“Energy Harvesting from Road Pavements Using Thermoelectric Generators at

Tuguegarao City, Philippines”

A Project Study Presented to the

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Department

College of Engineering

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

In Partial Fulfillment of the Course Requirements Of

Electrical Engineering Elective II

By:

DELOS SANTOS, JO SOFIA E.

GUTIERREZ, SYRUS MAC M.

SEGARRA, KEVIN BRYAN C.

SALUMBIDES, MARISSA SOPHIA P.

December 2019
 CHAPTER 1

The Problem and its Setting

This chapter contains the background of the study, the general and specific objectives

of the study, the significance and the scope and limitation of the research study.

1.1 Introduction

The importance of energy sources, such as renewable and non-renewable, remains

undeniable as mankind continue into the 21st century. Non-renewable energy sources

include fossil fuels that come from beneath the ground and take thousand years to form.

Renewable energy sources generate quickly and can supply a region with its long-term

energy needs into the future. When crude oil, a form of non-renewable energy, was found

out to be disappearing in about 50 years, many research studies focused on developing

alternative energy sources of power.

It is a well-known fact that the Philippines is a tropical island. It has only two seasons:

The wet and dry season. The rainy season start in June and lasts until October, while the

remaining months are dry. The Philippines’ hottest moths are recorded to be between the

months April and May. Although during the rainy season, the Philippines still experiences

bright and sunny days. The researches took this opportunity to work on a renewable

energy system that makes use of sunlight as its main source.

A thermoelectric power generation system takes in heat from a source such as hot

exhaust, and outputs electricity using thermoelectric modules. Maximizing the efficiency
(or, conversely, the total power output) of a thermoelectric power generation system

requires extensive engineering design. Trade-offs between total heat flow through the

thermoelectric modules and maximizing the temperature gradient across them must be

balanced. The design of heat exchanger technologies to accomplish this is one of the

most important aspects of engineering of a thermoelectric generator.

The researchers will develop a thermoelectric power generation system that could

minimize the power consumption in the Philippines. The researchers chose Tuguegarao

City to be the location of the system as it was named as the hottest city in the country

yielding a great amount of thermal energy.

1.2 Background of the Study

Renewable energy systems have become a fast-developing trend advocating clean

energy. Philippines relies heavily on coal as the source of electricity generation. As of

2017, coal power plants generated 46.8 million MWh compensating almost half of the

country’s power generation mix (Business World, 2018). Renewable energy power plants

only cover 24.6% of the country’s gross power generation. This risk drives many

researchers to conduct studies concerning further developments in renewable energy.

In 2007 the world consumed roughly 500 quadrillion BTUs of energy and is expected

to increase at 1.4% per year. About 90% of this energy was generated through fossil fuel

combustion with a typical efficiency of 30-40%. The remaining 60-70% of the energy was

lost to the environment via automotive exhaust, industrial processes, and more. It is highly

desired to use the wasted heat to improve the overall efficiency of energy conversion.
The energy of the wasted heat can be collected and transformed to electricity through a

thermoelectric device.

Thermoelectric are solid state heat engines with materials properties that enable them

to convert waste heat into electricity. Their fundamental principle is based on charge

carriers: electrons in N-type materials and holes in P-type materials have the ability to

move freely through metals and semiconductors. In the presence of a temperature

gradient, charge carriers diffuse from hot to cold until an equilibrium is reached between

the diffusion potential and the electrostatic repulsion potential, resulting in a buildup of

charge carriers known as the Seebeck effect. Typical thermoelectric devices consist of

alternating P and N-type semiconductors connected electrically in series and thermally in

parallel. This allows the holes and electrons to flow in opposite directions forming an

electric current for power generation.

Even though it seems unlikely that thermoelectric devices will have a role in large

scale energy production, they do have some benefits over current technologies. Their

solid-state technology offers several large advantages compared to other technologies.

They produce electrical energy with no moving parts, which makes them silent and highly

reliable while also decreasing operation, maintenance, and potentially capital costs. This

allows them to be placed in harsh or remote environments where their reliability justifies

their lower efficiency and higher costs. However, the biggest advantage that favors

thermoelectric devices is their scalability. Typical coal or other mechanical engines

significantly drop in efficiency as they are reduced in size or power level. Yet,

thermoelectric maintain their efficiency regardless of power level even on the milliwatt
level. This leads to a cross over point where thermoelectric devices are actually more

efficient.

The researchers chose Tuguegarao City as the location of the system to be

developed. Tuguegarao experiences a tropical climate, with only a slight difference

between summer and winter temperatures, and high year-round humidity. The average

temperature during March and April is 38 °C (100 °F), one of the highest in the country.

