUI

cHeJvro1c'1|!*HJc|g| I |

2. <1 <ll^Rl dl^cl

d<fd <liTmiPl<rdql^l^gf Medial I

Ibid,

45
 Chapter II

Non Vedic systems of philosophy and Ayurveda

In this chapter I will try to elaborate the view regarding the

body as hold in the non-vedic systems of philosophy i.e. Carvaka,
Buddhism and Jainism and in the Indian medical science, Ayurveda.

Carvaka : A materialistic System

Carvaka is one of the prominent systems of Indian materialism.
It has a scientific way to describe the world and its nature. Carvaka has
been a separate philosophical system as Kautilya in his arthashastra
mentions that lokayata was one of the four sciences prevailing at that
time. And Saddarsana Samuchaya also identifies it.
Acharya Brahspati is attributed as a founder of this philosophy
Kautilya starts his book 'arthasastra' saluting to Sukhacharya and
y|
Brhaspati, very populerly known among the people at that time.

1. ‘RcFT Ref ffSJT ^ 4^12 I RlfMAfsETf I

tTM FRtT cflcbWd I

«=btt£cfUl 3Ffy'IKr^., V?°

2. ^ cFRcf f^et I
HtWFFRT cFHdH, I

Ed. pub. RTRfht y+IHH Y

3. 3 RR: I RSTRTsqW: I

4. Exposition of Vedic thought by Satyavrata Sidhantalankara P. 164

46
 Carvaka is the name of a materialistic philosopher whose
doctrines are embodied in the Barhaspatyasutras and in Lokayata it is
2
named "materialism, the system of atheistical philosophy

Lokayata "which denotes properly belonging to the world of

sense, is the Indian name for the materialistic system whose adherents
are termed lokayatikas or laukayatikas or more usually Carvakas, from
the name of the founder of their doctrinal system. All about the
Carvaka, "the principal source of our knowledge, however, is the first
chapter of the Sarvadarsanasangraha.........by Madhavacharya.14" 2 3

The source of Knowledge

"The Carvak holds that perception is the only pramana or
dependable source of knowledge. For establishing this position he
criticises the possibility of other sources of knowledge like inference
and testimony which are regarded as valid pramanas by many
philosophers.5"

1. Sanskrit-English Dictionary by Monier Williams P.394 Col. I

2. Ibid P. 907 col II
3. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Vol VIII P. 138 Col I
4. Ibid. P.138.
5. An Introduction to the Indian philosophy
by Datta and Chatterjee P.59

47
Metaphysical View
As Carvaka admits perception (pratyaksa) is the only source of
valid knowledge, so it rationally admits the reality of perceptible
objects. "God soul, heaven, life before birth or after, and any
unperceived law (like adrsta) cannot be believed in, because they are all
beyond perception. Material objects are the only objects whose
1H
existence can be perceived and whose reality can be asserted.
As most of the Indian thinkers hold that the material world is
2
composed of five elements but Carvaka admits only the four elements
those are, earth (prithvi), water (jala), fire (agni) and air (vayu) as the
cause of the whole universe living and non-living and rejects the ether
(akasha) because it is not perceptible.
"Carvaka recognises that when a body is formed by the
combination of the elements, the spirit also comes into existence, just
like the intoxication quality from the mixture of special materials. With
the destruction of body the spirit returns again to nothing-ness. The soul,
therefore, is only the body plus the attributes of intelligence. Since

1. An Introduction to the Indian philosophy

by Datta and Chatterjee P.63
2- (^0 ^ craT I
STTSTRt % I I

(t?r) 3T?r ^|?c||R k<=H cl iPld I:,

*#2:, g.

48
the existence of a soul distinct from the body cannot be established by
perception.1"
"If the existence of a soul apart from the body is not proved, there
is no possibility of proving its immortality. On the contrary, death of the
body means the end of the individual. All questions about previous life,
after life, rebirth, enjoyment of the fruits of actions in heaven or hell,
these become meaningless.2"3
Carvaka does not admit the existence of God as its being cannot
be perceived, so the supposition of a creator is unneccessary. The
objection may be raised; can the material elements by themselves give
rise to this wonderful world? As we find, there is material cause as well
as the efficient cause in the production of an object. Is there no need of
efficient cause, like God as the shaper and the designer, who turns the
material world into this world. "In the reply, Carvaka states that the
material elements themselves have got its fixed nature (svabhava). It is
by the natures and laws inherent in them that they combine together to
'3

form this world. There is no neccessity for God. "

1. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics vol.8 P-138 col II

2. (^) An Introduction to the Indian philosophy

by Datta and Chatterjee p-65

(%) 'T wrf TFEftrf ctr Awn i mrc?)lA><+>: i

A^ lpckiRIcH: i i

■cucdfti , tT.

3. An Introduction to the Indian Philosophy,

by. Datta and Chatterjee p.65 to p-66.

49
Evolution of consciousness
Consciousness is a function of the body. "Consciousness does not
inhere in particles of matter. When these particles come to be arranged
into a specific form, in a manner not yet scientifically explicable, they
are found to show the signs of life. Life and consciousness are identical.1"
As a bubble is formed and is dissolved into it.2 Body along its
consciousness is called soul.3
Carvakas advocate the doctrine of "Eat, drink and be merry, for
death comes to all, closing our lives.
While life is yours, live joyously;
None can escape Death's Searching eyes;
When once this frame of ours they bum;
How shall it ever again return.5

1. by Gagan Dev giri

P.150
2. '3fcT ^4)c| i;—isr^c;u P.451
3. Dl$|k|d: fFT: Ibidp.451
4. Indian Philosophy by. Radhakrishnan Vol. I
Pub. Geirge Allen and unwin ltd. New york 1971 p-281
5. (^)Ibidp.281

pub. Bhartiya Jnan Pith parkashan N. Delhi 1981

50
 It is clear from the metaphysics and epistemology of Carvaka that
he does not believe in the soul, separate from the body and the body is a
peculiar combination of four elements. Body along its consciouness is
called soul. The liberation (mukti) is not other than its dissolution into
the elements 'Mrityu eva moksa'.

Buddhism on body
" Buddhism is not a science, nor philosophy nor indeed was it
taught as a religion. It was originally conceived and imparted to, as an
ethical principle for the purification of the mind, though it has since
developed into religion and a philosophy.
Founding the philosophy on temporality the Buddhist deals with
the concept of personality differently. The doctrine of
pratityasamutpada (independent origination) is a main factor of this
philosophy.
To explain the concept of body we have to explain the following
major concept of Buddhism like skandhas, Dhatu and Ayatanas etc. To
deal with the concepts we will try to elaborate it on the basis of original
pali texts.
Khandhas:-
The whole universe, according to Budhism is dichotomised in
sanskrta (constituted) or lokiya dhatu and asanskrta (unconstituted) or
lokattara dhatu ." The Samskrta world of animate and inanimate is put
under two heads: nama and rupa, nama denoting the non-material or the

1. The spirit of Buddhism by sirHari singh Gaur, P 249.

2. EarlyMonastic Buddhism vol-I Nalinaksha Dutta

51
mental states of a being while rupa the material parts only. All
inanimate objects therefore are included in the term rupa}"

Khandhas
Nama is sub-divided into four as
1. Vedana= sensation or feeling

2. Senna (pali)/ Samjna (skt.)= Perception

3. Sankhara (pali)ISamskara (skt)= Formature principle or volition
4. Vinnnana (pali>/ Vijnana (skt)= Conciousness
"The four subdivision of nama with the fifth rupa are termed as
pancakkhandha (Skandha skt.). which means "Sensorial aggregates"
2
which condition the apperance of life in any form."

Rupa khandhas
It consists of the traditional four great elements, namely, solidity
7 i

(prthvi) fluidity (apo), fire (tejo), and motion ivayu) . "It comprises all
the material objects whether of the past, present or future, internal or
external, gross or subtle, near or distant, good or bad.
"It appears from this enumeration that nama, rupa and the 5
skhandhas are co-extensive terms. The definition of the mental
skhandhas is attended with considerable difficulties, owing to the

1. (a) % vh'^cii smf 114o^ch4^ arfh-sFf

P- 25.
(b) Early Monistic Buddhism, P. 249.
2. The pali text society's pali-english dicionary. P.61 col II
3. ^TgSTTcrT: I srfh'spf -^T: I
Ed. By- AcharyaNaruider Dev.
52
ambigousness of most terms and loose way in which they are used."

Vedana
Vedana means feeling, sensation. Three modes of feeling usually
understood whenever mention is made of (Tisso Vedana) sukha
[pleasant], dukha [painful] adukha-m-asukham [indifferent] or kusala,
akusala, avyasta.
On the basis of how sensation is perceived or experienced, it can
be divided into the six categories, that is the sensation of visible forms,
sounds, odours, tastes, tangible things and mental objects.
Senna (pali), Samjna (skt) is "some times rendered 'perception'
and some times 'conception'.................the perceptual side seems to be
more emphasized by the pali or sthaviravadin commentaries..............
the sarvastivadin and the yogacharin, on the other hand, emphasized the
'l

conceptual aspect."
Samskkhandha refers to all those charaterstics which make a thing
know."14 2It3 is further explained. "Its function is to make a thing known
through its characterstic, as a piece of wood is known to a carpenter, to
make the characteristic engage the attention of a person, as an elephant
felt by the blind; and to draw the attention to the immediate function of
an object,as animals know their supplier of grains as the food giver."5

1. Manual of Indian Buddhism by H.Kem. P.51 Line 9

2. The pali text society pali-English Dictionary. P. 106-col II
3. Manual of Buddhist Philosophy by william Montgomery. P-86.
4. Early Monastic Buddhism Vol. I P.257
5. Ibid.

53
 Samskara-khaudha consists of all volitional activities, whether,
bad, or neutral depending on our projection towards objects. It is
"associated with karma, or action as may be seen by its position in the
pratityasamutpada.1 "It has the virtue of putting forward the mind into
action."12 *Three Khandhas (vedana, sanna and vijnana) do not set the
mind in to action but leave it samkhara to do so.

Vinnanakhandha Khaudha, the last of the skandhas is usually

translated "consciousness" or "cognition", common to all forms of
Buddhism, however, many additional aspects may be added. "The six
divisions cosist of five kinds of consciousness dependent respectively
upon the five sense organs, and one type of consciousness dependent
upon the operation of the mind (manas)4" " This Vinnnana (vijnana),
which means both experience, and also discrimination, in the sense of
cutting up a whole into parts because it divides up whole experience into
six parts. "These are visual experience auditory experience, olfactory,
gustatory, bodily and mental experience."5
"Each of these is a group, aggregate or 'bundle, of elements of
that type which are continually in flux, thus the physical nature of
individual is at any moment a process or flux of physical elements ;
similarly with sensations, perceptions, volitions and consciousness."6

1. Manual of Buddhist philosphy P.86

2. Early Monistic Buddhism. Vol-I, P.257
3 Ibid P.258
4. Manual of Buddhist philosphy P.90
5. Buddhism and Science. P.124
6. A Dictionary of Buddhism by Trevor Ling P.120
54
Ayatanas
Ayatanas includes both the sense-organs and their objects, the
former being distinguished as internal {ajj hattika) and the latter as
external (bahir) counting twelve in all.1 2"Eleven aytanas belongs to rupa
khandha while mano alone belongs to Vynanakhadha. Mano again is
subdivided into 89 states. The scope of five organs of sense is limited
to their respective objects while the scope of the mano is unlimited,
extending to all other sense organs and their objects but to overall
mental states. Twelve ayatanas are as following:-
1. The eye (cakkhu)- Organ of sight
2. The ear (sota)- Organ of hearing
3. The nose (ghrana)- Organ of smell
4. The tongue (jivha)- Organ of taste
5. The body {Kaya)- Organ of touch
6. The mind {rnana)- Organ of thought
These are the internal bases of cognition (ajjhattika) some times
are called six indriyas.3
7. Form {rupa)- Object of sight
8. Sound (.sadda) - Hearing
9. Odour {gandha) - Smell
10. Taste {rasa)- Taste
11. Tangible Objects (.Photthabha) Object of touch.
12. Mind- object {dhamma) Object of thought.

1. Early monistic Budhism P.259

2. Ibid P.260
3. Manual of Budhism Philosophy P.95

55
 These are the external bases of cognition (bahirayatana) and
sometime called 'arammana' or 'visaya' since they are the objective of
six sense organs.1 2

Dhatu
Dhatu means a primary element. The term means all the beings
and things of the world, e.g. the three sphere of existence, kama, rupa
and arupa ; the four great elements [mahabhutas] and the things formed
out of these elements the sense organs, their objects (ayatanas), as also
their perception ; the material and non-material constituents (Khandha)
"The dhatu category contains all the twelve ayatanas and in
addition the six major divisions of consciousness itself making eighteen
in all. These are

Sense Object Sense Organ

1. Sight object. 7. Sight organ
2. Sound object 8. Sound organ
3. Smell object 9. Smell organ
4. Taste object 10. Taste organ
5. Touch object 11. Touch organ
6. Mental object. 12. Mental organ

1. Manual of Buddhist pilosophy P.95

2. The pali text society's pali Eng. Dictionary P.176 Col I

56
 Recipient Consciousness

13. Consciousness dependent upon sight

14. Consciousness dependent upon sound
15. Consciousness dependent upon smell
16. Consciousness dependent upon taste
17. Consciousness dependent upon touch
18. Consciousness dependent upon mentation1"

Conclusion
For Buddhism a 'person' is a psycho-physical entity nothing more
but the temporary combination of the five skandhas, eighteen dhatus
including twelve ayatanas of cognition. Everything is in a state of
continual transformation. There is neither beginning nor end, yet
nothing happens without cause and reason. Everything depends upon
each other, for this existence bom of the causal cycle and the existence
is not other than the process of becoming seizing the possibility of being
at all. This passage through a succession of existence transmigration
bears the usual name of samsara. Buddha denied the metaphysical
discussion devoid of practical utility.

1. A Manual of Budhist Philosophy, by William Montgomery Me Govern p.95-96

57
 Jainism on body

Jain Metaphysis
'Artha samaya or the system of reality is two-fold ; Loka and
Aloka. Loka is constituted by the five Astikayas or existence. Beyond
that is the great and the infinite Aloka which is co-existence with pure
space or Anantakasha.
Astikaya or existence are enumerated as five i.e. Jiva or souls,
Pudgalas or non-soul, Dharma and Adharma (The principle of rest and
motion) and finally space.2
Life is generally associated with body, the organic body
constituted by pudgala or matter, jiva is operative in and conditioned by
such physical medium.
The term astikaya is a compound of two words asti and kaya which
respectively means existing and extensive magnitude. They are real.

1. -^JT4FT: •q^TPTf ^FTTtiA: I

Panchatikaya-Sara, P. 2.

2. '^IdR-’l-Ml smtsmT cEfcf 3H<+>|9IH, |

^ PlUHl 3FF3T*TT ST^RFFtT: II V ' | |

Ibid, P. 2.
3. An Epitome of Jainism P. 30, Line-33

58
They formulate the world, Loka. "They have space and quality hence
they have kayas. Astikayas then implies existential nature as well as
space quality.1"
"Five astikayas together with the time (kala) form the six dravyas2.
3
" The term dravaya means the real, that is fluent or changing.
Nature and kind of Body
Jaina admits five kinds of bodies 1. Audarika3 4 2. Vaikriyaka
3.Aharka 4. Taijasa and 5. Karmana.
Audarika Sarira
Udarana means sthula or gross. Audarika is formulated by gross
matter. It is derived from udara, womb, that which is bom from the
womb is audarika. "Any way audarika-sarira refers to organic bodies,
animal and human."
Vaikriyaka Sarira
"Term 'Vikriya' implied the wonderful bodily transformation that
are associated with deva or divine being. As deva can take any kind of
body as he pleases from minute to huge forms. That kind of sarira is
called vaikriyaka-sarira5"

1. Panchastikaya sara, P-3

2. i) Ibid P-3, Line-33
ii) % %nf^TWTT: 3<hlle14>'qMLlRu|tf| P|ciU: I

JILlRctcf'lle1'S;Jl<H^)crdl: 11^ II

Ibid, P. 4.
3. i) Ibid by A. Chakravatinayanan. P.71
ii) Reals in the jainism metaphysics P.200
4. Panchastikaya sara, P.71
5. Ibis, sara P.71

59
Aharaka sarira
"This type of body is concerned with yogin during tapas. when
they face difficulties they shoot-forth a kind of subtle body for them and
send to other person the information for help. This is a sort of telephonic
response. "

Taijasa Sarira
This refers to the shining body or a body composed of electric
matter. " The Taijasa sarira is composed of electric or magnetic matter
and is a necessay link the out most body and the karman sarira (the
latter being the compound arising from the union of spirit and matter).
The Taijasa sarira is a coat of luminous matter thrown over the
karmana sarira and form an atmosphere or aura of light round it. It
would be relevant to quote here what is said about the Taijasa Sarira by
G.R. Jain in his research work.
" An account of a recent investigation carried out by a prominent
South African doctor and an engineer in London was published under
the caption "Scientist seeks the soul." We reproduce below certain
portions of that article "The doctor and the engineer both thought that
the secret of life lay in some kind of energy. Probably electrical.......
intricate apparatus designed and built by the engineer and the
experiment started. An animal was used at first. Their apparatus proved
that every body was born with a definite electric charge. They are also
to record and tabulate this energy. They found that the more intelligent

1. Pancastikaya-sara P.71
2. Cosmology old and New by G.R. Jain P.57

60
animals had a higher charge than the lower forms. At the moment of
death the charge dissappeared. In animal record showed that the charge
remained more or less the same through life except when the animal was
breeding.
In the case of human beings they found the same laws holding and
we read. "The babies were born with a definite charge . After death the
charge vanished. An average human charge they found was 500 volts.
As the subject grew older the charge increased not with age, but
according to the type of character the subject was developing. The two
men began to think that they were on the track not only of life but of the
soul, so long sneered at by scientists. In coarse animal natures the
charge remains low and in cases of mental disease and lunacy the charge
dropped. They found that male babies had a higher charge at birth than
female babies, but that the female could catch up and pass the male
1 T, ' : /
according to the various characterstics shown. ,' < ,
..]} '"i

Karmana -Sarira. "This refers to the karmic body that every Jiva
carries this karmic body with itself when it roams through the cycle of
Samsara." The inner subtle body which is the seed of all mental and
physical activities. "The Karmana Sarira is a group of material forces or
potentialities which forms the ground work or basis of the other grosser
bodies.

