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LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
y-axis
-3 x-axis
x -3.5 -3.2 -3.1 -3.01 -3.001 -2.999 -2.99 -2.9 -2.8 -2.5
f (x) -6.5 -6.2 -6.1 -6.01 -6.001 -5.999 -5.99 -5.9 -5.8 -5.5
Observe that as x approaches 3 , either from the left or from the right, f (x) approaches
6 . This means the limit of f (x) as x approaches 3 is equal to 6 . We write this in
symbol as lim f ( x ) 6 .
x 3
x2 9
2. Consider the rational function g ( x) whose graph is shown in Figure 2.
x3
y-axis
-3
x-axis
x -3.5 -3.2 -3.1 -3.01 -3.001 -2.999 -2.99 -2.9 -2.8 -2.5
g (x) -6.5 -6.2 -6.1 -6.01 -6.001 -5.999 -5.99 -5.9 -5.8 -5.5
Observe that as x approaches 3 , either from the left or from the right, g (x) approaches
6 . This means the limit of g (x) as x approaches 3 is equal to 6 , or xlim g ( x) 6 . The
3
only difference between this case and the preceding example is that g is not defined at x 3
as indicated by the gap in the graph; elsewhere functions f and g are equal.
x2 9
if x 3
3. Consider the piecewise-defined function h( x) x 3 whose graph is shown
2 if x 3
in Figure 3.
y-axis
-3
x-axis
x -3.5 -3.2 -3.1 -3.01 -3.001 -2.999 -2.99 -2.9 -2.8 -2.5
h(x) -6.5 -6.2 -6.1 -6.01 -6.001 -5.999 -5.99 -5.9 -5.8 -5.5
Observe that as x approaches 3 , either from the left or from the right, h(x) approaches
6 or lim g ( x) 6 , eventhough h(3) 6 . Observe too that h is equal to f and g
x 3
except at x 3 .
3
x 9 2
if x 3
4. Consider the piecewise-defined function t ( x) x 3 whose graph appears
6 if x 3
in Figure 4.
y-axis
-3
x-
axis
x -3.5 -3.2 -3.1 -3.01 -3.001 -2.999 -2.99 -2.9 -2.8 -2.5
t (x ) -6.5 -6.2 -6.1 -6.01 -6.001 -5.999 -5.99 -5.9 -5.8 -5.5
Function t behaves exactly the same as function f in the first example and note that we also
have lim t ( x ) 6 . Function t is what we get when we redefine function g in the second
x 3
example by filling the gap at x 3 .
1 if x 0
5. Consider the function s ( x) whose graph is shown in Figure 5.
1 if x 0
y-axis
x-axis
-1
1. The Definition
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval containing a number c,
except possibly at c itself. The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is L, written as lim f ( x) L ,
x c
if the following statement is true:
2. Remarks:
b. The number L being the limit of f (x) at x = c can be interpreted geometrically as follows:
for any chosen positive value of , however small, the function values f (x) on the vertical
axis can be made to lie in the open interval L , L by simply letting x on the
horizontal axis be confined in the open interval c , c . In other words, if
x c , c , then f (x) L , L . Figure 6 illustrates this.
y-axis Figure 6
y = f (x)
x-axis
5
3. Illustration:
x2 9
Recall the function in illustration (2) of Part I. Prove that lim 6 , using
x 3 x 3
0.005 .
x2 9 ( x 3)( x 3)
f ( x) L (6) 6 x 3 x (3) x c .
x3 ( x 3)
x2 9
Because of this, it follows that ( 6) x (3) . This suggests that we take
x3
, or 0.005. Hence, the existence of for any positive chosen.
x2 9
So, by taking 0.005 , we have indeed 0 x (3) 0.005 (6) 0.005 .
x3
a) lim
x c
f ( x) g ( x) lim
x c
f ( x) lim g ( x ) L M .
x c
b) lim
x c
f ( x) g ( x) lim
x c
f ( x) lim g ( x) LM .
x c
6
Note: (a) and (b) can be extended naturally to cases where there are more than two functions.
f ( x) lim f ( x) L
c) lim x c ,M 0 .
x c g ( x) lim g ( x) M
x c
a) lim
x c
f ( x) lim
n
x c
n
f ( x) Ln .
n f ( x ) n lim f ( x ) n L
b) lim
x c x c
, provided L > 0 when n is even.
a. lim ( 2 x 3 4 x 5) c. lim 4 x
2
e. xlim (2 x) 5
x2 x 1 3
cos sin
b. lim
x 1
2 x 3x 1 1 x 2 d. lim
2x 1
x4 x 3
f. lim
x csc 2
4
0
IV. The Case of the Indeterminate Form .
0
1. Applying the basic limit theorems of Part III are simply done by direct substitution.
However, direct substitution fails to work when it results into any of these forms:
0
, ,0 ,00 , 0 ,1 , .