On August 19, 1912 and May 11, 1969, the highest temperature in the Philippines

was recorded in Tuguegarao at 42.2 °C (108.0 °F). Thus, the city was tagged as the

"Hottest City in the Philippines". Unusually, in months—usually lasts from December to

February—where the cool northeast monsoon or locally as amihan surges, temperatures

in the city drop to as low as 15 °C (59 °F)—in 2017—especially in early mornings.

The thermoelectric generator system was to be situated in pavement roads because

of higher temperature due to the vehicles passing through. The researchers would further

develop existing studies by introducing storage of energy to the thermoelectric generator.

Moreover, the main purpose of the thermoelectric generator is to power up street lights

during the night.

1.3 Research Paradigm

Input Process Output

-Temperature -Construction of -Total power

difference; heat the prototype generated from
.
coming from the using the system.
asphalt and cold thermoelectric
-Efficiency of
coming from the module, water
the system as
water tank. tank, asphalt
the power
mixture slab .
source of street
-Installation of the lights in
system as the Tuguegarao
source of . City
renewable energy.

1.4 General Objectives

To design a thermoelectric generator system situated on the main roads of

Tuguegarao City that stores energy within the day and powers street lights at night.
1.5 Specific Objectives

Specifically, it aims to achieve the following objectives:

1. To gather thermal energy from the road pavements using a thermoelectric

generator.

2. To install the thermoelectric generator to a system that could store energy at

daytime and power street lights at nighttime at Tuguegarao CIty, Philippines.

3. To test the system’s efficiency through a simulation using a small-scale prototype.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The research is strictly limited to the feasibility of thermoelectric generator as a source

of energy for powering streetlights during the night at the main roads of Tuguegarao City.

This study does not include factors such as weathering and poor maintenance that could

affect the efficiency of the system. Moreover, the system’s feasibility denotes that the

system could produce enough power for one street light given that the researchers would

only construct a prototype.

Due to time constraints and lack of resources, the researchers will demonstrate the

prototype using a small-scale device. From that small-scale prototype, data and results

will be gathered.
1.7 Significance of the Study

The study intends to design a system that will apply thermoelectric generators into

sources of street lights. Through this, the researchers believe that the following will benefit

from the finding of this study:

Consumers. Street lights are highly necessary during the night, especially in main roads.

Heat, in order not to be wasted, could substitute in generating power for this application

instead of consuming commercial power.

Students. The design proposal will serve as a guide to students. The research focuses

primarily on application of renewable energy. This will help students gain the theoretical

and practical skills to explore the growing field of renewable energy technologies.

Future researchers. Thermoelectric generators had not yet been into the attention of the

local researchers. This study proposes the feasibility of thermoelectric generators as a

substitute source of energy in small-scale applications within the country.

 CHAPTER 2

Related Literature and Studies

2.1 Related Literature

Thermoelectric Technology

According to Zhao and Zhang (2015), Thermoelectric system is an environment-

friendly energy conversion technology with the advantages of small size, high reliability,

no pollutants and feasibility in a wide temperature range. However, the efficiency of

thermoelectric devices is not high enough to rival the Carnot efficiency. Thermoelectric

materials are environmentally friendly for power generation and refrigeration, thus

providing a solution for energy crisis and pollution; however, the thermoelectric

conversion efficiency is low and mainly limited by the performance of thermoelectric

materials.

Bell (2001) states that, Conventional thermoelectric devices utilize P-type and N-

type Semiconductors as the thermoelectric material within the device. Thermal power is

convected through the thermoelectric array or arrays toward at least one Side of the

thermoelectric array, which leads to String increased efficiency. An improved efficiency

thermoelectric power generator is achieved by generally steady state convective heat

transport within the device itself. Overall efficiency may be improved by designing

Systems wherein the thermoelectric System (elements or arrays) are configured to permit

to the flow of a heat transport fluid, transport thermal energy to a moving Substance, or

move the thermoelectric material itself to transport heat. As an alternative to, or in

combination with improved efficiency, generally Steady State convection can be

employed to reduce, the heat flux to the waste (cold) side.

Lee (2015) said that, Thermoelectricity (TE) is the conversion of heat into electricity

(Seebeck effect), or of electricity into heat or refrigeration (Peltier effect). The use of the

Seebeck effect could allow heat to be saved, which would be otherwise lost. Although the

conversion efficiency is very low, it has been enjoying renewed favor for several years,

and novel research and development leads have been investigated, such as new

materials and the structuring of matter at the nanoscale. This combination has led to

active investigations worldwide, but without achieving the decisive breakthrough, which

will give thermoelectricity a prominent place among energy harvesting technologies.

Thermoelectricity for energy harvesting has several barriers to overcome: low conversion

efficiency; toxicity; and low availability of chemical elements constituting part of the most

interesting thermoelectric materials.