1. Cosmology old& new by G.R.Jain

Bhartiya Jnanpith Publication-1975 Page 56.
2. Pancastikayasara, P. 71.
3. Real in the Jaina Metaphysics P.206 by. Hari Satya Bhatacharya

61
Audarika- Sarira " a lone is the subject of sense perception and the
others are subtle bodies. The succeeding one is subtler than the
1 *•
preceeding in order.

Body: an organic unity

Priniciple of organic unity of the plants and animal is very
striking. The whole plant world is included in the class of orgnism of
having one sense i.e.. the sense of contact. The animal world beginning
with such insects as earthworm and ending with man is brought under
four main groups organisms with two, three, four and five senses.
Pranas
Associated with organism, there is the conception of pranas or
the essential characteristics of living beings. They are mainly four
1. Bala prana. l.Indriya- prana.3. Ayush prana. 4. Uchhvasa-nisvasa-
prana.
"Every organism implies certain capacity of spontaneous activity.
This capacity is for action is balaprana or life potency. Every organism
must possess some kind of sense awareness. This implies the
possession of a sense organ and the capacity to apprehend the
environment through that sense. The number of sense organs are
different according to stages of organic development next to ayush-
prana or duration of life. Every living organism has a limited duration
of life............and lastly respiration. There is no organism of uchhvasa-
nisvasa.

1. Pancastikayasara. P.71.
2. An Epitome of Jainism P-34 line-16.

62
-T42,62.|
Body : The Biological combination
All the living being have not the same system of origin or birth.
So Jaina accordingly divides the system of birth in to three
Sammurchana or 1. spontaneous generation 2. Garbhajas, or produced
from womb 3. Upapadikas, or in case of devas and Narakas, the last one
may be treated as beyond scientific pole.

1. Sammurchhana
The Jivas whose birth place is not fixed and do not come through
womb, their creation is called sammurchhana and having four indriya
come under this category. Jiva having two to five indriyas and are
produced from the human faeces and urine are also considered in to
sammurchanas.

Garbhaja
The Jivas who take birth by the mixing of semen of man and
blood of female and having a conception in the mother's womb are
garbhaj.
They are of three types2
(a) Jarayuja.
(b) Andajas.
(c) Potas.

1. (i) 3?lT At-RmI ‘CT.

(ii) i■dhrqki-h
*

2.
Ibid 5.

63
(a) Jarayuja
The web like covering of the young one, which is composed of
flesh and blood, is the outer skin of the embryo, is called Jarayuja.

(b) Andaj
The covering, which is composed of the white shell and blood
which is hard like the nail and which is globular in shape, is the egg.

(c) Potas
In the case of the young ones (potas) of certain animals the limbs
are developed without any covering and the young ones are able to
move around from the moment of their birth.

3. Upapadikah1 2
The birth of celestial and infernal beings is in special beds.

State at time of conception

When Jiva enters into the womb its first nutriment is the atoms of
blood and semen. In the womb Jiva's diet is essence of mother's diet
rather it takes nutriment from whole of the body and supplied to the
whole body of its own.

1.^TFTT TfcHuiiijMHK;

2. 3fTr Tt-hmi, ^V9.

64
Outer Impression
Conception is greatly influenced by outer situation and
atmosphere some times, in some pregnancy there appears vaikriya sakti

wonderful energy who seeing enemy forces, forming various body

begins to fight.1

Keen desire of richness, merry-making extremes of sexual

pleasure may arouse in mind of Jiva.2 There are some other type of Jiva

who, in embryo, are influenced by relegious sermons become ascetic.

They become religious persons.

Conclusion
Every organism or a sansari Jiva is an organic unity of two
distinct entities Jiva and Pudgala, soul and body. In the philosophy of
Jaina we found five kinds of bodies i.e. audarika, vaikriyaka, ahraka,
taijasa and karmana, three kinds of births i.e. garbha, andaja and
upapadika and mainly four kinds of pranas i.e. bala prana, indriya
prana, ayuh-prana and ucchvasanishsvasa prana. Thus the life of soul
in this phenomena is an infinite series without beginning but with an end
of moksha.

1. : TFPT 3hr TftJTRTT,

2- Ibid P.226
65
 Ayurveda on Body
Ayurveda literally means the way of life and the knowledge how
to live healthy life. Ancient Indian medical science author have given us
full detail of systematic conception of foetus and its development and
becoming of well established human body. According to caraka human
body is a modification of the five elements- ether, air, fire, water and
earth and it is also the seat of consciousness (Cetana). The modification
of all these elements along with unconciousness causes the pregnancy.
From five elements become five dhatu and cetna (conciousness) is the
2
sixth remains with them.
Physical View
Chakrpani the commentator of Caraka further explains that the
semen itself is made of the four elements, air, fire, water and earth ;
ether is not a constituent of it but becomes connected with it as soon as
it issues forth since akasa or antariksa (ether) is all pervading. The
semen that is dejected passes into ovary is constituted of equal parts of
air, fire, water and earth, the ether becomes mixed with it in the ovary,
ether (akasa) itself is omnipresent and has no movement of its own.

1. pTpj <4c'ci-dRsT4rqcrf?*i?Tratoic: i

4T4R%cTT ^rftPRTFT, v.q.

2. termicH44 pT, %FT7te5Fr*jjT: |

r fTPT srrqwT: i
Ibid, v.v
3. 3?wn?f <3; peiFt uioid'dlP^Pd cnmP p yifkiPdTcu
41^414^ ^TT% 344441 c4IH4>A4

PH4TJ[A I 44% I 44^41 Pi 3TT4^4 TIP44 yifkWFf,

66
 According to susruta semen and blood are the two main
constitutents respectively made up of the watery elements of the moon
(saumya) and the fiery elements (agneya); the other elements in atomic
particles are also associated with them and all these mutually help one
another and co-operates together for the formation of the body. Susruta
further goes on to say that at the union of female and male, the heat
(tejah) generated rouses the vayu and through the coming together of
heat and air. The semen is discharged becomes the conception of garbha
(pregnancy).
Caraka however, thinks that the cause of the discharge of semen
is joy (harsa) the semen is not produced from the body but remains in
all parts of the body and it is the joy which causes the discharge and the
2
entrance of semen into the uterus.

1. (yp) yffldL ddlA ^ dd<Adi

Pld^f^HHIdl-^sh "apt dld^d,
ddtSJTWld'H4'|J|l<d ^WTFfr Tmi'yiimdylclM'dcl I
^ddl^dl 9|{UWH, AT
(dt) dTFRFWd, TdWd, d-
drdAlHMI^iflld Ft dfd %UMldldd: I

dd=bdl£dl WFT, ^.?V.

2. ddT ddfA dlT^, JjdydajdF ^t^TT I

ddT •JDTT 1^'diri'dNJcK: I I

dJdFT^FTfed Vid-ddd-H-td'dl 1

cqiq-ot$^y-c)ilL| FdfrftdPRSdtfct I I

d <.ct’ dBdi part I by shri Jaidev Vidyalankar d 'tqWBdi wflT^TFT, 's'A.

pub. Moti Lai Banarsi Dass Banaras 1954 P.426 Col I

68
 But the foetus cannot come into conception of pregnanacy simply
with the union of semen of the father and blood (sonita) of the mother
unless the atman with its subtle body, constituted of air, fire , water,
earth and manas (mind-the organ invloved in all perception and thought)
becomes connected with its karma. "The four elements constitute the
subtle body of the atman being the general causes of all productions do
not contribute to the essential bodily features of the child.
Chakarapani, a commentator on Caraka again clears that the
mixing of semen of man and blood of woman cause the creation of body
simultaneously entering of subtle body transferred from the previous
body of a dying being.
Caraka explains that body is composed of soul, manas and gross
body. It is like a tripod means that these three are the foundation of the
human body as, if one leg is removed from the structure, the whole

1. A history of Indian Philosphy S. N.Gupta Vol IIP. 302.

*nPr cciicuPi *[?nPr 3iiRdi£+yi0kvqi'Pi

HTpT W*miRU|c^Hll^9lfc>l 4W<=ij|Pl

Chakarpani Ayurvedadipika wffRSTFT,

Tnfw sjtPt

3lldl "He)Pd I

¥TfR RTPT, "RRK.

2. 'chi<ui tRnPr ¥rdr

W^pT:, d^d ^ thCl< ^ddd:, dl^qi |

69
structure will fell down, the living body will be no more.

Caraka on Body
"The elements that contribute to the general features are (i) the
mother's part- the blood (ii) the father's part - the semen (iii) the karma
of each individual. The part played by the assimalated food-juice of the
mother need not be counted separately, as it is determined by the karma
of the individual. The mental traits are determined by the state of mind
of the individual in his previous birth. Thus if the previous state of life
was that of a God the mind of the child will be pure and vigorous
2
whereas if it was that of an animal it will be impure and dull."
"When a man dies, his soul, together with his subtle body
composed of four elements, air fire, water and earth in a subtle state and
manas passes invisibly into a particular womb on account of its karma

1. TpflT |
ylclfecH, I I

--£RWl%?lT

Ibid tv?.
2. %^rr ddciPu mPr uidilh^T^iPi i
vTTf^r oacf^u ^yirci cir^rci; i i

^T^fftcTT ■RTftT

70
and then, when it conies into connection with the combined semen and
blood of the father and mother the foetus begins to develop.

Ontological categories-
Caraka in the eighth chapter of Sutra-sthana counts the senses
as five in numbers.*2 But charak himself, however, at another place
speaks incidentally of a sixth sense (Sad-indriya) in connection with the
description of sweet taste. Though both samkhya and vaisesika systems
to which Ayurveda is largely indebted for its philophical ideas, admits
manas or mind-organs, as a separate sense (indriya), chakrapani also
has different views that manas is separate from the other senses by

A History of Indian Philsophy By S.N.D. Gupta] Vol. II P. 303-

pub. Motilal Banarsi dass 1975
2. W iftcj 45^ Pst 41 Pi qo^2rf>st9stci|ilu'i) P3-4ifk)W4 lIP,

H^PPst-MI'^:, M^x)p5)'M^)es,4l 9cjPd I I

9 Pdi 75^
T ^ Hgfr T^T: WflT W^lcf.......... STm^T Klf^PstUtHHIcM :

The Chark samhila of chakrapanidalla Ed. By Vaidya Jadavaje Trikamyi

Acharya : Pub. Satyalahama bai Pandurang Bombay,1941 Page 143-144.

^. ^r^CTl^dt 9W1F11LlTulPldl Pf>st4cPH HfetEE 1

Tpt T^TPT.

71
reason of the fact that it has many functions which are not possesed by
any of the other senses. "Chakrapani, in explaining the atindriya
character of manas, says that it is called atindriya because it is not a
cause of the knowledge of external objects like the other senses.1 2

Philosophical analysis:-
Caraka and Sursuta also keep in view the structure of body
from the Indian philosophical aspect. As Susruta says that body has
been made up with the combination of five gross elements. This body
becomes the seat or abiding place of Purusa. "The term Purusa should
be interpreted to include with in its meaning the combination of its five
material componants and all things resulting therefrom, such as the
limbs and members of the body as well as the skin, the flesh, the blood,
the views and the nerves etc. 2 "
Dharma, Artha, Karma and Moksa have remained the main
objects and aim of human being from the very beginning of indian
philosophy and that aim can only be obtained through this human body.
The sound body with mind is the only medium to attain our aim. Sound
body, one knows is the simple structure of the body and some systems

1. AHI Phelosophy S N Dass. Gupta, Vol. II, P. 366.

2. (^) -<R44c|'Ki: V f^TT

ATsf^l H H,
^yi-dlBdi ?.^o.
Tr. By Kaviraj Kunja LalBhishagratme Vol. 1, Page, 14-

72
working in it.
In Indian tradition Purusartha is the ultimate aim of human life
and body is only way to achieve this goal. The Ayurveda Indian medical
source is not an exception of it. According to Ayurvedic systems of
medicine, body is formed of Vayu, Pitta and Phelgum1
2,these are called
dosas and without these dosas body might not be remain in its position.
There can be no organism without Vayu, Pitta and Phelgum. These are
the primary and the most essential factors in the constitution of human
body.3
Susruta describes the samkhya system of creation and of
satyakaryavada but from the Aurvedic points he differs and gives his
own view about the creation Susruta says that according to medical
science the causes of things are sixfold 1. Nature of things-Svabhava 2.
God-Ishvara 3. Time-kala 4. Accidental happenings- Yadrccha 5.
Destiny- niyate and 6. Evolution- parinama.4

1. (%) 3T^FT dd^dRdl FT: I

d 1 p.14

ddRdMJ|JFMI I
dTdd'Rdl 7JF. FM,
2. FRlPkl9elfcHI*J| ttf % dJ-d^dd: | T^ddRdl TFR, FTT

T FFTldlAl F fhvTT^T dlddl^

SdlRldldR FT TTcF sjFfcT I I

TFFFnfhFnc FFcT *s
FFT I

hRuiiT F- FFjfcf FFFfyf'd: I I

^^RfDdT FTOt TFFT, ?.??.

73
 Chapter III

Nyaya Vaisesika system on Body

Introduction
The great sage Gotama is the founder of Nyaya system. It is a
realistic philosophy mainly based on logical ground or particular as
Vatsyayan says •'^14 ; Nyaya is the science of
demonstration that examines 'object' things, the means of knowledge.
"Nyaya means argumentation and suggests that the system is
predominantly intellectual, analytical, logical and epistemological. It is
also called Tarka-shastra or the science of reasoning ; Pramana-shastra
or the science of logic and epistemology; Hetuvidya or the science of
causes ; Vada-vidya or the science of debate ; and Anviksiki or the
science of critical study."1

Literature
The first work of the ' philosophy is the Nyaya sutra of Gautama.
The subsequent work of Nyaya system is Vatasayana's Nyaya-bhasya;
On this Uddyotakara wrote his Vartika which was commented upon by
Vacaspati in his Tatparya-tika. Udayanas Nyaya Kusumanjali and
Jayanta's Nyaya-manjari are the other important works of this school.
They explain and develop the ideas contained in the Nyaya sutras and
also defend them against the attacks of hostile critics.

1. A critical survey of Indian philosphy

by. Chandradhar Sharma P.191
74
 The works of Gangesha such as the Tattvachintamani gave a new
turn to Nyaya philosphy called Navya-nyaya, later it developed into the
form of synthesis or an amalgamation between Nyaya and the Vaiseika
system. With the advent of modern Nyaya, the ancient school lost some
of its popularity.

Sixteen philosophical topics : Padarthas

Nyaya system is itself an elaboration of sixteen philosophical
topics (padartha). These are
1. Pramana, means of knowledge.
2. Prameya, objects of knowledge.
3. Samsaya, doubts
4. Prayojna, purpose
5. Drishtanta, instance
6. Sidhanta, established truth
7. Avayava, premisses
8. Tarka, reasoning
9. Nirnaya, Conclusion
10. Vada, argumentation
11. Jalpa, sophistry
12. Vitanda, wrangling, cavilling
13. Hetva-bhasa, fallacies
14. Chhala, quibbles
15. Jati, false analogies
16. Nigrahasthana, unfitness for arguing

75
A General Division of Nyaya Philosophy
The whole of Nyaya system may be divided into four parts.1

1. The theory of knowledge.

2. The theory of physical world.
3. The theory of individual self and its liberation.
4. The theory of God.

The Nyaya theory of knowledge:-

The Nyaya theory of knowledge is based upon four distinct and
separate sources of true knowledge. Knowledge or cognition (Jnana)
means the manifestation of objects, just as the light of the lamp or any
light causes the manifestation of objects clearly before us. They are 1.
pratyaksa, perception 2. anumana, inference 3. upamana, comparison
4.Sabda, testimony.2

The Nyaya theory of physical world

According to the Naiyayikas, the objects of knowledge are twelve
in counts, they are 1. Self or soul 2. Body 3. Senses 4. Sense-objects 5.
Understanding 6. Mind 7. Activity (will) 8. Faults 9. Transmigration

1. ymuiy4ddywy4l^d£kdkdRWl-dMUd I

ddTd ufddld'd<rHl4du^l!?cdl';Hld'^,tSic1'dllcl-

P|JJ£<rdHHI d^dldlPdy^SpWTf^rrFT: I ?.?.?.

2. ■gr^Mmd''l‘-mH9i<sc(i: yniunPi TtT

76
(pretyabhava, rebirth) 10. Phala 11. The feelings of pleasure and pain
12. Final liberation.1 2

The individual self and its liberation

As there are different philosphical schools in Indian philosophy
so they have different views regarding "the self'. "The Nyaya-Vaisesika
adopt the realistic view of the self. According to them, the self is a
unique substance to which all cognitions, feelings and conations belong
as its attributes. Desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain and cognition
2
are all qualities of the soul."

The purpose fo the Nyaya

The purpose of the Nyaya is to attain liberation. Gotama defines
liberation in a negative way as the absolute deliverance from pain3 4that
can be acquired only through knowledge and realization of the self. With
the realization, the man becomes free from desires and impulses, he
ceases to be affected by the result of all past karma, becomes free from
all klesas, and the self does not adopt another body.

1. sncnT y i {ft Prfn \Tqfeu h fti

2. An introduction to Indian philosophy by Datta and chatterjee. P.206

3. ddc-M'-clD'HlST: I
1.1.22.