0
2. When the evaluation of a limit leads to the indeterminate form 0/0, the limit may or may
not exist. To find this out, we need to remove the indeterminacy by
a) factoring and canceling the factor that zeroes out the numerator and denominator, or
b) rationalizing either the numerator or denominator.
(Dealing with the other indeterminate forms requires techniques beyond the scope of this
lecture.)
7
x 9
2
3. Example: Consider the function g ( x) in illustration (2) of Part I. Find xlim
3
g ( x) .
x3
Direct substitution of x 3 to g (x) leads to the indeterminate form 0/0. Note that the factor
x 3 zeroes out the numerator and denominator and so must be removed from g by cancellation.
We proceed with the evaluation as follows:
x2 9 ( x 3)( x 3)
lim lim lim ( x 3) 6 .
x 3 x 3 x 3 ( x 3) x 3
2 4t
4. Example: Find lim .
t 0 t
Direct substitution of t 0 leads to the indeterminate form 0/0. We remove the factor t 0 or t
from the numerator and denominator by rationalizing the numerator. We proceed with the
evaluation as follows:
x 2 3x 2 9 x2 x 3 x 2 x 10
a. lim c. lim e. lim
x 1 x 1 x 3
x 3 x 2 x 2 3x 2
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). The limit of
f (x) , as x approaches a from the right, is L, written as xlim f ( x ) L if the following
a
statement is true: Given any 0 , however small, there exists a 0 such that :
If 0 x a , then f ( x) L .
3. Illustration
4. Remarks:
a) To distinguish from the one–sided limits, lim f ( x) L will be referred to as two–sided limit.
xa
b) The basic limit theorems in Pat III remain valid for one–sided limits.
Note: This theorem implies that if xlim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) , then lim f ( x) does not exist.
a xa x a
x 5 if x5
Since f ( x) x 5 and 2 < 5, we take the form f ( x) 5 x . So, we
5 x if x5
As xlim f ( x ) lim f ( x) , we further say that the two-sided limit lim f ( x) exists.
2 x2 x 2
t 4 if t4
7. Example: Find tlim r (t ) and lim r (t ) if r (t ) .
4 t if t4
4 t 4
To evaluate tlim
4
r (t ) , first note that t approaches 4 from the right and so we consider t 4 .
8. Exercises:
3 if x 1 3 t 1 if t 1
Determine whether or not the following limits exist by evaluating appropriate one-sided limits.
a) lim
x 2
h( x ) b) xlim
1
h( x ) c) lim
x1
p( x) d) lim
x5
p ( x) e) tlim
1
g (t ) f) lim
t 1
g (t )
1. Definition
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval containing a number a,
except possibly at a itself.
1
Figure 7. The graph of y Figure 8. One-Sided Infinite Limits
x2
10
One-sided infinite limits may be defined accordingly from (a) and (b). In this case, instead of
x a , we consider x a or x a . Figure 8 illustrates this.
2. Remark:
does not represent large number; it simply tells about the behavior of the function as x
approaches a. So, in both cases, limits do not actually exist.
4. Theorems: If a is any real number and f (x) and g (x) are functions such that lim f ( x) 0
xa
g ( x)
a) If c > 0 and if f (x) 0 through positive values of f (x) , then lim .
xa f ( x)
g ( x)
b) If c > 0 and if f (x) 0 through negative values of f (x) , then lim .
xa f ( x)
g ( x)
c) If c < 0 and if f (x) 0 through positive values of f (x) , then lim .
xa f ( x)
g ( x)
d) If c < 0 and if f (x) 0 through negative values of f (x) , then lim .
xa f ( x)
(Note: The above theorems on infinite limits are also valid for one–sided infinite limits.)
5. Examples
x2
a) Determine if lim is or .
x2 x2 4
1
b) Discuss the behavior of f ( x) as x approaches 4.
( x 4) 3
11
6. Exercises: Indicate either or for each of the following limits.
7. Theorems
a) lim
xa
f ( x) g ( x) if c > 0 b) lim
xa
f ( x) g ( x) if c < 0.
a) lim
xa
f ( x) g ( x) if c > 0 b) lim
xa
f ( x) g ( x) if c < 0.