The Seebeck Effect and the Thermoelectric Figure of Merit

Based on Science ABC, The Seebeck Effect is a phenomenon in which a

temperature difference between two dissimilar electric conductors or semiconductors

produces a voltage difference between those two substances. When heat is applied to

one of the two conductors or semiconductors, the electrons become excited due to the

heat. Since only one of the two sides is heated, the electrons start moving towards the

cooler side of the two conductors. If both of the conductors are connected in the form of

a circuit, direct current flows through the circuit. The Peltier Effect is the presence of
heating or cooling at an electrified junction of two different conductors. When a current is

made to flow through a junction between two conductors, heat may be added or removed

at the junction. The Thomson effect is the generation of reversible heat when an electrical

current is sent through a conducting material that is subjected to a temperature gradient.

By Oksana (2019), it is said that the Seebeck effect describes the buildup of a

potential difference across a semiconductor or conductor due to the diffusion of charge

carriers along a temperature gradient, which the material experiences because one side

of it is heated or cooled. Charges move from the hot to the cold side, leading to a gradient

in the number of charge carriers which is, at equilibrium, balanced by the resulting internal

electrical field. The type of majority charge carriers determines the sign of the potential

difference, which by convention is defined by the potential of the cold side with respect to

the hot side. The Seebeck coefficient describes the magnitude of this effect, and for small

changes in temperature.

Depending on the type of majority carriers (i.e., holes or electrons), the potential

difference (and hence the Seebeck coefficient) can be positive or negative, i.e. αp > 0 for

p-type semiconductors and αn < 0 for n-type semiconductors. The Seebeck coefficient,

which can be understood as the entropy per charge carrier, is related to the density of

states (DOS). A complete picture of the DOS, which changes when dopant molecules are

added to the semiconductor and its impact on the thermopower, are still emerging.

Undoped semiconductors display a Seebeck coefficient on the order of mV/K. Upon

doping (i.e., the introduction of charge carriers through the addition of dopant molecules),

the Seebeck coefficient typically decreases, leading to values as low as a few µV/K for
highly doped materials. (Zuo et al., 2016; Bubnova et al., 2013; Nguyen and O’Leary,

2000; Lenz et al., 2011),

To convert the Seebeck voltage into electricity, a load must be connected across

the thermoelectric material (or series of materials), which will result in an electrical current.

To maximize the electricity that can be generated, both electrical losses in the form of

Joule heating and thermal losses due to heat flow between the hot and cold reservoirs

must be minimized. Therefore, the thermoelectric material should feature a high electrical

conductivity σ, but low thermal conductivity κ. The requirement for a high Seebeck

coefficient, high electrical conductivity, and low thermal conductivity can be combined into

a dimensionless number, the so-called thermoelectric figure of merit ZT, which allows

comparisons of the thermoelectric efficacy of various materials

The Heat Capacity of Electro-Positive Metals and the Thermal Energy of Free

Electrons

From Eastman (2009), according to the classical principle known as the

equipartition of energy the kinetic energy of every kind of atom which is capable of motion

in any direction is the same, and the change in this kinetic energy for a change in

temperature of one degree is 3R/2 calories per gram atom. If in a solid substance each

atom instead of moving freely vibrates about a more or less fixed position according to

the laws of a simple oscillator, it will possess on the average a potential energy equal to

its kinetic energy, and, if we consider the simple case in which the volume is kept constant

the heat capacity per gram atom should be equal to 3R, or 5.97 calories per degree.
 In addition to this, according to the empirical law of Dulong and Petit, the atomic

heat capacity at constant pressure is the same for most solid elements and equal to a

little over 6 calories per degree. Lewis' calculated by means of a thermodynamic equation

the difference between Cp and C, and found for a considerable number of elements that

C, is more nearly constant and that its average value at 200C., when a few elements of

low atomic weight are omitted, is 5.9, which is almost identical with the theoretical value.

Much recent work, both experimental and theoretical, has shown that the earlier

formulation of the equipartition law can no longer be considered as universally valid but

rather as the expression of a limiting law which approaches complete validity the higher

the temperature, the heavier the atom and the weaker the constraints operating upon the

atom. Every factor which causes a deviation from the equipartition law leads to a smaller

specific heat than the one calculated by that principle. If therefore we find for any

substance a value of C, greater than 3R per gram atom we are led immediately to

consider the possibility that in addition to the atom’s other particles, either inside or

outside of the atoms, are acquiring thermal energy.