4. *T y^Rl: ■Srf^FETFmr I
yyz. 4.1.64.
77
 Final Release consists in absolute freedom from all pains.
Gotama advocates Samadhi for attaining the true knowledge and
realization of the self and suggests to practise the rule of Ycuwct,
Niyama and other steps. "But Gautama does not draw any distinction
between the empirical self and the real self nor does he say anything
about the nature of true self."14 2 *
Gotama's views on God are controversial He mentions God very
briefly only in three Sutras5 and that also while discissing doctrine
chosen for refutation in the three sutras. It is very difficult to assess from
the sutra, whether Gautama accepted God or not.
Gotama divides the world into two realities: Atman and the
atoms. The atoms maintain the constitution of the physical world
including the human body. But "how the atoms constituting the body,
become associated with Atman is not explained satisfactorily by him.
Gotama does not show much interest in meta-physical problems. He
accepts the reality of both the spiritual and the material, Atman and the
atoms.6"

1. i

^5T. 4.2.45.

2. I 4-2-38

4.2.46.

4. Indian philosophy by Nilima Chakravarty p.279

5. (a) I ^TRT 4.1.19.

(b) nxnTpsqfr: i ^t. 4.1.20.

(c) I -'MI'M 7J^..,4.1.21.

6. Indian philosophy by Nilima chakravarty. P.279

78
Body and its origin:-
Body is the site of gesture1 , of actions of the organs of the
senses and of the sentiments experienced by the soul. Gesture (Chesta)
which literally means trying or striving. The body strives to achieve
what is desirable and avoid what is harmful. It is the movement which is
done thoughtfully, willfully and effortfully. Secondly, the body is the
site of senses. Senses cannot exist without the support of the body.
These senses are closely connected with the soul. Their capabilities of
actions and the experiencing capacities are only posssible when they are
in the body.23
"Body is the container and the sense-organs the contained all that
we mean is that they subsist in the Body as the sense, that they are
affected by the benefit and injury of the body; that is to say, the Sense-
organs are benefitted by benefitting, and injured by the injury of the
Body;- This is all that is meant by the Body being the vehicle of the
sense organs."4

2. FF toT F FTFF FF •TFT FTF F Fftff f-

W# 40.

3. FTTI, FF*f STFFT- FtWTEFTFT WflT fasUFM Ft^t FT TT=FF

Ffcft

^FTF F#=T: FlTT^t, F. V?

4. Nyaya Sutra of Gautama Tr. Ganganath Jha, Vol. 1 p. 235.

79
 Our present body has been composed of elements 1 2endowed with
the fruits of merits and demerits of our previous lives. The Great
commentator Vatsyana explains further, as the previous actions done by
the person through the activity of speech, cognition and body, and the
fruits of those actions either merit or demerit, the co-ordination with
soul and five gross elements, cause the origin of this body and not
independently.3
An objection is raised by the Atheists that the formatioin of body
may be admitted as a statue is formed of stone4 , clay etc, which is
devoid of deserts; our body has been made up of elements which are not
endowed with the fruits of our previous merits and demerits.
Body and Consciousness:-
The Naiyayakas reply that the body is a living being which is not
like a statue or stone. The formation of body is not possible without the

1. dc^uTlHel^ET: I
^TFT ^5T. 3.1.28.
2. TJchgdqid I IxI^cHItI: I

4.2.41.

3. ^ *TT fl<TV*T eTStm dc^T^d

mAffd,7 met d^Pldl STfrfsnff,7 dcmeiW^-
o

HileMfel: WfUHl, d- ^ I

3.2.60.

4. ■■^r^mdldclei^MKHH, I
•mFT ^t. 3.2.61.

80
sperm of father and blood of mother as owes its origin in the shape of
l 2
seed. On the other hand statue needs no seed.
Body is produced from the seeds that is from the mixture of
fathers' semen and mother's Karman of the personality himself and
karman of the parents. Still it is further explained that the growth of the
body in the womb very much, depends on the nourishment and the diet
of mother.
Father and mother meet many times the conception or pregnancy
does not take place. The pregnancy happens only by the adrsta.
Pregnancy is not caused accidently, but according to karmaphala; and
not as desired by father and mother.13 42 5
It is further explained by the commentator, that the body cannot
be formed out of substance indepentenly of Destiny. The body has so
much complicated structure as the arteries through which the bodily
humours and life-breath flow, the humours of the body culminating in
the semen, other organs and systems, the tendon, skin, bones, veins
muscles, embryo, foetus head, arms, belly, thighs, wind, bile and
phelgum permeating the body and the mouth, throat, chest, stomach

1. -ilcdRlPiRWcdl^ldlftdl: I 3JJT. 3.2.63.

2. Tfcffcrr w i ^m 3.2.63.

3. chlBd <cidl ?r?r

^rm" 3.2.63

4. 41d-HI^K^dHI Ttf^dPi<=[vl ..... -^T I

'misq-. 3-2-64-

5. I ^?T. 3-2-66-
81
intestines and bowells, as result we conclude that body is formed by
destiny.
Arguments are given in the support of Adrsta. Adrsta is also cause
of body. If the Destiny (karma) is not the cause of origin of body then
the souls would have similar bodies; but we see this system does not
prevail12 3 here, some people are born to rich family others to the poor
2
Some are healthy and beautiful and others weak and ugly.

Conclusion
Nyaya believes in plurality of souls. Each individual has a
different soul which is eternal and without parts (niravayava). The soul
is different from body. Body is the seat of gestures, senses and
sentiments. Nyaya accepts karma. It also accepts God but only in a
casual manner. Metaphysically, Nyaya holds adrsta as a cause of Body.

1. *raT wftt yi^yiuu <h'ch1£THi hi^Hi yjsFFrTFrr sn^rf ^r

*TFZT. 3.2.66.

2. t^tETW: I
N.S., 3.2.67.
3. TftSJf TTcUIPi-MdI4^eIMrl I
^TFT *TFST. 3.3.67.

82
Vaisesika System
The Vaisesika system was founded by Kanada. It is named as a
'Visesa' category. The visesa (individual or particular) as a category
accepted by the system which gave the term "Vaisesika". Nyaya and the
Vaisesika are allied systems of philosophy. They have the same end in
view, The liberation of the individual self. The Nyaya recommends four
independent sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison
and testimony. While the Vaisesika recognises only two: perception and
inference. Nyaya gives a list of sixteen padartha whereas Vaisesika
recommends only seven1 1. substance 2. quality 3. action 4. generality 5.
particular 6. the relation of inference 7. non-existence.

Substance
There are nine2 3kinds of substances namely 1. earth 2. water 3.
light 4. air 5. ether 6. time 7. space 8. soul 9. mind .
Qualities
There are twenty four kinds of qualities:- colour, taste, touch ,
sound, number, magnitude, distinctness, conjunction, disjunction,
remoteness, nearness, cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion,
3
volition, heaviness, fluidity, viscidity, tendency, merit, demerit.

2. l^lSf *ftl# f^TTcRT *FT ffcT

Ibid, 1-1-5-
3. WRFpsmSTf:, tf^llcW'l’Tl
5^TT: | |

Ibid, 1-1-6-
83
Actions
There are five kinds of action. Throwing upwards, throwing
downwards, contration, expansion, locomotion.
"Samanya or the universal is a real entity which corresponds to a
general idea or class concept in our mind."
Particularity:
"Particularity (Visesa) is the extreme opposite of the universal
(Samanya). By particularity we are to understand the unique
2
individuality of substances....
The Relation of Inference
Samvaya is permanent or eternal relation between two entities of
3
which one inheres in the other.
Abhava
Abhava is a negative category which does not figure under any of
the six category. The reality of non-existence can not be denied.
Vaisesika establishes the existence of the soul1
4, 52but
3 does not raise
the issue of the essence or the essential qualities of soul or its relation to
consciousness. Soul is a substance and is eternal. They are many and
their plurality is proved by status6. Mind is also substance and is eternal.

1. 3?^ IHc| ^ M u I HI WtMrf ^ff&T I ^. <3. E,.

2. An introduction to Indian Philosophy, by Data & Chatterjee. P.242

3. Ibid 244 line-1.
4. -gnu|mi^p|4isivTicr^fTt jreftl>sfqfa: i

l^lcuTl I . 3.2.4.
5. ctw 3mht cukomi^ | 3.2.5.
6. TFTT I ^5T. 3.2.20.
84
Pleasure and pain are marks of actions of mind and these occur when
there is a contact of the soul with senses, mind and objects. Mind
therefore has to be restrained through yoga. Thus the mind will withdraw
itself from all contacts with the external world and there will be no more
experience of pleasure and pain.2
"The Vaisesika sutra is frequently called a moksasastra because it
teaches the doctrine of liberation." Liberation cannot be attained only ,
with the cessation of pain for there is still memory (samskara) of past
pain and the ever present potentiality (adrsta) of future pain. It can be
exerted through the practice of yoga alone. But the prime prerequisite is
claimed to be an intellectual insight into the nature of reality.
"These are souls and atoms which are eternal. So there is no need
of God for accepting God as the material cause of the world."4

Adrsta or Unperceived causal law.

Adrsta as a causal law is a very important concept of Vaisesika
Philosophy "Soul combines with atoms in accordance with adrsta. Man
suffers because of adrsta."5

1.

2. 3TT?n^r '9'iCkHI <j,:WnTcT: ffBT: I

^T. 5.2.16.
3. Philosophical Foundation of India by. Theos Bernard Pub. Philosophical library
Riders and company Newyork 1945 P. 42
4. Indian philosophy by Nilima Chakravarty P. 246
5. Ibid P. 276-47

85
 Vaisesika regards the body as the vehicle of the experience of
pleasure and pain (bhogadhisthana) like the Nyaya and believes in the
theory of interaction. The actions can only be performed with the
conjunction of hand and the volition of the self.1 Vaisesika maintains
that body is of two kinds, a sexual-bom and a asexual-born, aqueous,
igneous and aeriar, i.e Varuna, Aditya and Vayu are entirely asexual."
Asexuality means independence of co-mixing of semen and blood. The
bodies of gods and sages are also asexual according to the text of
revelation.3 The sexual body again is of two fold, womb bom and egg-
born.4 Men and animals are of womb bom and birds and reptiles belong
to group of egg-born.5

1. SiTc-TRI Ul r| I^TT FAt ^cf I

5.1.1.

2. cT^ I
tslTfr ^5T. 4.25.

3. ■HH'HI |
I 4.2.5.

4. i
Ebid, 4.2.5.
5. vjki^ui' hihnm^J||uii TTqfymHi «Ki^Ccii^ f|^qiuuqu^-|^ |

Ebid, 4-2-5

86
 Vaisesika does not exclude even trees and other plants from living
being. They have their bodies as they experience, life, death, sleep,
working, medicinal consequence, production of seed approaching
agreeable and avoiding disagreeable, would be impossible growth and
healing up of the wounds which prove, experience are manifested in
them.
The objection raised when there is no co-mixing to blood and
semen or other type of relationship then how they take birth. The reply
is given that the atoms of terrene, aqueous, igneous and aerial exist in all
directions and in all places. An adrsta works to unite the atoms to
produce a-sexual body.2
Still there is further objection to have proof for a-sexual birth. In
the following four sutras answers are given in the support. 3

■'SI PRO I- ^PTtTT-^tvjRTvii Icflq IdOd -STO-

O C\

2. 3i^c|c4irHy4lJ|l^c| TRqI

srotpRf yifUuioHPl i i
V.^.V9.
T i tstPrr 4.2.8.

wmf 3uRcdiq I Ibid 4.2.9.

^FRRhPMI: I Ibid4.2.10
| Ibid 4.2.11
87
Mind in Vaisesika
Mind is an internal sense organ and is the most important in
production of the knowledge. The soul, sense organ and the objects are
inter-connected, for the proper knowledge the involvement of manas
(mind) is necessarily needed without which knowledge is not possible at
all and the mind is present. The knowledge would be produced and if
the mind is not present the knowledge can not be produced.

Mind in Prasastpad Bhashym

A detailed discussion about mind is given in Vaisesika and
Vaisesik sutra upskar, and in prasastpadabhashyan as mind is universal
and all pervading. An objection is raised that if mind is all pervading
then the knowledge through all the senses would be the same as we
could hear through nose and mouth also. So the mind is not all
pervading*2 3and also, if the mind were all pervading then there would not
be such local character of pleasure etc. as "pain in my head."
If mind is supposed to be an atom, it will be possessing a
minimum of divisibility, so it is not like an atom. Vaisesika declares that
mind is a substance and it is eternal. And also it is established that mind
is one.4

^5T. 3.2.1.

2. Tpft WvRI :
4^4=1 ?TFf W^l 3A.?.
3. goMcciPlc-McT cii^Hi cinWF% I 3.2.2

4. ^r.3.2.2.

88
Conclusion
The Vaisesika propounds the atomic theory. Atoms are combined
because of their motion. The motion is due to adrsta and the activity of
the adrsta is inspired by the God. This motion produces conjunction of
two monads giving birth to a diad. Three diads or binary atoms make
one tertiary. From this last is produced the quadrate and so on, until the
masses of earth, water, light and atmosphere are formed. Earth is again
divided into three kinds- body, organ of sense and mass. The body is
that which belongs to human beings like ourselves; the organ is that of
smell which apprehends odour and is situated at the root of the noses;
while mass comprehends all other earthly things, such as stone etc. This
three fold division of earth is very ancient, being derived from the
aphorism of Kanada.

89
 Chapter IV

SANKHYA -YOGA : An Ontological and Metaphysical view

<rll IJI Cl cT^r ■H^lcH’Y I I

(9TTf% 3°?.?°^.)

dlR^ -llRkl 4TkW ^cTR; I

(yuPd
3TpT ft ^TSPTt HT ^ WPT TTR^T ^ ^RcTR; I

(yilPd 3°?. ?o.?)

Introduction
The Samkhya is perhaps the olde st formulated philosophical and
religious thought in India. It has exerted an important influence in the
development of Indian religious thought and many of its terms and ideas
have been and continue to be employed in other systems also. A
penetrating analysis of human experience is the starting point of the
samkhya.
Grammatically speaking, the term samkhya is derived from
Samkhya which usually means 'number' as samkhya system is based
upon a number of elements but this conjecture does not have sufficient
weight.
Apart from denoting the term 'number' samkhya has got other
meaning also. Amara in his lexicon states that the term Samkhya is used
in the sense of discussion and investigation.
Pantanjali uses 'prasankhyana' in his Yogasutra in the sense of
supreme knowledge. It is certain that the term samkhya is derived from
90
Ikhya that means knowledge, contemplation, examination, discussion,
investigation and discrimination etc. The word samkhya is formed by
adding the suffix an (apr^) to the root with prefix sam (^F[) Hence
samkhya means he. right knowledge.
Origin of the samkhya philosophy has been enveloped in
darkness. Though it is the oldest formulated system of philosophy but
we have to find out its origin from the ancient Sanskrit literature when
the vedic sacrifices were in full swing and these performances were
supposed to lead to heaven. For the Indian people heaven was the
summum bonum of life.
No doubt that different thinkers have thought in different ways
and through different philosophies but samkhya has applied a scientific
base to its philosophy. Samkhya has entirely a scientific and logical base.
Samkhya maintains a clear cut dualism purusa and prakrti and
maintains the plurality of purusa} It is pluralism, spiritualism and
atheistic realism.
Prakrti is the root cause of the world of objects. It is the
potentiality of nature or the first principle of universe, it is called
pradhana. As the unitelligent unconscious principle,it is called jada. The

Tj^sr-sigcci Rrtg i i

91
entire world of objects is implicit in the bosom of prakrti. Evolution is
the explicit manifestation of the world of objects while dissolution is
returning of this to prakrti.
The whole course of evolution from prakrti to the gross physical
elements is distinguished into two stages, namely, the psychical
(pratyasarga or buddhisarga) and the physical (tanmatrasarga or
bhautikasarga). The former includes the development of prakriti as
budhi, ahankara and the eleven senses and motor organs. The latter is
constituted by the evolution of the five subtle physical essence
(tanmataras), the gross (mahabhutas) and the products. The tanmatras,
being supersensible and unenjoyable to ordinary beings, are called
avishesha i.e. devoid of specific perceptible characters. The physical
elements and their products being possessed of specific characters
pleasurable or painful or stupefying are designated as vishesa or the
specific.
The Vishesha or specific objects are divided into three kinds ,
namely the gross elements, the gross body bom of parents (sthulsharira)
and the subtle body (sukshma or linga sarira). The gross body is
composed of the five gross elements. The subtle body is the
combination of budhi, ahankara, the eleven senses amd the five subtle
elements (tanmatras). The gross body is the support of the subtle body,
as the intellect (buddhi), the ego (ahankara) and the senses cannot

1. 'g^TT Hldllh^l: fsTOT I

PiUdl -Hldllh^MI PldcPcl I I

92
function without some physical basis1.
Prakriti is said to be the unity of three gunas sattva, rajas and
tamas. Sattva is the quality of goodness and happiness, rajas stands for
struggle, passion and action, tamas is the force of ignorance and inertia.
Gunas are not qualities but are the constituent factors. Our own nature
of mind, life and body is nothing but such a combination and prise.

Purusa
According to samkhya, the self, {purusa), is different from the
body, the senses, the manas and the intellect. It is neither substance, nor
qualities of gunas. It does not possess the attributes of consciousness but
it is pure consciousness.
It is also not like the Vedanta's Self as blissful conciousness. It is
a constant consciousness In Samkhya-karika it is named as
trigunadiviparyayat adhisthanat, bhoktribhavat Kaivalyartham
pravrttesca.2

1. (^) Introduction to the Indian philosophy by Data & Chatterjee P.277

(%) ^lUcjiD'wrt f^rr i

■qt^rmcn^ i i
Ibid, ^

93
Subtle Body-Samkhya : Psycophysical co-ordination
Man is not simply external body of flesh and bones as referred
under the skeleton. It is like a temple, the living place ofpurusa. There
is a complex system which dynamises the whole machinery. It is
complex and intricate , and it is extremely difficult to understand its
working. Body is the supporting place for mahat, ahankara, manas and
the organs of senses and actions. As a picture cannot be displayed
without the support of the wall, so mahat, ahankara, sense organs
action-organs cannot exist without the body. Samkhya admits three type
of bodies.