1 2x 1 y 1 y
a) lim 3 b) lim
x 0 x 4
x 1 y 1 2 y 1
2 y y 1
2
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
1
To illustrate, consider the function f ( x) whose graph appears in Figure 7. The line x 0
x2
1
serves as a vertical asymptote of the graph of f since lim 2 .
x 0 x
12
4 t 2 1
a) f ( x) b) g (t )
( x 5) 2 t2 2
1. Definition
a) Let f (x) be a function that is defined at every number in some interval (a,) . The
limit of f (x) as x increases without bound is L, written as lim f ( x ) L if for any 0 ,
x
however small, there exists a number N > 0 such that if x > N, then f ( x) L .
b) Let f (x) be a function that is defined at every number in some interval (, a) . The limit
of f (x) as x decreases without bound is L, written as xlim f ( x) L if for any 0 , however
2. Illustration
1
As an illustration, recall the function f ( x) and its graph shown in Figure 7. Observe the
x2
behavior of the function as x tends to positive infinity (or increases without bound) or negative
infinity (decreases without bound). In either case, f approaches a finite value which is 0. In
1
symbol, we write lim 0.
x x2
1 1
2. Theorem: For any positive integer r, lim r
lim r 0 .
x x x x
3. Remarks:
b) When evaluating the limit of a rational function p / q at infinity, multiply the numerator
and denominator by 1 / x n , where n is the greater degree between the numerator and
denominator. Moreover, if
(i) degree (p) = degree (q), then the limit is a non-zero constant.
(ii) degree (p) < degree (q), then the limit is zero.
(iii) degree (p) > degree (q), then the limit does not exist.
4x3 2x 5
4. Example: Evaluate lim .
x 5 x 3 2 x 2
13
3
Since the highest power of x appearing is x , multiply both numerator and denominator by
1 / x 3 . We proceed with the evaluation as follows:
4x 2x 5
3 4 x 1
2x 5 3
3
2 5
4 2 3
lim lim x lim x x
x 5 x 3 2 x 2 x
1
5x3 2x 2 3
x
5
2
x
x
1 1
lim 4 2 lim 5 lim 3
x x 2
x x x 4 2(0) 5(0) 4
1 5 2(0) 5
lim 5 2 lim
x x x
7x 2 2x 1 2 x 2 3x 1 4x 1 2x7
a) lim b) lim c) lim d) lim
x 3x 2 8 x 5 x 5x 3 x 9x 2 x 1 5 x 3
6. Horizontal Asymptotes
How can the concept of limit at infinity be applied to determine the horizontal asymptote (if any)
of the graph of a function?
1 1 1
Recall f ( x) 2
. Since lim 2 lim 2 0 , the line y 0 is the horizontal asymptote of
x x x x x
the graph of f.
2x 1
7. Exercise: Find the horizontal asymptote of the graph of h( x) . Sketch the graph of h.
x 1
VIII. CONTINUITY
A function is said to be continuous at a number x = a if and only if the following conditions are
satisfied:
a) Removable Discontinuity
Remark: A function with a removable discontinuity at can be redefined in such a way that it
can be made continuous at the point where its removable discontinuity occurs.
x2 9
For example, the function g ( x) in illustration (2) of Part I has a removable
x3
discontinuity at x = 3 . Function t in illustration (4) of Part I is a redefinition of g which
removes the discontinuity of g at x = 3 .
b) Essential Discontinuity
For example, the signum function in Part I has an essential discontinuity at x = 0 while the
1
function y whose graph is shown in Figure 7 has an essential discontinuity at x = 0
x2
too.
b) A rational function f (x) is continuous at all values of x except those that make its
denominator 0.
4. Exercises:
x2 x 6
a) Determine whether or not f ( x) is continuous at x = 1. At which point is f
x3
discontinuous? Is this discontinuity removable or essential?
b) Identify the points of discontinuity of the following functions and determine if the
discontinuity is removable or essential.
15
5 t 4 if t4
i) f ( x) ii) r (t )
x4 4 t if t4
5. Continuity on an Interval
A function f is said to be continuous from the right at a number x = a if the following hold:
A function f is said to be continuous from the left at a number x = a if the following hold:
A function f whose domain includes the closed interval [a, b] is said to be continuous on [a, b] if
it is continuous on the open interval (a, b), continuous from the right at a, and continuous from
the left at b.
6. Exercises:
1 x2 9
(i) f ( x) (ii) g ( x)
x2 x3