Thermoelectric Generators

Goldsmid (2009) had come up with the conclusion in which we, now, consider the

application of the Seebeck effect in the generation of electrical power. Again, we obtain

the performance using the model of a single thermocouple and we assume that no heat

arrives at the sink other than through the two branches. The arrangement is shown below

will depend on the value of load as well as on the properties of the thermocouple.
 Figure 1. single thermocouple assuming that no heat arrives at the sink other than

through the two branches

Thermoelements are usually made from crystalline solids. They are not commonly

single crystals, but their crystalline nature can be observed under a microscope. The

transport of electric charge is due to quasi-free electrons in the solid. The solids of interest

to us are metals and semiconductors. In such materials, the electrons carry not only the

charge but also the thermal energy. In other words, there is an electronic component of

the thermal conductivity. Also, heat can also be carried by the thermal vibrations of the

atoms in a crystal.
 The idea of conduction by electrons was proposed by Drude and Lorentz using the

principles of classical physics. The classical free electron theory predicted that the

specific heat should be much larger for a metal than for an electrical insulator but, in

reality, there is very little difference. This discrepancy disappeared when Sommerfeld took

account of the newly developed quantum theory but neither the classical nor the quantum

mechanical-free electron theories were able to explain why some solids are metallic

conductors and others are insulators. It was only when notice was taken of the interaction

of the electrons with the periodic potential that exists in a crystal lattice that further

progress could be made. It was shown that, through this interaction, the energy of the

electrons must lie in discrete bands that are separated by forbidden regions or energy

gaps. Interestingly, Sommerfeld’s theory can still be applied to the current-carrying

electrons, if they are assigned an effective mass rather than the mass of a free electron.

The coefficient of performance or COP (sometimes CP or CoP) of a heat pump,

refrigerator or air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to

work required. Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. For thermoelectric coolers,

mathematical efficiency is the heat pumped by a cooler divided by the electrical input

power; for thermoelectric generators, efficiency is the electrical output power from the

cooler divided by the heat input

(Qc/ Qh). To convert to percent, multiply by 100.

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) System

According to Lovegrove, CSP systems capture the direct beam component of solar

radiation. Unlike flat plate photovoltaics (PV), they are not able to use radiation that has

been diffused by clouds, dust or other factors. This makes them best suited to areas with

a high percentage of clear sky days, in locations that do not have smog or dust.

The configurations that are currently used commercially in order of deployment

level are:

• Parabolic trough

• Central receiver tower

• Linear Fresnel

• Fresnel lenses (for CPV)

• Paraboloid dishes.

Each technology boasts particular advantages and, in some cases, particular

market segments. Project and technology developers are actively pursuing all types of

CSP technologies. In addition to these concepts that are applied commercially, a solar

furnace arrangement is widely used as a tool for research projects. A solar furnace

typically consists of a paraboloid dish mounted in a fixed orientation in a laboratory

building, with one or more external heliostats directing solar radiation to it at a fixed angle.

In an article written by Stacy Muise, solar thermal systems have several

advantages. The ‘fuel’ that powers them is free and renewable, so these systems are

cheap to run and can replace some conventional fuel use. Solar thermal is an emission-

free source of energy. Finally, solar thermal systems are relatively low maintenance
because they use simpler technologies and passive systems that have no moving parts.

In the case of CSP, the technology’s ability to produce large-scale generation is an

advantage for regions that utilize a centralized electricity distribution system.

Although abundant, many aspects of sunlight can cause problems for the use of

solar thermal systems. Sunshine is not a very concentrated energy source, so it can take

a large area to make a reasonable amount of energy, evoking land-use concerns.

Sunshine is also intermittent and its availability is dependent on location.

The location of CSP installations causes additional problems for the technology.

Many are normally located in remote, desert areas, and, given that steam turbines

produce electricity for CSP, water access and rapid evaporation are key concerns for the

viability of the technology. In addition, transmission of electricity over large distances is

expensive and can lead to distribution losses.

Finally, practical challenges such as upfront capital costs and awareness of solar

thermal technologies can also be barriers to implementation in some countries.

2.2 Related Studies

Thermal Energy in Road Pavements

Based on the study of Halipah, asphalt pavement absorbs the radiation of the sun

rather than reflecting it, increasing the temperature of ambient air and pavement surfaces.

The temperature of the asphalt pavement can reach up to 50℉ higher than a reflective

white surface, making the heat from the pavement unbearable. Figure 2 shows the daily

temperature of a street located in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. It has been shown that a 1-

second exposure to 70°C pavement can cause burns to the skin (American Concrete

Pavement Association, 2009). At this temperature, an egg can cook on the surface of the

pavement in just 5 minutes.

Figure 2. Daily temperature of a Phoenix street (American Concrete Pavement

Association, 2009)
 Heat islands are common in urban and suburban areas due to the concentrations

of structures and pavement. The structures are typically composed of materials such as

concrete that can retain and absorb higher amounts of heat from the sun than the natural

materials utilized in rural areas Furthermore, the dark materials in concert with canyon-

like configurations of pavement and buildings further contribute to the absorption of heat.

When vegetated surfaces with moist soil underneath are exposed to direct sunlight, the

temperature of the heat absorbed is only around 18°C.

The paved surfaces in urban and suburban areas are often warmer than the less-

paved surfaces in rural areas. Pavement is usually comprised of materials with very low

reflectivity or albedo. Albedo is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation that is

reflected from a surface. It plays a significant role in the energy balance on the surface of

the earth since it defines how much solar radiation is absorbed.