1. f^rarr faypii: i

^P5{yr«T: I

^ f^tqT; yiPdl qUiy-ci | |

Ibid. \<L.

94
 These three bodies1 2are as under 1. subtle body 2. body from
parents. 3. body associated with mahabhutas.
1. Subtle body is the first creation ofpradhana;
2. Gross body is from the mixing of the father's semen and mother's
blood;
3. The whole associate of mahabhuta becomes the third body.
Ishwara Krishna in his samkhya karika no. 40 tells us about the
creation of subtle body. It was the first creation of pradhana
compressing the elements from mahat to subtle tanmatras including
ahankara, manas, five sense organs and five action organs.
Samkhya-tattvakaumadi also writes that it was the first creation of
pradhana in the very beginning of the universe. Dr. Gajanan Shastri

1. (a) RldlR^I: W I 3t.^FT. 3V

(b) RldlR^Rl RTlU: R^l^dlRl I

RKpMdxdd^cD. 3V
(c) cfqion?Tfrt RjvTRldl'R^'^Gd 3TF ^Rgl'^clRdaT I
chRcH. ^9,.
(d) 3£?RT ^IdlR^dl: R^di^iplRsrT Rib'll I
<ddufd'-clR:l: cMRcH. 3 V

(e) 3J*?RT 3U'u4ye1'MlP'-lr'!-ll: -HldlR^^II PiI

w vrcIRR 1 ^tR^t, 39

2. (a) ih, i ^iwhRr->i. 40

(b) (Rom4^3 Ri?kR: ^VRHT-dHl RFTRrR-, Vo

(c) diRdT I RKpMdrdVo.

95
explains that when everything dissolves into its origin at the time of
dissolution, which dissolves everything into itself is called pradhana.1 2 3 4
Gaudapada in his commentary clarifies that when there was no
2
'loka', subtle body was created. It was the first creation of pradhana.
Yuktidipika explains the word subtle that it is the asylum
supporting to movements and gesture of eight type of prana.
Subtle body according to Samkhya-tattva kaumadi is unseen,
imaginary and illusory.

Vo.
By OdM-4 yiHr^O I
(a) ‘^dfoM'-TR’ I Wr^'Trf^Tjfsict ^l^cHlRrdld, y,4flP'TR
dVu'T|el I Vo.

(b) ‘SrSTFT UdcfniH' FIcp cil^R^dd I ^R" wftt FsfuRdWd I

+ |R+I. Vo.

by. N. Aiyaswami Sastri, Pub.

Tiruamlai Trupati Devasthanams Press, Trupati, 1944

2. PFT cTTPR: SF^cR' d I: ^midlRdjf ?RT ^R*l fk^cM-d Rid I

jh^MIcTRI^ ^blRdM. 40

3. ^RT dTR- ^'dlRfcT SfFIl^cl'b Wtfct I

4dR+l, 39

4. ^FfT: ^EFR^FT: nR^Rqdl: I

96
 There are different views of acharyas about the numbers of the
elements out of which this subtle body is formed.
Suvarnsaptati admits that there are seven elements in the subtle
body i.e. budhi, ahankara and five tanmatras/ Gaudpada adding one
more elements asserts eight elements.12 3
Vijnanabhikshu along with his disciple Bhavanganesh is of the
view that subtle body has seventeen elements that are budhi, manas, five
sense organs, five action organs and five tanmatras, ahankara ; is
cosidered under mahat
Vijnan Bhikshu gives reference in his support from Mahabharata
1-135/15-16.

1. i sender i
n3[yid-mdiwrarftT i

U,dlPl TJVn I
'■qyhjRicdfl chif^chi. vo.
\

2. ?r^r-'H^^iR ^1 <1 tpt -^r

TJoyEt d—HldlRl (^W:) Tffe- Vo.

3. (*f>) ?r?r 'dklct^l lelVJI I...........

TFcT^?T I
3^d;<*>K^rM ^^l^cil-d'dFd: I

(%) feiVJIH, I

TV

97
 Jaymangla assumes eighteen elements in the subtle body as budhi
ahankar, eleven organs (indriyas) and five tanmatras.
Subtle body is the first creation so it was alone, none was to
accompany2 it, no attachment with anybody, no hinderance, no
disturbance in moving to either side. If there was any company, it may
cause hinderance. It may enter in the hardest seed, rock, mountain and
3
substance and also can enter in to the minutest body as louse.
Subtle bodies are many4 and it is created for every purusa. Each
purusa has its own subtle body and it remains with purusa from the very

1. H£4ll4 tattFTM cTSTSTT: ^VdHipdH I

^TWTcTT ddPxH, Vo.

2. (^) dlVl<*>lPd->l 40

(%) i gPd’cfifHi 40
(j\) d dUdd I 4F>lR=M 40
(et) I <Pd4l 40

3. (^) i

5^4114*1 '*lft*l,.40
(%) i
^fhpMdxd ^bj4t 40
(^t) sra%gdy*K wdrT i
*7lP*l 40

4. d;3u4*iPi yifkiPl I
^Rd4114*i *iR*i, 39

98
beginning of the universe unto the dissolution of the manifestation into
its cause that is prakrti
Gaudpada says that subtle body remains with purusa until purusa
realises itself and ignorance perishes. The purusa becomes enlightened
and the subtle body vanishes.
2
Yuktidipika points about eight type of prana. These are
enumerated as WTd 'yiuiNidddidl^R^Fri': qo{ddmd: rt:

qqi'41 dFT here drq; includes the entire set of motor organ and
manas. The sensory organs pur is ahankara the cosmic principle from
which proceeds the bifurcation of the realities into two heads one
psychical and the other is physical. It is the fount of all psychophysical
impulse.

1. ) Ptiidlhcq^ yfadidiRl i 40
(^t) dfcT I dlVldvd Vo.

(tt) dTdd, dFTgdTSFf dTdd; I tfteqi^n^TT 40

2. ) q^i^cq^qr wroi w^rram q^ddidcj

(Tr) "whenever the bodily system in its natural course is going to be exhausted of
any such impulse it then refills the same from the backgroud. This why it is
called "5^ (q^dTUd ltJT) that fills unlike the material body. These eight
constituents (qwpspq) are not subject to penetration, combustion or decay.
They retain their existence up to the end of a cycle of creation. They
transmigrate. They are to be treated as the supports of the purusa in the
course of his migration from one body to another."
Origin and dvelopment of the samkhya system of thought
by. Pullin Bihari P.269, to P.270
99
 Among the three types of bodies one is avishehsa and other two
are vishesha. Tanmatras are called avishesha. Some anlyse ci-hi?uPi as
cTP%T d-HidiPT and some other analyse as ^tt ^tt dTdT qpud
and these are only grasped by yogies only. Though these tanmatras are
avishesha but Sankhya-tattvakaumadi considered them as vishesha .
Argument is given as the state and properties of senses (indriya) santa,
ghora, mudha can be experienced by us in every day life so they are
considered as vishesha.
Subtle body can experience the fruits of previous action through
the medium of gross3 body. As without the action of organs no action
can be done and the actions are attached to the developed gross body.
Samkhya-Tattvakaumadi points out that subtle body enters and leaves
the gross body again and again because subtle body

1. d'-Hls’HWjfaSl'HI: dP^T cb|ft<*>|. 38

2. ?TFd dlT ^tPPsi t| dPd cl cd I fe $| t>l I

dTWddd d^cfT. Vo.

wftdFdTdn Pi <c(cMyic^Kd)cLlRiy<Hd: I

chlRchl, 40

4. (a) w; dPPrT i
dk<ddv=i ppFjifr 40
(b) dd; mfk didiP^d dTpprhnPrd

Prm srdw^rrq; PnPj dd?f ddPPtnT i

PfeqKWST cfi'iRcH. Vo.

100
cannot itself experience the fruits ; so it enters the gross body to have
the consequential results of merits and demerits of action.
Though subtle body is unable to experience but it is called
'JTTTrPidiPidH, bhavas are of eight kinds dharma, adhrma, jnana, ajanan,
vairagya, avairagya, aisvarya, anaisvarya. These Bhavas are not
directly related to our body, they are related with budhi. Every action is
decided by budhi, budhi is the part of subtle body so all bhavas are
always attached to subtle body. So subtle body is called mtrR<31 Pid H,
Vacaspati asks that at the time of dissolution the lei-sHi^ifk dissolve into
its cause means in prakrti ’em ifct ieidJM-p.
Objection is raised that at the time of dissolution prakrti remains
constant but why should not this subtle remain constant. According to
samkhya system that the effect is born of cause, ^T^AfrT so what is
liable to be born is liable to destroy. So subtle body is also the effect of
the cause so it must disslove into its cause. Subtle body must dissolve in
pradhana.3

1. W: w; dTPrT -stTIt Aijiwcm' PTtt

fA^nrPT WTTTTFtTc^ mt! 1
Tih. vo.
2. (^) SRfsnf WTWFT <*TFrr: ctqf^raT

Ibid. vo.
(m) nftttF ■dlddlci, yulRPuPidiPid^ 1
'^P-dTlPdd cbiR+i. 40

3. m rqyiRrd w Pi^rrdPiPi 1

'<ak^f?Tr5f -TPlPl. Vo.

101
 "The expression sad siddhi is little known to the students of
samkhya. Barring a few instances in the yuktidipika, it does not occur
anywhere else in other existing treatise of samkhya.1'' It presumes six

accomplishing powers those are

1. Power of will sankalpasiddhi 2. Power of vision dristi siddhi
3. Power of speech vak siddhi 4. Power of touch by hand hast siddhi
5. Power of clasping aslesa siddhi 6. Power of mutual friction dvanda
siddhi.
Before the creation there was only sat and that had will power to
get things produced at the demand of his will so there was the creation
without the other partner or without any sexual play . With the passage
of time will power lost its power so the creation was made by only a
wistful amorous glance between the partners as the female tortoise
conceives by casting a glance at the partner without the mutual sexual
combination.
When the power of vision lost its effect causing the required
result. The power of speech came to produce required effect as the female
conch4 conceives an issue only by uttering a shrill of sound. Then comes

1. Origin and development of the samkhya system of thought.

by Pullinbehari Chakravarati P.284.
2. qTuff yiPni
kiu| i

^fpTd I 39-

3. yr-oedhcH PJSSTRW l Ibid 39.

4. yiPldl yR^tsPd d4l9KUpd.......

R^rfcf i Ibid 39.

102
the force causing the partner instigating of enjoyment, the female
partner becomes pregnant. Then comes the power of touch. They enjoy
the love of touch which causes pregnancy to the female partner.
Again when the power of touch is lost the power of embracing"
began working and the lovers yield special gratification. Lastly
origination of progeny is made possible by gross sexual intercourse. All
these six ways of creation were invariable and infallibly effective owing
to preponderance of sattva.
With the loss of all these power of origination and the rise of
guna, ahankara and tamas, the mode of creation by means of an
infallible cause of production of issue has gained currency. At this stage
the sense of this is 'mine', this is 'mine'1
4 2which
3 creates ignorance of
attachment causes thejiva to come to migration.
"A similar couplet found in Mahabharta.
u'ebe-MivTxjHiifAi i

ctt^t i i XV 30.22-5
Here Vedavyasa explains before Kunti. The fact that there are
personalities of divine order who beget off-springs by

1. AwwqrfnT)fArHfAi i uRd 4114^1 <hiR<+>i 39

C <3 O

2. 'Snf&FT £Rud cW% I Ibid 39

3. I Ibid 39.

4. dh9 dhI Ibid 39.

5. Origin and Development of the Samkhya System of thought P.266

103
will, by speech, by sight, by touch and by sexual intercourse. It is
interesting to note that barring aslesasiddhi all the remaining five siddhi
have been mentioned in this couplet. "
Sivetasvetaropnishad speaks the same idea of siddhis, by means
of imagination, touch, sight and passions and by the abundance of food
and birth and development of bodies self. According to his deeds the
2
embodied one successively assumes forms in various conditions.
The fact has come to highlight that six fold siddhi is genrally
confined to the superior order of creation where sattva is prevailing in
dominance. Human beings having the sattva elements acquire certain
qualities. With the rise of rajas element the sexual appetite also develops.
Vindhayavasin refutes the existence of subtle body. According to
him senses (indriya) are omnipotent, omniscient. They migrate to the
womb and get gross body. Separation from the gross body is
death so there is no need of subtle body. 3

1. Origin and development of the samkhya system of thought

By. pullin Bihari Chakrvati P.286

2. i

o o o

3. f^cdiRPstuiuii cffxRcjw
civdifl J-i<ui±p | dy-ni-hrRyi i

•o
39-

104
 Panchadhikaran is of the view that the subtle body enters into the
womb at the time of sexual enjoyment and gross body from the parent
semen and blood1 and begin to develop with gradual process. When it
gets full nourishment, senses develop to full expansion and then it
comes out from mother's womb, and it begins to experience the fruits of
its previous actions. When his previous karmas come to an end the gross
body vanishes.2 Subtle body, according to his actions, is led to either
side if there are good actions he is taken to the higher upper world and if
actions are bad he is led to the lower place to yoni of birds and insects.3 4
If the actions good and bad are mixed equal he takes human body.
Patanjali has different view about subtle body and gross body.
Patanjali asserts the creation of subtle body and gross body
simultaneously. According to Patanjali there are many subtle bodies and
not one, first subtle body takes the senses (indriya) to brijadesa from
there according to previous deeds, it takes the purusa to higher place or
lower place of hell and then vanishes away. Then according to action of
jiva it gets another subtle body and it takes the indriyas to the

1. QiCk 'Micirlh^-HAT+iA yjsbyilRidrp i

frPT. 39

2. umyH i
chRch 39-

3. ^ crtT ^-iyifRui i
^Kprrwpf ffffj 41 1A err i
Ibid

4. i

Ibid 39

105
bijadesa and vanishes away and then the next subtle body is created. In
this way a cycle of subtle bodies goes on so there are many subtle
bodies but not one.

(c) Body on Samkhya

Second type of body is gross body that is formed through the
semen of father mixing with the blood of mother in the womb."
Yuktidipika explains the generation through the parents is of two types'
(1) born from the womb (2) bom from the egg. This body from father
and mother is six cased body {sat kausika).
System of six cases {sat kausika) is explained by different
commentator as follows :

1. Md-dddR^ dfcdfedUd P‘£H|[lT| 4W^i d'dfd dd"

dc^dWFTdWd; 9lddH3MH- dT ch^uilPt dT

dTWt Rtdd% I dd ^ dddldiRd dRRddTf'd

ddRr ddfh Pm del drOrdP' i

+ yi-CUlRl I uf+clTirUdd d9pd>l. 39-

1. (a) dTdTf^TdT: I
dk<dd>lRd9.

(b) i
Ibid. 3P
(c) ^TTdT fh^nrnfr Vi) Rid P *ftdTd < Pd:
9j*ft dRk^dmdd dr4Pd i

(d) didilh^di: md i
di^dxd'TldTl.
o ^9,.

(e) yjdW?lRldd9)J|: dlRR dlfdfct |

^ufdklP: cHRd>|. ^o.
106
 (^) Hl^l;
H^IM: RcRT: I I
JHI6<dfr1
>»*■

^t¥T: eil ^f^l W iR^Nd I^Jsbe1ST°TT: I

cT5T ^TT^TT: ^f^T:,

srRsr ^cf: i ^f^r^rf^T -chlRc^i 39,

(r) TTRTrf^prr: ^

cRT HIcK?) cTlddiRd RrenRr

fh^RT: <H|iidRM±-WH: I
tfsfh f^mi:, ft: ^jet vrtU^ *n<=£1Ri^"^qR^sR^Td; r
^TWTcTT **>lRehl

(%) ^ th efl^HcilRcl’HI'HlPl
fh^d -ir^M I M3 Rq U ^ I ^
ifft ^nz; ^m-. ^rRoqdTd

(^) T^xTRRTFTT^Rr Rrf%UT mcRdl:

■^shddRsftRr Rrf^anr: ft^prr: i?

^cjufdrHR: '^iRdd ^9,

We have seen views of different commentators mentioned above,

about TST3 d^Ri^ systems. No two writers have the same idea. There
may be any supposition constituents but it is true that this body is

107
created through parents semen and blood yuktidipika accounts eight
cases (asat kausika) adding two more ashit and pit1. *
Gaudpada admits in addition to six cases two more ashit and pita
as rasa. He asserts ashit and pita as rasa instead of case (dmte). The
subtle body then is nourished through the umbilical cord by the
nutriment derived from the food and drinks received by the mother.
The entire body, thus commenced with the threefold ingredients :
of the subtle elements, body from parents, and the gross elements,
become nourished with back, belly, legs, neck, head, and the rest are
enveloped3 in its sixfold membrances, is provided with blood, flesh,
tendons, semen, marrow and bones and is composed of the five gross
elements.4 Six fold envelops are so enveloped as a silkworm is wrapped

1. d^diRid Thtnrdh< i

41R d-* i. 39-

dlRpMHLHlSSHMIud I

SHlRehi.

S.K. Commen K.K.Tripathi pub. Grantham kanpure 1974

P.147 Line -21
3. I ^I'Rdd. 39.