According to Mallick et al (2008). Water flowing through copper tubes inserted

within asphalt pavements samples were use as heat exchangers. The rise in temperature

of water as a result of flow through the asphalt pavement was used as the indicator of

efficiency of heat capture. The efficiency can also be improved by using a reflectivity

reducing and absorptivity increasing top layer over the pavement. The captured energy

from heated asphalt pavements can be used for relatively simple applications, such as

heating of water, to sophisticated applications, such as generating electricity through

thermoelectric generator. The heat transfer from a pavement heated by solar energy can

be enhanced by using a high conductivity material as well as by using an insulating layer

on the top that would reduce reflectivity and emissivity. The amount of energy generated

can also be increase significantly by increasing the surface area exposed to the sun.
 A research conducted by Plesz (2014) dealt with the transformation potential of

asphalt pavement’s heat energy to electric power, applying thermoelectric generators for

the task. The system was situated in Hungary and the heat energy arriving to the roads

is annual 1200 kWh/man average on horizontal planar surface, which means an annual

300 TWh if we consider the 240 km national public roads can be found in the country. Put

in context the average applied electric energy is an annual 50 TWh in Hungary. These

data show that it’s worth to examine the energetic utilization of lost heat, even if the

available small temperature-differences make only a moderate transformation efficiency

possible. The thermo-electrical modules can be applied for the electrically forced delivery

of heat, or rather for electric energy production for the debit of heat flowing over them.

Thermal convection thanks to the Peltier-effect while the electric power output is based

on the Seebeck-effect: the temperature-difference between the two points forms into

electric power with the aid of a semiconductor device applied as a thermo-electric

generator (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Typical Block Diagram of a Thermoelectric Generator

On behalf of the conditions of practical realization and the system’s larger efficiency it’s

worth to optimize the system to an inlet temperature 40 °C and a rate of flow 0,1 m/s.

Figure 4. sums up the electric outputs cumulated along the length of TEG unit beside

these parameters. The amount of energy recoverable from the road surface depends on

the quantity of solar radiation reaching the road, so the geographical situation of the

road affects the recoverable amount of energy significantly.

Figure 4. Accumulated Electric Outputs

Thermoelectric Generators

According to Zhou, thermoelectric technology is based on thermoelectric effects,

including Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and Thomson effect. It employs thermoelectric

materials and transforms thermal energy to electricity.

The interest in thermoelectric generators is growing due to the rapid decrease of

natural resources for power generation. One of the any examples is a USA patent by
Charles Hanson in the year 2017. This invention is comprised of a thermoelectric voltage

generator cooperating with hot exhaust pipe gases from an internal combustion engine

for providing electrical energy therefrom. The high temperatures reached by parts of an

automobile engine suggests the application of engine waste heat to the generation of

usable power. Electrical energy generated in this manner could be used to supplement

the power of a generator or alternator, or could be used to drive specific electrical

components (e.g., lights, fan, radio, air conditioner, etc). The principle advantage of this

method is that the primary source of energy is waste heat, i.e., the extraction of electrical

power via such a method does not reduce engine efficiency. In fact, since power

consuming items would no longer need to be driven by the engine or by engine-generated

electricity, the effective efficiency of the engine would be increased. The present invention

uses the Seebeck generator effect of extracting heat from vehicle hot exhaust pipe gases

to produce a voltage for use in the vehicle.

A research study suggested the use of lead telluride in thermoelectric generators.

Modeling thermoelectric generator (TEG) performances plays an important role in guiding

the design of TEGs to achieve better efficiency. However, a rigorous 1-D TEG modeling

performance has not yet been conducted, which prevents reliable prediction of TEG

performance. In this work, a detailed 1-D model has been developed to take into account

temperature-dependent thermoelectric material properties, heat loss due to radiation and

conduction, and Thomson effect. A Lead Telluride (PbTe) TEG was chosen as a sample

module and the modeling results agree very well with the experimental results, which

proves how powerful the presented detailed 1-D model can be used to predict and

validate TEG experimental results. TEG power and efficiency were found to have a
respective decrease of 10% and 31% from the simplified model at a temperature gradient

of 570 K. While heat loss attributable to conduction and radiation were found to be small,

the Thomson effect, which is often neglected, was found to significantly reduce TEG

performances. The deep analysis enabled by the new model provides useful guidelines

to improve the performance of TEGs. (Kanimba, 2018)

Operation control is an effective way to improve the output power of thermoelectric

generators (TEGs). Chen (2016) intended to numerically investigate the power output and

efficiency of a TEG and find the operating conditions for maximizing its performance. The

temperature distributions at the hot side and cold side surfaces of the TEG are

approximated by sinusoidal functions. The influences of the temperature amplitudes at

the hot side surface and the cold side surface, the phase angle, and the figure-of-merit