4. HIo[y\ 'dfldT did<M IdyjsHR^FTvjrvjj |

'MR'M cAJUpMIdl "STo I-d fp|HlTl

C

108
in by its own saliva. Thus wrapped that they are not free. Every fold
works under the mechanical order or system of nourishment and
development.
Gaudpada gives the explanation of five gross elements and their
properties. Ether being supplied for its cavaties or extension, air for its
growth, fire for its nutriment, water for its aggregation and earth for its
stability1 2and thus being equiped with all its components, it comes forth
from the maternal womb. In this way these are three types of bodies.
Yuktidipika draws the meaning of prabhuta in addition to this
viviporous creation, there are numerous creations those are from plants
and also germinated through sweat are called prabhutani.3
Samkhya-tattvakaumadi gives the meaning ofprabhutani in terms
of five gross elements from which the third type of body is formed.4

1. 3444^X444^1414, ’414^4

MI44<y 3TFT: '-a'TTBRE TjErfr fclKUII^ I

Ml44|t>4 SFlft'chl 3k

2. 444lhd I
Ibid 3 k

3. ^4 *419 4 I

^,R-dcflfl44 4-4f<44. 39

4. wiPi ■^yrrRr ‘snjjnf^r' i

<rU<PMOT44Tl-|j)4l-^<?>.

109
 Subtle body is constant, permanent and remains with purusa
unless and until purusa is not enlightened, but gross perishes with the
death and every element melts away with its root cause.1
Yuktidipika asserts that the divine embodiment have their bodies
of four types.2 The first type of body is directly begotton from pradhana
e.g. paramarishi Kapila and Viranch. The second is due to spiritual
power as in the case of the sons of Brahman and his grand sons. The
third type is the creation of the combination of parents, such as sons of
Aditi and Kashyapa. The fourth is from either of the parents singly from
male member only, as in the case of Vasistha who is said to have born
of Mitra and Varuna. Human creation as a matter of general rule, is due
to the joint cooperation of the male and female partners both, born from
the womb of mother.
Yuktidipika says that there may be exceptions in which someone

1. UR11 ftp'll ffct, WFdT ^TT WTFtTT ^ %% I

2. ^ ^dldl ^T£TT LKHSffTRotdHI I

dRdfe«TT W 3uI: yd|U|| ?r^ Hd'4dTJ|i I

TtraT fh^dt Wrsf^A: ^ R-'delljJ'l

fhqdi fh“d(c)^uii«ff dRiixb'bM i

3. Ud>^l|U||^ ^ I
Ibid 39

110
may come into existence by spiritual power1 as in the case of Drona,
Krpa, Dhrsta-dyumn and such other personalities who are said to be
born by dharam-shakti.
Yuktidipika, also gives the detail of creation of universe as there is
a creation of viviporous as cow and other like and bom out of egg as
birds, production of earth as plants gross etc. and insect created out of
sweat.2

Conclusion
Though life is a mixture of joy and sorrow but we are generally
facing three kind of pains adhyatmika, adhibhautika and adhidivikas
Samkhya wants to have complete cessation of all types of pains without
a possibility of return it is the ultimate end, the summum bonum of our
life.
The cause of suffering is ignorance and non-recognition of
discriminating knowledge (viveka) between the prakriti and purusa
when a man realizes its real self, it becomes liberated.

*nqT sfm sps: I

efnft-cfVT. 39

2. ^ iTm hu-sm %r ■qf^wnp i

Ibid 39
111
YOGA SYSTEM
Introduction
All the orthodox systems of Indian philosophy have one goal in
view, the liberation of the soul through perfection which is achieved
only through direct perception. Samkhya and yoga are closely related.
Samkhya covers the theoretical part whereas yoga is the practical aspect
of all philosophies. "The really important character of the yoga consists
in its teaching that, however true the samkhya philosophy may be, it
fails to accomplish its end without those practical helps which the yoga
philosophy alone supplies."1 It is the philosophy of experimentation.
It is the only system in which there is no room for debate. It is a
way of analysis and synthesis of the physical and the metaphysical
universe.
All the world philosophical system including samkhya and
vedanta have their theoretical aspects but in general sense yoga includes
all philosophies, their means and methods. Man is no longer satisfied
with his intellect, the reasoning machine, that brings no answer to his
search for the truth. It is not foolishness to search for truth with an
instrument as limited as the intellect to attempt to measure the unknown
fathoms of eternal questions, the purpose of life. So long as one's
wandering mind runs externally towards the worldly objects, one cannot
come face to face with truth. For real knowledge of truth and answers
for all such questions come only when the mind and senses are still and
steady.

1. The six systems of Indian philosophy by F. MaxMullar P-315

112
Etymology of Yoga
The word Yoga is formed from the root 'yuj'. According to
Panini's grammar, ^ is derived from three different 'ganas'.
1. from divadi gana and 'Atmnepadi'
2. = y ii nA from curadi gana and 'Ubhayapadi'
3. = ffpf strt from 'rudhadi gana and Ubhayapadi'
Here yuj is used for meaning wrsft with vjo^pratyaya is justified
by Vacaspatti Mishra and Vijnan Bhikshuf According to Vyasa word
yoga and samadhi are synonym.

Definition of Yoga
Patanjali himself gives the definition of yoga as to restrain the
mind-stuff from taking the various forms. To understand this sutra we
have to know the chitta as well as vrttis. According to Vacaspati Mishra
chitta is antahkaran as buddhi. Vijnana Bikshu is of view that

1. ^ ^RTsfr
O ^
?tx^yiKcfi

2 . <3 ^ <3 MU\U\ PpT:

dPMilfhb. ?.?•

3. PPT: PpT^?T ^n*mT<ST, ?.?. V

4. UPlf^Tl'jdvlPl <l£T: Ppi^,

5. lTt'riyi®4'1 Kd:ch<ui I

avcl2|yiK<h<^?l. ?.?•

113
generally chitta and antahkarana is one and the same organ but
according to him Chitta is of four kinds, obviously they will be manas,
buddhi, chitta and ahankara.
Nagojibhatta is also of this view that 'chitta' is antahkarana as
buddhi, ahankara and manas. The impression that falls on the
antahkarana2 makes forms and modifications with the closeness of
pursa are called vritties but Vacaspatti Misra thinks that dissimilarity
and heterogenous quality of gunas is the root cause of condition of
chitta.

Types of Chitta :
Chitta is of two classes: cosmic and individual, cosmic chitta is
all pervading like ether, (akasha), individual chitta are as many as the
individual living entities. Each living organism has a chitta connected
with it, cosmic is the cause and individual is the effect.

tflJMlftfefr ^5T. ?.R.,

2. ciwniril 'c|
o
PlTTST Pm chi' ^TTiT IcJTsf: I

3. rrqfmfL) f%Tv^r Pr^TprfrpTrRT Jjy|Mi

kij-5^ui ncmfePiqRuiiq

4. The text book of yoga psycology by Rammurti S. Misra P.61

114
Vrttis and Bhumies of Chitta

There are five vrttis of chitta, some are painful and some are not
painful, i.e. 1. Right cognition (pramana), 2. Wrong cognition
(viparyaya), 3. Verbal cognition or imagination (Vikalpa), 4. Absence of
cognition or sleep (nidra), and 5. Memory (smrti). Right cognition is of
three kinds : (a) perception (pratyaksa), when the chitta, through the
sense-organs, comes into contact with the external object, and assumes
its form, or comes into contact with the internal mental state, (b)
inference (anumana), when the chitta cognizes the generic nature of
things, and (c) verbal testimony (shabda). Viparyaya is positively wrong
knowledge like that as a rope-snake, vikalpa is mere verbal cognition
like that of a hare's horn. Nidra is called absence of cognition, yet it is a
mental modification because after sleep a person says 'I slept sound and
knew nothing and therefore there must be some mental modification to
support this absence of knowledge. Smrti is the recollectoin of past
experience through the impression left behind.

1. WFllf^ H14+C-MPi £ I^dil: I

2. IH H\HI: ^RWlPl |

Ibid 1.^9

115
One must have to control these five vrttis. These can be controlled by
practice and non-attachment and kriya-yoga. Those who are less
intelligent they should apply the method of astang yoga. By practising
astang yoga everybody can attain samadhi. Going into samadhi leads
the purusa to emancipation. Human being will become free from cycle
of birth and all kind of misery and pain.

Bhumies of Chitta
The State of mind is called bhumi, which are five in number1, 2
kshipta, mudha, vikshipta, ekagra and nirudha kshiptah. In triad
qualitative chitta, rajas guna is dominating, sattva and tamas are in
subordinate position, Rajas guna is of creative nature. This state is
called kshiptah. In this state chitta is driven towards various senualities.3
This is a restless state. This is ascertained by the commentators

1. Met fbrr I

2. TW: i Ibid

3. (%) tci<hi imuihru-d i

(qr) f^rqf felled ffrmg; i

116
Vacaspati and Vijnana Bhikshu. Vacaspati Misra thinks that the chitta
of kshiptah bhumi is the most unstable. This type of chitta is of the
people of demon nature similar is the view of Ramanandi.1
Mudha : This bhumi is tamas2 3 dominated state and mixed of sleep
nature. Ramana Dayate considers it the state of Rakshasa people.
Vikshiptah (changeable): It is a distracted state in which chitta becomes
unstable on account of many mental disorders. This state is Rajas
dominated and due to some unstability it is called vikshiptah. It becomes
stable for some time intermittently as in the view of Vacaspati Misra4
but Vijnan Bhikshu is of the view that it is an excess of sattva gunas.

1. T^raTSciFTt ^TcT f^rV I

^5r.(

2. ^cd d-H: sU^Frl-Hc^ I

3. cFraT i
^r.( ?.?.

4. Pi^'Rlf4rch: '3?£p:TT I
'did4yiK41. \X-,

f^Tdr UI U l-d <l-d <1 P^I-MI-d <cjRl H<y I

TdicufT^,

117
Ekagra (Single-pointedness) : Single-pointedness state is filled with
sattva. The active energy of rajas takes control over the inertia of tamas
and flows towards sattva. This is the reason why chitta can be
concentrated on any of the matter.1 Vijnan Bikshu and Ramanandayati
has justified it and this the very atmosphere where samprajnat samadhi
2
may be performed.
Nirudha This state of chitta is absolutely purified. The flow of matter
is checked and restricted, only the pure flow of conscious of light
becomes continuous and constant like a mighty current of electricity.
This state is clearly and completely distinguished from the other
four vrttis because in other state however in any shape there remains
vrtti of any type but in this state all vrttis have been emerged in their
basic situation absolutely and only remains impressions (uVm<)
as justified by the two commentators. 3 This state can be

1. wf fird

^TTr f^TSfzr ^RFfRI-

^^dyddddHT’-ddd'ddd fd dfddMTlHdc^ I

4PidiPfV qq\

2. q rrwsjtT fT^Ppsmf^t f%r%

TdfdMl^filPi <1ET: I

qq ?.?.

3. (^) fd <3«S.dd->d<|fdch dVtd <dld^ldfdd fd I

qq\ ?.?.
fd R Pi d«5.<rld>d'^fdch dtdd <dldyldfHrd'T: I

RTdlRPf. qq\

118
achieved by those yogis who have restrained even the vritti of Vivek
Jnana Khyati ?tft wiff1
Prakrti gets its work done through chitta so chitta may be called
panorama. Chitta has dissimalarity, heterogeneous of its attribution. It is
inanimate material but by the nearness of purusa it seems as it is
animate and conscious. Seeming likeness of chitta and purusa is the root
cause of misery2.
Composer of the 'sutra' has used the word yoga for both
samparagyat3 and asampragyat samadhi. 4 Bhojdeva5 and Harihara
Arany6 also supported the word yoga and samadhi used for the same
purpose.

1. <1^ r^TfWRt: Wtffd: I

2. ^nTht i
fibr ■gw,
3. yi4cMl2chlrJHci^lS^'Hdl I
Ibid, ^ A.
4. (^) cTT ^ I

Ibid,
(m) ciwihi fAftsf -h4Pv<iiPhi
Ibid .
5. o ^
^roTsit 3T^rl%sirei
o
i

6. A ^'Ubll'ycfEfTszr %T: TT3T ^PRT?ft ^fcT

O *s
I

■hhaAI ^, cc

119
Classification of Candidates of Yoga
Though Patanjali has applied systematic and scientific approach
towards yoga but has not categorized the candidates' state or capability
of yoga-practioner which we have to collect from commentaries as
'yoga-sar-sangrah'. Deserving candidates of meditation are divided into
three classes1 (i) The high (ii) The medium (iii) The low.

For the Candidate of First Category

The high (yogarudha) One who has already gone through the
external preliminary means of stages in his previous lives, at once rises
to the state of meditation without waiting again for the fulfilment of the
primitive conditions e.g. Jadabharata.2
He who has excellent ability should follow the path of practice
and detachment. They need not undergo the yogic discipline and
external aspect of yoga.4

1. ffruTfs} <*> i R.u?l i

2. Tier tt dDi
WHdUl dpT dPlI^I:, W ^t^RPTT^T: I

Ibid
3. (^) d-duil^i^iRun^ sr^rpt trpxr dlJidl: i
XTPTdT^fb. R.'RC.

(^r) sr«ira^<iiui«rt dPH fist: i

xrm\ ^r,
4. xrrrrmipfw-P-55.
120
Classification
There is a continuous flow of modification in the mind. The great
commentator Vyasa symbolises the mind as a stream. The stream flows
towards both sides, good as well as evil, that is external and internal.
Flow of external side leads to one self, to the worldly objects, and
ultimately pushes him to evil. Flow of internal side leads him to
detachment and desirelessness. Desirelessness does not mean the
absence of desire to their causes. Checking or pressing of desire does
not mean of chitta-vriti-nirodha, modifications must be observed and
their causes be removed so they may not arise again.
The modification of chitta can be restricted or checked by
practice and detachment.2 Practice and detachment do not stand
separetely. They are interdependent. The more you practise the more
you are detached and vice versa and less you practise the less you are
detached.
What is the real nature and process of practice.
Practice is the effort at steadiness in mind.3 The efforts of
continuous struggle to obtain steadiness and to keep them perfectly

^rr ^tt i

^rrR-wmTTsf^^f^sprrr fT^rrqi ii

2. 3T*Um3<|JUI'«Tf clF^TlST: |

3. ?r?r ^fts^TRt: i Ibid

121
restrained is called practice. " The mind becomes steady, calm and
restrained by the constant repetitive practice of mental, physical and
emotional control, this is a struggle but the reward is a pure bright mind
with a power of concentrative focus instantly available."1

Second Classification of Candidates

Yoga for the second grade or mediocre persons. Mediocres follow
2
the kriya yoga, the yoga-practice.

Kriya yoga
Having described the yoga for those whose minds are already
inclined towards trance cognition, now kriya- yoga is introduced for the
persons who have restless, disturbed and distracted mind. Union and
identification with cosmic consciousness cannot be obtained by those
whose minds are not self disciplined and purified. The souls are
congested and distracted by various impurities of previous actions.
The primary requirements for kriya yoga are 1. Tapah (austerity)
2. Swadhyaya (self contemplation or self study of scriptures) 3. Ishwara
pranidhana, (complete dedication to our lord.)

1. Patanjli raja yoga by R.S. Gherwal P.19

2. (i) ■rwtt^P'mRun ?pt: ^RmHiRi i uIjmiRRk

(ii) crw i^rmpfr gwa: i 4bmK<u'iig. g.

ttsprtRi<+>iRu?)

topfrwi dbiaispng i
Ibid g.
3. ?PT: WSfFTTcIVyRlUM iR f^CTT dfrr; I ffpr 2-1-
122
1. Tapah : The word 'tapati has been translated as purificatory actions.
The word tapah has its roots in the term which means something that
burns up impurities. The impurity which is variegated by the aroma of
external actions and afflictions as mind is attached to worldly objects for
enjoyment and amusement, it causes the wastage of energy. So these
desires and lusts must be burnt. Impurities must be burnt by doing
selfless service and love to humanity. Purificatory actions must be done
in such a manner that they may not cause any hindrance to the
equilibrium of physiological forces.
2. Swadhyaya : Literally it means self study, study of holy scriptures
which consists of inquiry into the writings, sacred revelations and
instructions from a teacher. "But here swadhyaya means repeated
utterance of purifying word such as Om, study of physics and
metaphysics self-analytically and constant investigation of sentient force
which is operating in human consciousness as rewarding and punitive
force." There must be complete surrender of individual consciousness
to cosmic consciousness.
3. Ishvara Pranidhana : Complete dedication to lord, the highest
teacher is the ishwara to whom all our actions are to be dedicated. This

1. d^d Ud d d-dcl I

2. (i) The text book of yoga psychology p. 170 Line-20

(ii) WW: dfqf -JTTswilTdisqxpf c|T |
WRT

3. ’yTfT.diuii i Ibid
123
dedication should be selfless. There should be no desire for its fruition ,
The complete renunciation of fruits.

Cause for applying Kriya Yoga12 3 4

Application of kriya-yoga may help in removing klesha
(affliction) and to discover identity with Cosmic Consciousness.
Afflictions are attenuated to an extreme degree by kriya yoga that they
become unproductive and the mind is never disturbed or touched again
by such afflictions and they are arrested in seed form. Later by the fire
of intuitive knowledge of purusa and prakriti these seeds are burnt up
and one becomes absolutely free from these afflictions.