(ZT) on the performance of the TEG are analyzed. The predictions indicate that the mean

output power and efficiency of the TEG are significantly enhanced by the temperature

oscillation, whereas the mean absorbed heat by the TEG is slightly influenced. An

increase in the temperature amplitude of the hot side surface and the phase angle can

effectively improve the performance. For the phase angle of 0°, a smaller temperature

amplitude at the cold side surface renders the better performance compared to that with

a larger amplitude. When the ZT value increases from 0.736 to 1.8, the mean efficiency

at the phase angle of 180° is amplified by a factor of 1.72, and the maximum mean

efficiency is 8.45%. In summary, a larger temperature amplitude at the hot side surface

with the phase angle of 180° is a feasible operation for maximizing the performance.
Average Temperature Data for Tuguegarao City

According to Weather Atlas (2019), warmest months (with the highest average

high temperature) are April, May and June (36°C). Months with the lowest average high

temperature are January and December (28°C). The average low temperature in

September: 22°C. Months with the highest average low temperature are May and June

(23°C). The coldest month (with the lowest average low temperature) is February (18°C).

Thermal and Thermoelectric Energy Storage

Ma et al (2011) stated that, Thermal energy is stored as forms of material internal

energy that includes both sensible and latent heat. It is generally easy and inexpensive

to store, but is not as direct to electricity as other methods. As shown in Figure 2, thermal

energy is two steps from electric energy, with the exception of possible direct electric

generation by thermoelectric generators. However, unlike other electric storage devices,

the downstream conversion of electricity to thermal energy can be 100% by Joule heating.
The conversion of thermal energy back to electricity is limited by the thermal energy

quality and the conversion that is capped by the Carnot cycle efficiency.

According to Dias et al (2017), Thermoelectric energy harvesting circuits operating

from environmental temperature gradients, such as the flat-panel STEGs, require the use

of a DC–DC converter that can operate with very low voltages. When connected to a DC–

DC converter powered by a STEG, it can measure the total thermal energy converted to

electricity and be stored in the supercapacitor.

Outdoor Lighting Using Renewable Energy Sources

Simon et al. (2015) said that, The TEGs can be configured to produce electrical

energy using heat produced by the LEDs. For example, the TEGs can be thermoelectric

generators of the type including a plurality of thermocouples utilizing the Seebeck effect

to convert temperature differences within the TEGs produced by the heat to electric

voltage. The TEGs can be electrically connected in a series and can be electrically

connected to the circuit board. For example, wires can extend from the TEGs and can be

soldered or otherwise electrically connected to each other to electrically connect the

TEGs in a series, and wires can also electrically connect the TEGs to the circuit board or

another type of LED power source. The TEGs can be electrically connected to the circuit

board in series with an electrical connection between one or more of the end caps and

the circuit board. As a result, electrical energy produced by the TEGs can be

communicated to the LEDs via the circuit board for use in producing light.
2.3 Synthesis of Related Literature and Studies

Previous studies show that the use of thermoelectric generators is feasible for power

generation from road pavements. The researches were conducted to show that the

difference in temperature of the road pavements and supplied water could generate

enough electricity. The researchers deduced from these studies that this kind of

system would be possible and would work effectively in a location such as Tuguegarao

City, Philippines. The city, named as the hottest city of the country, have enough

thermal energy for the system to operate on. As of its application, the researchers

construed that the system would be able to gather thermal energy during the day and

supply power to street lights at night.

 CHAPTER 3

Methodology

This chapter presents the process of harvesting energy from asphalt pavement,

applying all the theories that have been formulated after a thorough research. A project

design is created to determine the effectiveness of the study, all materials that will be

used in the design is assessed carefully to know which will be efficient to get the desired

output.

3.1 Project Research Design

The progressive research will be used to improve and enhance the existing

designs of the study. Hence, modification and a trial and error process of creating the

theoretical design or prototype can be done to evaluate which will give a better output

when tested. Creation of the prototype will be the fundamental guide to prove all the

theorems framed by the researchers, starting first by producing a design based on the

studies and computations that have been done.

3.2 Project Development

In this phase, developing a project design to create a technology that goes through

the thermoelectric generator involves a range of tasks. Determining the materials used,

construction, and testing if the theoretical prototype created based on the design will work.

It also consists a set of tests to see the holes or problems that might be encountered

when creating the prototype, thus formulating solutions to it.

Step 1: Research and Applications

 The researchers will look for related studies and literatures that will be of

help in creating the project. This comprises a set of theories and postulates that

provide basic ideologies that will be the guide on where the prototype is supposed

to work, which suitable materials will make it work and the proper process of how

it should work. In creating the theoretical prototype, the researchers also

considered the costs and quality of each material that will be used to see which

will give a more efficient result. Sources of information include legitimate books,

journals, studies, thesis, articles, internet sources, and individual experts that are

available.