Nature of Kleshas
All kleshas are afflictions, causing hindrances and disturbing the
mind, they are obstacles in the path of yoga, they are the result of
incorrect perception, and lead personality to the lower nature. "Lower
nature brings new afflictions. Thus their vicious circle comes into
motion." Kleshas have been enumerated as five by Patanjali in his
Yoga darshan : 1. Avidya or nescience 2. Asmita or conceit and egoism
3. Raga or attachment 4. Dvesa or malice, avarice. 5. Abhinivesa or the
over-intruding fear of death.
Avidya, nescience or ignorance is the cause of all other "four
apprehensions also. These kleshas are some times latent (prasupta)

1. cTc'-FeT-H'-UHl I ‘JTFST, %T. Tfyt. AT

2. 'FPTffif -umrT: Ibid. 2-2-

3. The text book of yoga physchology P. 173

4. M-ddAyii: i 2.3.
124
sometimes feeble (tannu) on some occassions diffused or subjugated
(Vicchinna) and very often aggressive and prominent (udara)"
Ignorance is admitting the non-eternal as eternal, the impure as
2
pure the painful as the pleasant and not self as self.
And thus, avidya (nescience) asmita (egoism) raga (likes) dvesa
(dislikes) and abhinivesa (fear of death) are the five acknowledged
kleshas or apprehensive troubles. They have to be uprooted entirely of
course, if one can, or at least, they have to be minimised.
" The entire uprooting is very difficult as many of these klesas are
caused by our previous actions. They have to be remedied at their causal
points as they are deep-rooted in the soil of consciousness. They take
several life cycles to get eradicated and in some cases not even then." If
the kleshas are not completely uprooted they would lead to three results
jati, ayur, bhoga.
So long as the root, the store house of karma exists, there must be
fruition. Author explains that the fruition ripens in three forms, class of
living being length of life srrg, various kinds of experience

1. fteKiun*f i

Abr. ^jT.2.4.

2. 3tP cbt:wv-ti c-h ^ yjP i sscnwiiftTfen i

Ibid ^ A.
3. Patanjli Raja yoga by Swami Satya Parkash Saraswati
P.33-34

4. dP dpHIch)

%T. ^5T. 2.13.

125
 So the root cause of all faults, affection, aversion and the like is
false know ledge1 2or ignorance. "Ignorance being destroyed by means of
the direct perception of the discernment of the self from non-self. Other
troubles attendant upon (ignorance) are also destroyed.

"And thus there being no cause left, the effects, virtues and vices
cease to be produced ; and the residue of actions whose fruition has not
yet commenced cease to bring about their effects, because in the shape
of troubles. The actions whose fruitification has already commenced are
destroyed only by experience i.e. only when their effects have been
experienced by the agent. The fructifying residue having been
2 • •
exhausted. There is no further cause for rebirth." And this is what
means liberation the extirpation of pain.

1. TmirHI-.n! ^ lPdPid'-£FTT: i

2. n.
: ^fo TFT WFC
~\

126
For candidate of third category-
Man belonging to third1 category with the lowest aptitude must
have to apply the method of eight fold yoga. The man of slow-wit is not
to follow other methods, practice and non-attachment, these methods are
2
covered automatically by Ashtangyoga.
Maharishi Patanjali gives eight fold limbs or eight stairs to attain
the perfection in yoga. They are
1. yama : Strong will power for restraint.
2. Niyama : Strong will or observance and application of truth.
3. Asana : physical and mental exercise including posture.
4. Pranayama : Breathing control
5. Pratyahara : Channalisation of mental activities
6. Dharana : Concentration of mind.
7. Dhyana : Contemplation.
8. Samadhi: Transcendental super-consciousness

1. 3Tct: -qr -uiJiymniPi i

■4Pmi1T<+. R.Rt.

2. (^)
Hl-U'ClU'+clUI |

TMAUdJ............■^rrSFT i

4fPMllT+.

127
 The first five links belong to bahiranga yoga i.e. external yoga
while the latter three is called antaranga the internal yoga.
Yama is derived from the word root Ppt means restraining
and controlling. "Yamas are great ethical disciplines transcending creed,
place, age and time. The great commandments are the rules of morality
for society and individual, which if not obeyed cause chaos, violence
untruth stealing- dissipation and covetousness. The roots of these evils
are the emotions of greed, desire and attachment...... Patanjali strikes at
the root of these evils by changing the directions of one's thinking along
the five principle of yama.' Patanjali calls them mahavaratas. In some
books yama's are of ten counts.5

1. -vicWR-srTTvmzmr i

2. Patanjli yogadarshana
by Swami brahamlin Muni P.274
3. Light on yoga (yoga Dipika)
by B.K.S. Iyenger P.31 Line -25, 1993

%r. Tjyr ^.3?.

p. dsUdT gPTT $11 Pci g; hi’ dril'Hcn'rche11 I

4UVUPi XTRT: ^feTT: I I

(Hldotuid frPT TTcf ^FTTeiHH I <4-1+ 3T?2rcFT I

by Pawan kumari Gupta P.48

128
Yama
Yama has been further sub divided into five parts.’

1. Ahimsa- Non-Violence
2. Satya- Truthfulness in thoughts, words and deeds and abstention from

false hood
3. Asteya - Non-stealing
4. Brahamcharya - Continence
5. Aprigraha- Abstinence from over loading oneself with luxuries.

Ahimsa
One should not cause any injury either by action or by speech but
avoid any kind of mental and physical injuries to others and their
feelings.1
2 Vyasa ascertains that ahimsa is the foimdation of yama group,

1. ^FTT: I

frPT 30.

2. (i) ddlR'dl rtTR" 413 A RR ttct srT; |

'5TnT
(ii) cTdlftH-TI SliRMHrite: 1

*1 :, ■R. ^ o.

(iii) ddlBAl-RtTrtT r4At 1 HfdsfId: I

ffpRJR, WTRRFR-.

(iv) dddl RrtTT rT W<$dI I

Mldrll cdlBdl RRRfSff^t: I I

%1WW. TT.

129
without practising it, it is difficult to practise other dictates.
There may be some unavoidable circumstances such as doing
house hold duties2 in which killing of germs and insects may be
possible. To avoid the effect of killing3 these germs, commentators of
yoga sutra suggest to perform pranayam etc. according to religious
dictates.
When it comes to perfection or consummation in ahimsa in a
devotee, atmosphere is filled with love and affection. Even the animals
having inherent enmity give it up.

1. uhPiuhi[?dfsm<d5 d

dcyfTlKd Id I

2. 3rr^ ^fsrufhrr i
r.^o.

3. ..................

wnwnrrf^t dcMiHsrrctdw fWdddi 1^14dl4Ei i

Ibid r.^o.

4. 3f%^T dcdPddf 5 <cd|J|: I

4et

130
Satya
Speech must be in uniformity and harmony with ones mind. Any
matter or thought which is clear to you through perception, inference,
or by an authority must be conveyed in that sense, which you know,
without concealing anything is called satya. Beating about the bush or
trying to create any misconception is not satya. Where the speech is true
there it must be expressed in moderate language, not in rude manner.2
Speech should be clear, not creating any doubt. A famous
example in the Mahabharata is cited as Dronacharya asked Yudhisthira
whether Aswathama had died or not. Though death of elephant named
Ashawthama was true but what Dronacharya wanted to know was about
his son. Yudhistra's answer was not according to the mind of
Droanacharya. So,that was a lie. So speech must be true guessing other's
mind and should not be creating doubt. Speech should not be deceitful.

1. ■N
i
%rr ^ cjrrtrmTST, ^.3°.

2. ^IdPld W cTOT
dHId-dl,
O ;

Ibid
3. d- df^ddl WFm I
Ibid ^.^o.

dtd4yil<Tl. ^o.

131
If the speech does not give any knowledge that is untruth.1 Speaker must
be conscious that his speech should not be ambiguous or disgraceful to
others.2
Vague and ambiguous language which gives no clear clue of
object or is objectless and gives no knowledge to the hearers falls in the
category of untruth.
Truth is only truth when it does not injure any body and imparts
3
consoling impression on the others.
In life some times it so happens that telling of lie saves a man's
life or it becomes beneficial then that untruth is not untruth rather is an
absolute truth.4
If it causes any harm to any body, you should not expose the
truth, it is better to act like a fool than to call a spade a spade. It is
Manu's saying.

1. yRmlvH-sm ^rr i

2. i
Ibid
3. rnsTT ^fcTT ^ I

%TT oqra-^TT^r,

■MlJNllcfch. ^.^o.

132
 By Practising satya man becomes strong-willed that no situation
or condition can make him uncontinent.
He who has practised truth, gets the power of speech, what he
says, becomes true.*
2

Asteya
Asteya is the third step amongyamas. According to Bhojadeva to
steal or to usurp other's property is steya and absence of these actions is
asteya .3 4
If any body, with his hard work earns anything or some sort of
property the money, according to the religious code of conduct, he is
right. He is not doing steya and if he takes away the money out of the
way of the religious tradition he is doing steya. Vacaspati Misra is of the
view that even anybody thinks of grasping any kind of property it is
called Asteya.

fSPT oM-Hf£)rt-4^ I
f^3[yr rtiyrrt ^rr^r spf: 44144: 1 1
<g4l['^ldlclch I
2. SrtfrtTTW 41J4 q P | 4pT ^ clTTrt 4TSJT,

3. cl^41u-4^ 1

4. (i) s(ci]|U|| T^f; I

4444^ 1H P) -M Pi P 1

4PT ^4 WT44F4, ^.^o.

(ii) 34%4 4^TS«T4dcr 44TS4T..... 4<fril 14 <41 Pi I Pi d'qP^Pl I

414 ffvt.

133
 When Asteya is established in the mind all kinds of gems appear. It
means practice of asteya is akin to appearance of all gems in the mind.
When one takes no interest in them they automatically come to him.

Brahamcharya :
Brahamcharya is a very important step for achieving yogic end. It
is the fourth step towards practising yama. Much has been written on
celibacy. Here in bhojavrti has been told that having control over the
sexual practice is called celibacy.1
2 3Vyasa also writes in his commentry
3
that having a control over sex-organs is called celibacy.
A good explanation has been given in Daksha-Samhita, not to
have only control over organs but control over thinking about woman, to
talk in isolation, joking and seeing indecent films secretly. All actions
regarding the sexual acts should be controlled.
Vacaspati Mishra also says that one should have control over
senses, i.e. not to see, touch and show love to any lady and not to do any

1. (i) fai'-enui i ffbT. ^r.

(ii) 'a4~R1 -rrmiMfPHyr <cdiPi 1 rpt.

2. W: I •RRT|fcr, ^.30.
3. Wt: I ^o.

C *N
bnruf qftrPf %fet: Ttepjf | |

f^RTT P|cjPpc| Tf I

RRjPrl TpflP|u|; | | ^af?dl I

(qid^d ulJieyFd snr^- ^t. f?im£l, ^

134
such action to provoke or intend to provoke sexual interest in other.
Definition of celibacy can not be put in one word or in one
sentence. As we have given a reference from Daksha-Samhita that there
are eight types of sexual acts, they all are put to be under control. Vijnan
Bhikshu has also given same view of controlling over senses leading to
lower grade.2
Celibacy gains much by establishing it.3

1. (i) AwPTPTtsfh %
cra'-EFWrefa Wt d;"~Rldl4ldd JI ktPjnP I
c* o

drdcpIK^l.
(ii) dldNlPl T^FffTFfflA ■*TFT: I
Uldotytel I y.^o.
(iii) 4V414 <1 4r % <5r^-id4u i
4tW?TR:
"O
rT:,1 y.^o.
(iv) 41414 fish % ,?i^.m4h> dfoH«i\ 14 <14914 wnsf <*^44 i
TTf^T M, ^>po.

2. (i) WT TTTW
44lH<da<rii -Tih<h, ^f4 etsr11!^ i
4b mi 14V ^.^o.
(ii) 4l4<d elTHIcydldlddPfdM Jiulld d'ld 14>UI
^iVVcchVlld 4Y4t Vl4f4 I 4b Ml 14V

3. ^-ci4yl4>v>Mi 414dm: i
4br

135
 " House holders are allowed to visit their wives once in a month
at the proper time without the desire of sexual enjoyment, but just for
the sake of preservation of progeny. If this rule is observed, then it
tantamounts to the practice of celibacy."
Brahamcharya is the substratum for a life in the atma.

Aparigarah : Absence of Avaricious

Aparigarah means non-attachment to material thing. It does not
mean to throw money away. It means that one should share his money
with others. "A man understand his earnings to be his own property but
this is not true. In his earning he has domestic, social, national and inter­
national, and other debts. If he does not pay them, he will create
disharmony and suffering."12 One is expected to have a life of Middle
Course and should not covet for too many possessions. "It is a path of
neither austerity to extremes nor luxuries beyond just approaching to
necessitties."3

Here, the last step of yama has shown the defects of avaricious.
One should not hold anything as necessary or i ndispensable for life.

1. Practical lesson in yoga P.23 Line -8

By Swami Shivananda
Pub. The Devine Life Society Shivanadanagan. 1978.
2. The text of book of Yoga-Pschology,
By Rammurti S. Mishra P.208.
3. Patanjali Raja Yoga P.55

136
Surplus things cause enjoyment to ourselves while causing inflictions to
other so one should avoid avariciousness.1

When there is perfection in aparigraha i.e absence of

avariciousness, man becomes satisfied with desire of knowing about his
2
life of past, present and future.

1. qfOjh fttaTss^n srfh iRdd

-qfttlF: 'Hb I <rl ISJ H c=l I fU<rM I

137
Niyama-
Saucha : Purification
Having after detailed explanation ofyama, Patanjali comes to the
next step i.e. Niyama for maintaining the mental level and the
purification of the inner consciousness a number of niyamas have been
introduced, like yama, niyamas are of five kinds.1 2Patanjali moves to
this stage before entering into the yogic-samadhi for the purification of
mind and soul.
Patanjali asserts that these five kinds of niyamas are helpful in the
purification of one's innerself. Yamas and niyamas are performed for the
purpose of attenuating afflictions and to clear the way for trance as
every step of action has its own significance in the field of achieving
trance.
Saucha means purification. Purification is of two types outer
purification and inner purification. External purification concerns with
body and clothes. Cleanliness of body and the cleanliness of clothes
have a significant role in maintaining the souls purification.
Here some methods are given to clean and purify our body and to
keep it free from any kind of dirt as it is believed that a dirty man cannot
become a yogi.
Body can be cleaned by earth, water and eating pure things, so
that impurity may not affect the mind. Commentator Vachaspati Mishra

1. pPWI: I

^PT ^5T.

2. ?f?r yfM <ullR I

138
considers cow-dung as a means of cleanliness of the body externally.
As since the time immemorial, the earthen floor is being plastered with
cow dung as thinking it the best method of cleaning the houses
External purification is also very important to keep oneself fit and
healthy. If proper care is not taken the impurities of various types may
adversely affect and the body will cause diseases. Diseased and weak
body would not be able to perform services of any kind religious, social
and so on to the humanity. So it is the foremost duty of every body to
keep one's body fit in all respects.
Inner purification : Inner purification1
2 means purity of heart, of mind, of
thinking, of desiring. There should be no ill desire or malafide attention
towards anybody. According to Vacaspati Mishra, the ego,
avariciousness, hatred, jealousy, haughtiness etc. are all impurities of the
innerself. To keep ouselves free from these impurities, some means
should be applied.
As Vijnan Bhikshu has explained in yoga-vartika that the mind is
the production of pure sattva guna with dominating position, tamas and
rajas subordinate position, so it must be pure, and covetousness, greed,
allurement, attachments are impurities of the mind. So these must be

1. arifAiAH Aiu-iiicmi vj^-d i

?Tc3%TTTcft. A3A

2. (i) 3Tr^Mkd< I
ffbT ^ cq-RT meat, A3A

(ii) iAxiHell: |
dv^yiKcf). A^A

139
removed by means of friendship.1 2etc. Bhasvati and Vacaspati Mishra's
also supported their views regulating impurities of mind unsacred-.
If any body does not care for the external cleanliness and any part
of body remains dirty, the man himself hates that part of body.3 4the
5

feeling of hatred is inherent in man which emerges under undesirable

situation.

Santosa : Contentment
Contentment means absence of desire . One should lead his life
and pass the time with least possible requirements and try to pass his
time within his means.3 Contentment means not to desire more. It does
not mean the complete negation. Contented man passes the time with
indispensable means.

1. f^rtr-w rtctT riJis^ikURlrti

3^-nhr-i1 rrsTTePT wr wrfrthtcwf:
o
i

2. f^vPTcTFTf &1d-i^ I

3. ^ 0-0
-qtTrtTrrf: I
%r ^9t. rvo.
4. W: sralsRlyii,
yflrtLbci ^rk-Miyi-M: I
ubMihho ^r. rvo.
5. ddkl: o
I
cimFr ^rn^r ^rtr ^
140
 It is generally admitted that a man becomes miserable when he
desires more and more and his greed crosses the limits. If a man does
not demand more, to what extent, we ask him to control his desires,
what are the least requirements of a man to lead a pure life. Vacaspati
Mishra has thrown light over this problem. He says that only necessary
requirements should be pursued to lead life.
Vijnana Bikshu has also supported this view and has asked to do
2
with the most indispensable things.
Vacaspati Mishra stresses on the point that a man becomes
contended only when he has practised the idea of aprigrah (non­
receiving). That is why the first step of yama has been explained. If one
has practised the rules of yama then alone he will be able to step
forward to the next.
Contentment does not mean that he should become satisfied after
receiving some powers. Contentment is not an obstacle in the way of
real goal, the emancipation. Ishwarkrishana is conscious of it so he
named the primary achievemnt as Tushti nine in numbers and

1. mvmTWT TTT?T I -H-dl<4: |

^r,

wa I fel ^1 cU '4: I

3. ^4,<uimjTcuiJiiRlcl ITsH: i

141
contentment is only for worldly things and for spiritual attainment.
Contentment cannot be found in acquiring the worldly objects of
pleasure. Worldly objects satisfy you for short time. They will not give
you happiness eternally but it is only contentment that will satisfy your
inner self,2 according to Vijnana Bhikshu.
In the Mahabharata and Vayu purana it is said that peace you get
in contentment is sixteenth times more in quantity than you get from
worldly objects or heavenly objects.4

1. 3TTU||l?JH<+iy^cl'y: C^l: I

T=r ^ctffrsf^FRTT: I I

=blR+l. HO.

2. o *K=MI*T:
o I

3. 11yRh-srimifPviHi W4il4<*>

drd 11T| <*4 Pi fairly I W UcUp'+pp I

Pi 4 41^1 +

4. cil<T f^cif <^<3^ i

^TT^'U qd *3 d ^n#ct: ^cTT^ | |

(yiiPd qT ^ prm <^.?o?o)

142
Tapas : Purificating action
The word tapas means the purificatory action, that which burns up
the impurities and makes the body pure, but patanjali-rahasya warns us
not to be harsh too much towards this body. It suggests to refrain from
the harsh virata (fast) like chandrayan1 2etc,
3 because too much fasting
creates imbalanced functioning in the essential ingredients of body.
'Tapas' does not mean to cause injury or to weaken the body and if body
becomes too weak, it will not function properly and man will not
achieve his end.
So the purificatory actions should be applied in this way that they
do not cause any harm to body rather strengthen the body, the view,
that is not to be harsh against body. Vijnana Bhikshu is in the favour of
3
consistency with pleasantness and the purificatory actions.
From the time immemorial, consequences of the birth and rebirth,
impression of impurities and the desire to enjoy the sensual objects have

1. cnrrs?t qqcmrKcii
o ct
-o c ;

qRfaercsws.t
2. cim'-■hii-H ciqy^Ku'nq ^ mwr ntra-1

cIc-T^ikTi.

3. cT^r ciqR-q-ry^iKil^<ll^r *3
>t>clcui fhrfct q WI^fF-cicI i

143
variagated, spotted the mind.1 Through the mortification and
purificatory action, impurities are burnt, the mind (chitta) becomes
brightened and empowered with sidhis or through hidden treasures."
Vacaspati Mishra says that chitta is a product of three gunas and
when sattva guna becomes submissive and rajas and tamas dominate
that situation is called the impurity of mind. With the support of
mortification, gradually, the sattva guna rises up and becomes powerful
suppressing the other two gunas. It is a real nature of mind.
Vyas Bhasya suggests how to purify mind and body. Vacaspati
Mishra says that one has to adjust body in such a way that one is able to
bear all heat and cold, thirst and hunger,easiness and uneasiness,
pleasant and unpleasant, honour and dishonour without agitating
mentally.

1. I

2. mr4PvuR-iDu: i
ffriwiRfeb Tyt

3. I 0^5^11 <41.

4. I
vTicTitTTi: H I

144
Swadhyaya : Self Study
Self study is the second step under the group of kriyayoga means
working towards yoga and study of religious books like Veda Upnishad,
Brahman granth and others. Vacaspati Mishra gives detail while
explaining pranva mantra that self study means study of purusasukata,
Rudra mandal, Brahman granths and vedic texts and puranas.
Vijnan Bhikshu suggests that one studies not only the prescribed
'granths' but other holy granths too in which some more mantra are
given which can attenuate inflictions.2
Maharishi Patanjali asserts that through study one can perceive
his respected goddess.3
Vijnana Bikshu further says that through study one can see the
god whosoever he wants.

cfc3%TRift. ^5T,

2. rttomf I'H. I

4. rtTRrtft zrf dwf o

145
Ishvar Pranidhana : Surrender to God
Ishvar Pranidhana: The last in Kriya Yoga and last step in niyama
is very important to be discussed fully.
Pranidhana is constituted of tt+fA+ vrrfa pra means complete
perfection, fA means under yni'fa to place Isvar-pranidhanani means to
surrender or submit one's self to God.
It is most desirable to think over this as having disciplines yama
and four steps of niyamas, self or chitta too must have been trained to
surrender completely to God. Almost all the commentators like
Vacaspati Misra, Vijnana bikshu and other all are of one view to support
completely to God without desiring any compensatory gain from any
work done or service.
Selfless service and completely surrendering oneself to God is the
keynote or supreme idea on which Gita's discourses are centered. Main
2
edict is to do service selflessly.
According to the commentator Vijnana Bikshu rendering selfless
service to humanity, feeling of love and well-wishing will be produced
and in this feel of ego, greed, avariciosness will be perishing, gradually
the kaleshas (inflictions) will automatically weaken and sattva

1. (i) AldA1A IVdA i

(ii) dvfiId RTRA HKIRdl±ifA 'R'rAA'^ I

Ibid A?.
2- -c^uzrdifA'cmAl ^rr i
"RT 'ch'A^d^d^: "RT A R^;AlSRrc|4>41A I I ^fct I I

AtcTT,

146
quality of guna will be increased.1
Increasing of sattva guna, inflictions like ignorance, egoism,
attachments etc. will be suppressed.

Asana : Posture
Practising asanas is a good exercise for health. These can be
divided in two parts. First, those asanas which are useful in performing
for yogic purposes, and second are those which are helpful in making
body strong. 2
Patanjali has defined asanas the posture in which one can sit
easily for a long time. There are numerous asanas. Detail of asanas can
be found in shiv samhita, gerand samhita, hath yogapradipka and in
Yoga-Upnishads. Though there are many asanas yet some are very
useful for maintaining good health and concentrating mind and chitta.
That are, sidhasana, padamasansa, sawastika and singhasana as
suggested by Acharya Narayan tirath ji.

?. 3tt uwji*; $cirnr: ^ 'cf»44Pii:

fh^ih f^rcf era":

2. ^ HI fH H I

147
 Goraksha samhita preferred sidhasana and padamasana among
all the asanas.1 Commentator Vacaspati Misra has written about the
asanas in his commentary.2
Vijnan Bhikshu has also written about these asanas even added
one more Aradhpadmasan.
Vijnan Bhikshi is of the view that how many living being are
there in the world and their ways of sitting hint at so many postures of
asanas.3
To concentrate the mind and to enter transcedental meditation
mastery of posture is incumbent, so there must be regular practice for
the perfection of the posture. As Abhedanand says that the idea of the
postures of the body is to gain control over the body. Some people can
not sit still. So one will have to try to concentrate and to meditate ; he
cannot do it very well if a portion of his mind is active simultaneously
with that of rocking state of the physical body.

1. g^hd^i^dH, i
RV&Idd' fMhf h | d H h, | |

2. cT^W MId d d Tklddd, dslIddH^ ddlRd^d, d^lddH,

^RdRl'dddd^ q^d'-^

O xrqiddMd
O yrhddiTlPi i

qbT cirRrm1^

3. dldcdl '^dqiddddld'-c^dlddlTlRt I

4. UrddciUPi ^ ddlcildd l<rd<*> 31WFT I

148
 Mastery of the posture for meditation is must so that body may be
established motionless. If the body keeps moving the mind will remain
disturbed. So perfection in asanas is must and that comes with long
pratice. When there is mastrey over the posture, efforts come to an end.
There may be no more movement of the body or when the mind is
transformed into the infinite, that is, it makes the idea of infinity of its
own, it brings about the perfection in posture.1
But Vijnana Bhikshu points out that at the time of meditation the
. . 9
body becomes tired and shivering or trembling occurs in the body."
When there is perfection in Asana then one should be free from
natural environmental changes of temperature and humidity and thus
3
remain unperturbed in respect to hot and cold, pain and pleasure.

Pranayama : Control of Breathing

Attenuating infliction, purifying mind and body, and mastering
over the yogic posture, now we step up to fourth stair that is pranayama,

1. I

UbMlRfh. 'UPI

3. cRTt grt^ldfadld: I

149
It is impossible to practise pranayama in working or moving condition
so it is incumbent to practise pranayama after perfection of posture.1 2 3
Pranayama word is comprising of two words prana+yama that is
yIU|T?T SrPTFT: ^fct VHU||i|IU:.

Generally we take prana as air that we take in and take out

(inhale and exhale) through the process of respiration. Through this
process of getting vital air we get a continuous supply of energy and
without this energy one cannot move even a single inch.
By the process of inhaling and exhaling we get air in and air out
but this not only an air, it is air with full vital force or energy.
Pranayama means to control this process. Besides the control of
inhalation and exhaling we have to have control over all sensual objects
and sensory organs so that one could have control over vital force,
Vijnan Bhikshu considers others vayu as vital as pran vayu.
Pranayama is a way to control the mind and body. When mind or
chitta come under the control, the other ingredients will become
automatically under the check. Prana vayu is main vayu among all the
other vayus means having a control of other vayus being

1. sTTWHI..........y|U||i|H: !

wsrmrsT qfrr

2. -nTPyUluil |fcT; y|UHiHHHlR '^hrU'4: I

3. y-^T-il^yKun-wTf -yrnwr i
%rr

150
the main and having all related to each other.1
2
Patanjali has described the pranayama of four types.
1. Bahya 2. Abhyantara 3.Kumbhaka and 4. Kewal Kumbak

External Pranayama is called Recheka

Inhaling is called internal Pranayama4
Stopping the Process of respiration is called Kumbhkam

7PT: y|U|dty-cj H -tt-M <4cbqpl; EFT: < rf^T-

dlAPl <l£T sTl^FT Blvl^+Itldl-Mi

Vmw*
I

'HHcjRi ^5T, ?.^v.

(Er) I

(TE) iddh d3TT*£FdT ‘jjjRl: cM-'Hc+>: <rd^ffl I

%TgEJFf>T: I ^.Ko.

A (^) ^T5t yydi<H^4Vl Jlcd'HM: ^TfJ: I cUld'dltd, dPl^d,

(te) "twiTTF- EE yydltlRl I tWT^t

(^) EE yd\<d^cfchl JlcM'HId: E 3FE-d<: I WE EFE EtE ^E.^o.

(El) ^Ef>Ul£-EE ydl^El I EET %yiKcfl qpl^d, R\o.

V eete wdmqlJlkll4^d: Ecf i

o
eet 5yiK41 eYe^ie,

151
 Rechka, puraka and kumbhaka are three pranayama and fourth
pranayama is similar to third with slight difference is called keval
kumbhaka.
In third pranayama (kumbhaka) the process of inhaling is stopped
in single effort and in fourth 2 pranayama the perfection of kumbhaka
•

will come with continous practice of pranayama as it is said in Tattva

vaishardi. 3
Almost all the commentators are of the view that there are four
types of pranayama. But commentators also suggest that one may

2. (Efj) crS^FTTTJTW oL|mAh W

^cTVTUcH iRIcl |

^.K°.
(^q) del yluii-MiH<ra f^ylt>iHi?-«n^llcl I

^T^mulyi ffrT: ^5T,

(it) WmttPWETgffsT: I

Tff^mT ^.ho.

(^t) xT^f: ymwiH: I

(<=■) 3TST del + •t-7Hdciyf I

^TPff3fpT2T2^frr ^9T.,

3. ^RTek-dd leii d d q^yqcdPl4Vf'-fl'M ^fcT f^T^F: I

152
proceed to next only after the perfection1 of primary steps as Rcchaka,
puraka and then to kumbhaka in succession systems.
Vijnana Bikshu in Yoga vartika referring to Purana says that
pranayama2 is of two types
Agarbha and Sagarbha
Agarabhapranayama is that which is performed without entering
into dhyana and japa. Sagarbha pranayama is that which is performed
through dhyana and japa. 3
Sagarbha is sudivided into three
1. Sadhumaka 2. Sajual 3. Prashanta4

^yKU|H-d< ^WTci; %ftt: + 1^4^444 TTe5TiTTST

yiuimih ^ftftrrfgrtK ^rsf: i

ftlJNlRfch

(iii) ^ ^ tjcfli^rdJ-'H<^Pl d 4 ia d 14 dtjsf:

'yWRTFT ffet I

2. yaaiaidda wft ^^\: i

^TTSZTFT^Tt cdRftwdPdPfd: I 4l4dlfd4> ^T.

3 srrnfer wftad ^-gr: -ao-yPilRfd: i

^FTSTFf Pdli.d'ft: wftddcddPdd: I

■MlJlPleS.KddP«cM "5-

4 daftad ‘mdftrr- TTSJW:, *^tld: y^ll-d^P I

41 a RWkddPsa-a

153
Pratyahara-Channelization
The first four limbs of the system of yoga 'yama', 'myoma',
'asanas', 'pranayama' are preparatory steps ; for the next four steps
pratyahara dharana 'dhyana', samadhi of the astanga yoga stairs.
According to yoga sutras pratyahara is referred to sense-organs. They
have natural tendency to rush towards their respective sensualities as
eyes rush to enjoy the colour and forms, ears rush to enjoy to the
melodies and tones, tongue craves to enjoy taste and flavours, nose
rushes towards smells and perfumes and the organ of touch towards soft
and sweet embraces.
Pratyahara consists in distractng the senses from their
sensualities. If any body has mastered this step of pratyahara he could
see the objects but could not be attached to it as the lens of camera have
nothing to do with photo so though a man is seeing everything but he
will not get any attachment to it. As a person could hear as the tape-
recorder hears or records. The perception of sound but has nothing to do
with the actual machinery. It is the sensuality to be avoided, not the
capacity of seeing and hearing. So the first condition with the process of
pratyhara is to obstruct the sense organs from their sensualities.
The second condition is that the well disciplined sense organs
should become very well aligned with the activities of chitta or mind in
their essential forms. Swirling of chitta or mind is not its real 'swarup' or
essential form. When mind is free from perturbations it is in its essential
form.
After getting the proper training and attained the perfection in
'pranayama' we come to the next step that which is called pratyahara.
This is a special training of sensual objects. Sensual objects are pleasing,
154
attractive and passionate. Mind loses its control over itself and is led
astray or way ward according to sensual objects. Pratyahara means to
train the senses, not to run after their objects. The word is made
as trfft+sTT+f means to draw from wrong direction. Pratyahara is that by
which the senses do not come into contact with their objects as it were
but follow the nature of the mind.1 2 3
After perfection of asanas, pranayama and pratyahara means
that body and mind have been perfectly disciplined. Now one must have
to concentrate on object to attain one's goal. The goal or the object must
be good, and if object is not good, this step becomes a ruinous one.
Pratyahara means to hold the senses from indulging into their
concerning objects.
9
Vijnan bhikshu asserts that pratyahara is the duty of senses."
Whatever is pleasanter is the sensuality and it leaves behind an
evil impression of vasana (the evil longing) and pratyahara is to hold the
rushing organs.
Yama, niyama, as ana, pranayama and pratyahara are called the
external limbs (or bahiraniga) of yoga ; where as dharana, dhyana,
'i

samadhi are the internal limbs (antarnga) (y.s.III 7.8)

1. Tftnrrh Ritihi o
ucW>K: i

2. 3fcT^r ycui^K i

3. I ftftr. 3.V9.

155
 The practice and perfection in asanas and pranayama leads one to
the stage of pratyahara. The eddies and swirls of mind are thereby
eliminated and the sense organs stop rushing towards sensualities.
The pratyahara is ^+3tr+^ means taking back or reversing the
gear. Our sense organs generally rush to their sensual objects or have
attachment with the sensualities. Sense organs are like horses which are
going astray from their right track, so to bring them back or to check
them from being astray pratyahara is enforced.
There are two ways described in our shastras i.e. "preya marga"
and other is 'sreya marga" Preya marga seems to be pleasant for some
time but it is not pleasant for ever and other sreya marga is really better
2
benevolent for the pursuance of ultimate end as in kathopnishada.
Vacaspati writes that concentrating on any object should not be
considered as external sensual-attachment. 3
Vijnan Bhikshu writes that senses of a yogi in his meditation
period behave according to mind, not independently according to their
objects. When mind abstrained itself from sensual objects, the senses

1. TTfew i frbr

2. ^to{xr vliiojxi Tr-r^cFra^Tt yj-qfWu TtPdiftd sJtr: i

ft tcRTt o
i

3. Ud^d^d^' ftriufhfhfhyiif d- dPPtfUluil

drdcPlKTl

156
also hold themselves from the objects.1

Dharana or Concentration
Dharana is concentration, bringing you to the door. Dhyana is
contemplation knocking at the door to get it open and smadhi is your
entrance via the door to the inner apartment. Dharana, Dhyana and
samdhi are called Samyama2 After explaining the five means of external
purification now the first means of internal limb dharana is to be
explained.3 4
Dharana is binding force of the mind or chitta at one place.
"The word des'a (place) may be a spot on the body an object some
where p-laced, or an idea. It must be remembered that the object of this
concentration or dhyana is to move towards smadhi and towards no
other end.5 6
Vyasa the commentator on Patanjali's yoga sutras and on the same
authority it is specified the des'a as Nabhicakra (the novel lotus wheel

1. % SZTFT Wt wji|ci^|chiTu|

<.|uT|ci 'HclPd T <rclld7pul f^BTFcfT Hd ^<=£1

^ ^Tskt^ddPd ^TT Udcd kd <

f'twsiPr i dftr4rPPb ^r,

2. tW-T-FTpI I TV.
3. ^vknPr i stupm c^r^rr
4. PdkkUppddHI ETRVTT I TP

5. Patanjali Raja Yoga By Swami Satya Parkash Sarsvati

Pub. S. Chand & Com. N.De.hi 1975 P.257
6. dlPl >-1 p ^dlPiPl d iPiddil '^plddlP1^

^3? PlrlHl ^fvRT^T STRVTT I ftftT. TP

157
or brahma cakra) Hrdaya pundarika (the heart lotus or amrtacakra)
Murdha (the cerebrum or the apah cakra), Jyotih (the middle of the
eyebrows) Nasikagara (the tip of the nose) Jihvagra (the tip of the
tongue) or some spots of the kind. Fixing the mind on external or
internal object or any solid or subtle object is called dharana. Fixing at
2
that point or place means get attached or related with that object.
Commentator Vijnana Bhikshu in his yoga vartika states. That
3
des'a is of two types one is internal and second is External.
For internal des'a it has been pointed but for external there is no
detail.
Vacaspati Misra has pointed out that the external des'a as
Hiranyagarbha, Vasudeva and Prajapati as good helping place4.
Vijnana Bhikshu thinks of the desa for sun, moon, fire etc. God and
goddess to concentrate our mind upon these.