Step 2: Theoretical Design

This stage is the vital part in the project’s overall success. The researchers

are to finalize the design for the theoretical prototype by the end of this phase. The

goal of the researchers is to complete this in line with the studies and literatures

that have been gathered and formulated, and the data that have been given by the

professionals who are well-informed of the topic. In search of improvement or

enhancement in the process of creating the project is also taken into consideration

if there are any.

Step 3: Applying the Appropriate Materials

This is the part where the researches need to gather the specified set of

materials to satisfy the design of the study. The researches need the resources to

needed to install in the theoretical prototype carefully. Also, the researchers need
to canvass the needed materials for designing the prototype so that expenses can

be minimized.

Step 4: Structural Design

This stage concentrates on creating the structural design of the project. It

starts with the researchers looking for settings where to put the theoretical

prototype which will give off a better desired output. Within these settings, the time

and temperature of the setting where it should be placed is taken into

consideration, hence the higher difference in temperature of the heated area and

the cold area where the theoretical prototype is placed, the better its output since

it provides much power in a certain period of time. Accumulating more power in

the thermoelectric generator will result to an improved power output. Proper

procedures and accurate conclusions are formulated with the help of professionals

who are knowledgeable about the project. An appropriate flow of development is

followed to avoid overlooking miscalculations that might lead to a defective

prototype.

Step 5: Recalculating the Margin of Errors

The final step is recalculating the margin of errors. When the researchers

have finished designing the theoretical prototype, the recalculations and revisions

for the improvement of the said project will commence. The researchers must

arrange the set of mathematical tests that will transpire for the theoretical prototype

and results are recorded with respect to the desired function of the prototype ought
 to meet. Thus, the researchers need to assess each and every step of how the

prototype should work. If there are any errors that will occur within the process,

revisions of the design are needed.

3.3. Derivation of Mathematical Model

The maximum power that can be generated by using one thermoelectric is given
by the formula below:

Where:
Pmax = Maximum power
Sm = Seebeck Coefficient
DT = Difference between the hot and cold temperature
Rm = Average module resistance
3.3 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

The operational procedures cover the overall procedures done to make the prototype.
The researchers started with gathering of materials for testing and installation

3.3.1 Wooden Board

As shown below, a wooden board (320mm x 320mm) is prepared
as the base for where the asphalt mixture slabs.

3.3.2 Heat insulation foam cover

A heat insulation foam is then attached on the edges of the wooden
board that serves as the wall for the asphalt mixture slab.

3.3.3 Asphalt Mixture Slab

 The created open box is poured in by an asphalt mixture slab. The
asphalt mixture slabs are dual-layer with 300 mm(12 inches) in
length, 300 mm (12 inches) in width and 100 (4 inches) mm in
thickness.

3.3.4 Attachment of the Water Tank to the Asphalt Mixture Slab

The water tank 14 inches (length) x 6 inches (width) x 6 inches (height) is then
put near at the side of the asphalt mixture slab.

3.3.5 Installation of the Aluminum Vapor Chamber and Thermoelectric

Module
 Aluminum vapor chamber is used to improve the efficiency of heat
exchange between the cold side and the water tank. At the tank,
aluminum vapor chamber installed with the thermoelectric module.

3.3.6 Covering the Aluminum Vapor Chambers with asphalt

The Aluminum vapor chamber is then poured again with asphalt
covering it. Being it seem as attached inside the mixture.

3.3.7 Attachment of Aluminum Heat Sink in the Water Tank.

Aluminum heat sink on the sidewalls of the water tank which allows
sufficient heat exchange between the water and ambient air
3.3.8 Filling the Water Tank
The Tank is now filled with water. Being it as that the thermoelectric
module and aluminum vapor chamber is inside.

3.3.9 Cover for the Water Tank

Shading board will be used at the side and top of the tank to block
direct sunlight. After installing the shading board, it is then covered
also with heat insulation foam. A conduit pipe is attached at the
side for the set of wires connected to the thermoelectric modules.
3.3.10 Data Acquisition
It is then connected to a data acquisition instrument to calculate
how much Voltage / Ampere / Power is accumulated within a set
period of time.
 CHAPTER 4

Experiment and Data

The researchers conducted an experiment demonstrating the efficiency of a

commercial electric device using LabVIEW data acquisition. Thermal efficiency is an

important parameter and provides important information for the proposed system.

Experimental Setup

A commercial thermoelectric device was used for the experimental testing and is a model

TEC1-12706 Bismuth Telluride device with a physical size of 40mm x 40mm x 3.5 mm.

The device has 127 couples and a photo of the device is shown in Figure 1 below.

A testing assembly was constructed such that a known heat could be added to “hot” side

of the device. By measuring the power output of the thermoelectric device through a load,

the efficiency of the thermoelectric device can be calculated as follows:

 (Equation 1)

Where, η = thermal efficiency

Pout = measured power output of the device (watts)

Qin = measured input heat to the device (watts)

An assembly was created to house the thermoelectric device for testing purposes.