1. Translation by Swami Braham Lin muni.

Vui^. 3.1
2. TTT^JT: ^F£T: WI'^VTHTg- I

3.?.
3. 3T££||lcUchl-|v
3TTF- WT |

4. WTfJT I

5. sqrn 4yi ^pT. i

158
 For spiritual spot or place ^n) it must be considered the
places described in Purana, Garur purana1 in holy books.
Vacaspati is of the view that attention can not be focussed on the
external objects so word vritti (knowledge) is used that means the
2
relation or concentration can be made on the spot through knowledge.
Vijnan Bikshu pointed out that there are twelve types of
pranayama. At the time of concentration the attention must be one
pointedness and, should not be shifting3 but Vacaspati made no hint
regarding the time.

1. W
(^) y|u11i)|AjjfcTi/lPujidc+lcl: ^Tt I

~?T dldc+ld mPrt Tpfr I

(w) 3ii ^ yi<uiiH,

ycui£i<l PnreRp i

^r,
2. ^ PivIHI ^F^FST:
^Rfvt fPffTT^OT I

dcd^yiKcfl ^5Tf
3. 3RT: -^d1=hd f^PRT^FFtfh' WTOj;

cHdldPtS’—Ic^d P£)’duT)'LtfHlcl |

'■qPidiRfch 3.?.

159
Dhayana : Contemplation
After a long process of training the mind and body through six
steps of'Astang yoga', attained the stair of'dhyana'. It is as if complete
merging of all efforts of the lower self towards the attainment of the
higher self. The lower soul then does not think of anything else but of
attaining God. The soul has reached the gate way of the abode of lord. It
with all affection and devotion knocks at the door and patiently awaits
the appearance of the lord.
Contemplation, dedication and surrender- all these lead you to the
ultimate goal. Here some immortal lines in the svetasvatara Upanisad :
Even as a miror stained by dust
Shines brilliantly when it has been cleansed,
So the embodied one, on seing the nature of the self
Becomes unitary, his goal attained, from sorrow freed.
Svetasvatara Upanisad 2.14
Continous flowing of contemplation of chitta or mind is called
dhyana. That flow must be like pouring down of all in a continuous
current.12
Sankracharya3 wrote in his that
concentration like the flow of oil continuously is called dhyana.

1. SJRon'flTEEf SZTPT I
d'RfTviR'Tl fit. ^ ^A.
2. (3F) 'Ucb'dI d d I temKM^chdMydli?: I

(%) yciWI'-dTuil'-KIJ^dl 9TRR; I

cJTravtlkti, ^A.

d44ekdRWAddKdT£.
160
 As water takes the shape of the container, the mind, when it
contemplates an object, is transformed into the shape of that object, the
mind which thinks of the all pervading divinity which it worships, is
ultimately through long-continued devotion transforms into the likeness
of that divinity. As the filament in an electric bulb glows and illumines
when there is a regular uninterrupted current of electricity, the yogi's
mind will be illuminated by dhyana.
Sankara quotes the following lines attributed to the Yajanvalkya,
in his commentary in the s'vetas'vetaropnishad.
"By pranayama, the impurities of the body are thrown out, by
dharana impurities of the mind, by pratyahara, impurities of the
attachment, and by dhyana is taken off everything that stands between
man and his God.2"
Fixing about time for Dhyana it is said that twelve times more of
Dhrana time should be fixed for dhyana and in this support Garur
'Purana' is being quoted.3

1. Light on yoga (yoga Dipika) P.51

1993 Gita Vi verses 38 to 47

2. Patanj ale Raj a Yoga

By Swami parkash Saraswati P.270

3. RPfvi stryT i

161
 In Yoga Sara- Sangraha it is quoted from Ishvar Gita in support
to the time of Dhyana.
In the Samkhya Sutra2 3.30 dhyana have been defined as the
removal of attachment. Dhyana consists in rendering the mind (or
Chitta) free from attachment.3 In Samkhya it is preventing the mind
from getting astray towards raga or worldly attachment. The raga is the
same as 'visaya' ot the objects of allurements. When the mind is free
from the attachment or allurement it can be directed towards the reality
or self.
Time regarding dhyana is considered twelve time more than of
'dharana'. In the support of this view Garur Puran is qoted in yoga
Vartika4.

(i) rtTrtFT &K9IWWI OTFf sTR¥T rtRFTT: I

fPIdKdTp rt. \o\.

Quoted by- FrtT 7TTT 7TW Ed-by- ^To TFT 'dTd

2. (i) TFhq^szrPTR; i ttfw 3.30.

(ii) ffxT dlcdfe WT 3.3?.

3. Dhyanam nirvisayam manah

(patanjli Raja yoga by Swami Satya Parkash Sarsvati P.270)
4. si^lRl -^4x1 STFT gK9l£IRU||:

162
 In 'yoga'Sarsamgrah also of the view of time and a verse from
'Ishwar Gita' is quoted here.
For the time of Dhrana, Dhyana and Samadhi it is made clear in
Sakandha purana that if dhrana takes five 'ghatik' (2 Hours) Then
Dhyana must be performed for 60 ghatika (24 hours) and Samadhi must
for 12 days.2
Dhyana or contemplation is an expectancy period at the door
way. It is a period of thrill and ecstasy on one hand and anxiety on the
other. Practising the yama, niyama ; purifying the body and well
disciplining the mind, perfecting the posture, absorbing in dharana and
dhyana, one is striving towards the attainment of the final goal. 3

1. tT ddd {ycRjfldlUHclOT-
STRdTT stKVIWWI S7FT UITOTT:
and 6idviT i i

2. sji<un ■q'o^yHiTl °frr stft i

fyid'^id dbr dvfd 33.3.)

y^ivid : dfdi ddd?d sfffhd dTTFdft, T.
d«*

-11 -M-Hie-HI VHd4d eHdt d TtSmT d de|d I 5g%d I

dfrtd fajct d STTvRT f4|y|c] ?Fj Wi; I

163
 "When mind is trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or
external location, The unbroken current of concentration begins to flow
toward the point of meditation like a flow of electricity. This state is
called Dhyana."1
A Yogin, who is practising dhyana, is a seeker of the highest
Audience. "It is a silent audience in the presence of the Most
Benevolent, who knows everything, and who demands nothing but
dedication and sincere surrender.2"
As we have seen that every step is very important and should be
mastered over to proceed for the successive stair unless preliminary
steps are not perfected. It would be difficult to attain the final goal. So
the perfection of dhyana is necessary for absolute samadhi.

Samadhi
The fruit of meditation is samadhi. Samadhi is
superconsciousness state, where in the yoga gets superintuitional or
supersensual knowledge and supersensual bliss. He gets the vision of the
lord. He is in full enjoyment of the divine ecstasy or divine thrill.
The five afflictions have now come to an end. All sorts of
imperfections have disappeared and the state he achieved cannot be
described in words. There remain no limitations, all the limitations have
been dropped now.
All doubts, delusions, sorrows, tribulations, fears, differences,
distinctions and dualities have vanished. Samadhi is the eighth step of
the yogic ladder.

1. The text Book of yoga pschology by Rammurti S Misra. P. 77

2. Patajali Raja yoga by Swami Satya Parkash Saraswati P.273
164
 There is special arrangement in meditation and meditative trance
for low intelligentia is astang yoga.1 Dhyata, Dheyay and dhyana remain
conscious of his existence in meditative position but in samadhi the
condition of yogi is totally absorbed, and he is unaware of his presence.
This is the difference according to Vijnana Bhikshu between dyana and
samadhi2 *
Samadhi is the highest position of dhyana-yogi. Dhyatri becomes
so much absorbed in Dheyaya, that looks like absent. He remains in his
senses but he does not look so . So the sutrakara adds the word iva (l^r)
in the sentence, it gives a clear meaning to it like
absent but not absent.4 If it is admitted that he is totally absent then he
will not be able to get the spiritual knowledge.
Samadhi is of two kinds viz, Saguna meditation (with gunas or
qualities) and Nirguna meditation (without gunas or qualities).
When incarnation guru, lord, avtar as lord Rama, Jesus, Guru
Nanak become the subject of concentration it is called Saguna,
Samadhi, Consequently the samadhi is with attributes and specific form,

1. y-inhci
TlJMllchb Tgz, TT

2. CT2TT WR1STFT c^T%rf

Ibid, TT

Ibid T3

^ 3.3

165
while other is Nirguna without attributes and forms. This is the Vedanta
way of meditation with the realization of "Aham Brahamasmi".
When dhyata emerges into Dheya, they seem as if salt is diluted
in water though salt is there yet it has lost its identity so dhyata and
dhyeya becomes one that is the position of smadhi.
In vishnu purana it is written about the nature of the samadhi, in
the position of dhyana one feels complete absorption in object and
looses all outward mental activity in the unique oneness.A person who
has reached this stage is a person entitled for liberation. It will be then
that the qualities of Guna (sattva, rajas, tamas) of prakrti have finally
dissolved in their source and thus nothing further remains to be achieved
and in this case the citi-sakti or the innate consciousness of the self has
2
been established in its own true form, this is liberation.

1. ct^ct ^ i

^FRTT UlMlhWHI'd Wrf^T: I I

^Ttrr.

2. TjyiHf yfay<Hci: err f^rfcT yilTriRRl i

frfnr ■qpr

166
 Conclusion

In retrospect, our thesis has been concerned with the varied

investigations of the concept of body in Indian philosophy. Accordingly
in the first chapter we have attempted to account for the vedic,
Vedantic, Upanishadic and Gita's understanding on the formulation of
the concept of body.
Although Rgveda is the first and foremost document of human
history available in the world library yet it does not provide us with a
detailed account on the concept of body structure ; But some of the
Rgvedic suktas like Hiranyagar bha, Purusa sukta and Nasidya sukta
opens a space where we learn the highly philosophical expressions on
the concept of body. There are mantras which are sung for a healthy and
strong human body so as to lead a happy span of life, say for instance,
upto hundered years.
Yajurveda yearns for even more than hundered years of life span
till the off-spring become the father. These considerations suggests that
the principal of life which enlivens the human body is a profound secret
of existence in Indian philosophy.
Atharvaveda discusses the human body in detail from its
biological aspect. It bespeaks of the state of pregnancy and suggests
precautionary measures for safety till the full development up to the
stage of delivery. Atharvaveda also illustrates the same thereby
recognizing the value of physical strength, health and excellence of
sensory functions of the human body.
Upanishads have discussed in agreat detail the psyco-physical
origin of the human body. Taittiriya upanishad has accorded special
167
appreciation of the aesthetic excellence of the lustre of the face
brilliance of body and also fragrance of the body (taittriya 3.2).
According to this upanishad, there are five sheaths in the human body,
the outer layer, that is the gross body, is annamayakosa, others are
pranamaya kosa, manomaya kosa, vijnanmaya kosa and anandmaya
kosa respectively. The anandmayakosa is the innermost kosa where the
self is located.
Garbhopanishad and Sarirakopnishad deal the biological
dimensions of human body. These two upanishads give a detailed
account of impregation, its development, nourishment, till it becomes a
full developed body, upanishads further draw our attention towards the
care that must be needed at the time of delivery. It amounts to saying
that the upanishadic spiritualism does not deny the importance of bodily
values.
Bhagvad Gita deals with the human body in different way. The
Gita makes us understand the body as the basis of secular existence of
man. It is also the basis of the spiritual existence. The body is product of
mahat, ahankara, manas and the tanmatars are perishable while the soul
is eternal, As a man puts off worn clothes and put on new ones, so with
the death of body comes to an end and Jiva gets new body with a new
birth.
The second chapter of our thesis is attempted to discuss the
concept of body in the non-vedic school of philosophy, i.e. carvaka
system which is popularity known as the materialistic philosophy-
perception is the only source of knowledge accepted by the carvaka
system. Accordingly in their system of thought concept like God, soul,
life after death etc, are not recognized. They donot recognise soul except
168
as the human body. The death of body means the end of life. Body in
this philosophy is formed out of four elements. They advocate the
hedonistic doctrine of eating, drinking and be merry, for, death comes to
all, closing our lives, "Mirtyu eva moksa."
To Buddhism a 'person' is a psycho-physical entity constituing of
temporary aggregates of five skandhas, eighteen dhatus including
twelve ayatanas. All things are conditional and there is nothing that
exists in an of itself. All things are subject to change owing to the
changing conditions on which they depend. Hence Buddha propounded
a theory of universal change, impermanece and momentariness.
According to Buddha, life is an unbroken series of states which are
causally connected. Thus in Buddhistic philosophy, reality is a
continuity of becoming and ordered succesion. Buddha was concerned
about human being in lessening or removing their suffering. According
to Buddha nirvana is only the destruction of the fires of lust, hatred and
ignorance.
For Jainism, the body is made of particles of matter (pudgala),
and for the formation of a particular kind of body, particular kinds of
matter-particles are to be arranged and organised in a particular way. All
animate beings, according to Jainism, have a body and soul. Unusual is
the Jain's belief that the soul has variable sizes in its empirical life,
becoming larger or smaller because of expansion or contraction.
According to the dimensions of the physical bodies that the diva occupy.
The Karma of past life, its past thought and activity attract the matter-
particle and arrange them in the body. A sansari Jiva is an organic unity
of two distinct entities-J/va and pudgala-soul and body.

169
 Jaina admits five types of bodies i.e. audarika, Vaikriyaka,
ahroka, taijsa, and karmana ; Three types of births i.e. garb ha, andaja,
and upapadika and also ascertains mainly four kinds of prana i.e. bala-
prana, indriya-prana, ayush prana, and ucchvasa-nihsvasa-prana. The
soul is never completely separated from the matter untill its final
release.
Caraka and Sursurata who are regarded as the authorities over
Indian medical sciences ascertain that the human body is formed by the
combination of semen with ovum and entering of Jiva in the womb. A
fully developed foetus with all its parts, such as the hands, feet, tongue,
nose, ears, buttocks etc, and the sense organs is called sariram or body.
The third chapter of our thesis is an attempt towards a
comprehensive understanding of the concept of body in Nyaya and
Vaisesika systems of Indian Philosophy. According to Nyaya body is the
support of actions, sense organs and objects. It is formed by the mother's
blood, father's semen and the Karma done in the previous life. Nyaya
divided the whole world into two realities viz. atoms and atman. The
atoms constitute all physical objects of the world including human body,
become associated with atman is not explained satisfactorily by the
Nyaya philosophers. Gotama does not show much interest in
metaphysical problems. He accepts both the spiritual and material
reality atman and atoms.
Kanada the founder of the Vaisesika system and the atomic theory
regards the human boy as the vehicle of the experience of pleasure and
pain (bhoga -adhisthana). According to Vaisesika, body is of two types
(i) sexual born and (ii) asexual born. Asexual bom means those bodies
which are born independent of the conjugal mixing of parents which are
170
said to be the bodies of gods and sagas. The sexual body is again
divided into two types ; womb-born and egg born. Men and animals are
womb-born, birds and reptiles belong to egg born category. Kanada laid
the foundation of a distinctive form of pluralistic of a distinctive form of
pluralistic realism with his theory of multiple categories that constitute
the world and regarded soul as one among the several substances
(,dravya). Therefore, the metaphysical problems such as the question of
bondage and suffering, the issue of solvation etc. do not receive much
attention from Kanada.
In the fourth chapter we have discussed Samkhya and Yoga
philosophy. Samkhya system of philosophy and its development or
evolutionary view of the universe had considerable influence on early
Indian thought. The Mahabharta, the Puranas, and even some of the
Upanishads mention Kapila with reverence as wise man; the samkhya
thinkers speak of him as adividwan (the first wise man)
Samkhya admits three types of bodies; subtle body, gross bosy
(from the parent's mixing of blood with semen), and the whole associate
of gross elements. Subtle body is the first creation of pradhana. It
contains eighteen elements as mahat, ahankara, manas, five senses
organs, five action organs and five tanmataras. Subtle bodies are several.
Each purusa has its subtle body and remains with purusa till purusa
becomes enlightened and the subtle body vanishes.
Samkhya and yoga are closely related. The system of yoga is very
much based on the metaphysical views of samkhya yoga is not a
philosophical discipline but aims at laying down a method of
psychological and moral preparation for the individuals attaining of the
experience of isolation delineated by the samkhya system. Yoga has to
171
be practised by human body. Yoga applies a systematic methodology to
train mind and body in ordr to attain the highest goal. Patanjali speaks
of chitta which undergoes various modification. Commentators of
yogadarshana divide the seeker of yoga in three categories. Men of
highest capabilities should apply the means of "practice and
detachment," the men of second category should apply the method of
kriya yoga and the men of third category which is the lowest category
should practise the way of astangayoga i.e yama-niyama-asana-
pranayama-pratyahara-dharana-dhyana-samadhi. By practising the
astanga-yoga one must attain samadhi, the highest goal. The following
chapters constitute a kind of panormic survey of concept of body in
Indian philosophy now in the concluding chapter, it is worthwhile to
evaluate what we have already discussed in order to see the whole
picture of this dissertation and determine what is the contribution of its.
It must be pointed out though there is difference in regarding to origin of
body yet its impotance.

172
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RFeft ‘It;'^.

: cnrWIAH FFM RTt%cf

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§R<i<M 3TTFft
9^T.#<slHI 7TF£?T TftfRr, 5HI<«,

^. ^TFrg^ : efr>ftc1HM^I^PiMuftc1,
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JRF.RldldMI «HK^)<m,f^ft,9€;^.

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O 7
qqq. #?sFdl TR^d k^TFT, c|Rlul4),
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3^. RTkk 3T£kk : qk4 ^Nd RTRldcft q 3TMI4

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41JK^ ; (dnM^ddgRi, Ffanw 41^rgfti,

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o 7
5FR. 4)<sIHI d'^d WfFT,
dKlul41, fecffaT ^TFF<TrT,9€;'c;^.

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tto TFT SFFT ^ddNl4;
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