A diagram of the assembly is shown in Figure 2 with both an assembled view and

exploded view. Starting at the bottom of the device, an end plate fabricated from copper

is used to attach a thin Omega Kapton heater to the bottom plate which is also made from

copper. Copper was chosen for construction due to its high thermal conductivity so that

each plate will distribute heat well. The bottom plate has a small hole drilled in the side to

accommodate a type-T thermocouple for temperature measurement. Above the bottom

plate is the thermoelectric device (pictured in Figure 1). Silver conductive thermal grease

was used on both sides of the thermoelectric device to provide good thermal contact in

the assembly. Above the thermoelectric device is the top plate which is fabricated from

copper and contains a channel for water cooling. The entire assembly is held together

with plastic screws from the top plate to the end plate. Plastic was chosen as the material

for the screws to reduce heat transfer through the screws. The assembly is also

surrounded with rigid insulation (2” thick housing type insulation) on all sides except for

the top plate to ensure that the heat provided by the heater is transferred through the

thermoelectric device and not dissipated elsewhere. The insulation is not shown on Figure
2, but it can be seen later in Figure 4.

A block diagram of the overall experimental setup is shown in Figure 3. In addition

to the thermoelectric testing device described before, several other items are included. A

data acquisition system and laptop are used for recording data. A small DC pump and

cooling water tank (one-gallon water container) are used to provide cooling for the

system. A power supply is used to provide power both to the heater of the thermoelectric

testing device and also the pump (a single power supply provides power independently

to the two devices). Two resistors, 0.488 Ω and a 0-25 Ω rheostat, are used to provide

the load for testing. A variable resistance was selected to best match the load resistance

to the device resistance to provide maximum power. It also allows the user to easily see
the effect of load resistance on power output, voltage output, and efficiency. A photograph

of the actual test setup is shown in Figure 4.

 A LabVIEW program was created to measure the performance of the thermoelectric

device (including instantaneous efficiency calculation). Five analog input channels were

used to measure information from the setup and those inputs are listed below.

 Temperature of the hot side of the thermoelectric device (Type-T thermocouple)

 Temperature of the cold side of the thermoelectric device (Type-T thermocouple)

 Heater voltage, measured using a voltage divider (analog voltage input)

 Load voltage, measured across variable resistor

 Partial load voltage, measured across the 0.488Ω fixed resistor and used to

calculate load current.

In order to calculate efficiency using Equation (1), the input heat, Qin, and output

power Pout, must be found. The input heat is found using the heater voltage and heater

resistance as shown in Equation (2) below.

(Equation 2)

The heater voltage was measured by the data acquisition system and the heater

resistance was measured as 9.00Ω prior to testing.

The power output was calculated using the load voltage and load current with

Equation (3) below.

(Equation 3)
 The load voltage (Vload) is measured directly with the data acquisition system by

measuring the voltage drop across both the 0.488Ω fixed resistor and the 0-25Ω rheostat.

The load current (load) is found by measuring the voltage drop across only the 0.488Ω

fixed resistor and calculating the current. A screenshot of the block diagram of the

LabVIEW program is shown in Figure 5 and a screenshot of the front panel is shown in

Figure 6. The front panel allows the user to monitor the hot and cold side temperatures

of the thermoelectric device (graph on the left side of Figure 6) as well as monitor the

instantaneous efficiency of the device (graph on the right side of Figure 6). It is very easy

to visually see the effect that changing the load resistance has on the device efficiency

as seen in the spike in efficiency in Figure 6 (the load resistance was changed during

testing at this spike).

Results

Six different tests were conducted with the commercial thermoelectric device. The

heater voltage was tested at 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, and 22 volts. Increasing the heater voltage

increased the temperature difference across the device. The key parameters of interest

were the power output and efficiency of the thermoelectric device for a range of

temperature differences and load voltages. The power output of the device depends on

the output voltage (controlled by the load resistance), and this relationship changes for

various temperature differences. Figure 7 shows the relationship between load power and

voltage for each of the six tests. The data sets for each test were created by varying the

load resistance using the rheostat. The lowest temperature difference tested was 20.6°C

(corresponding to a heater voltage of 12 volts) and the highest temperature difference

tested was 68.1°C (corresponding to a heater voltage of 22 volts). As expected, the

highest temperature difference produced the highest power output. For each curve, the

highest power output occurs at the point at which the load resistance matches the device

resistance. This allows the user to quickly see the benefits of load matching.
 CHAPTER 5

Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Summary

This paper presented data supporting the researchers’ proposal to harvest thermal

energy in road pavements using thermoelectric generators at Tuguegarao City,

Philippines. Data showed that the heat index in Tuguegarao City is sufficient enough to

generate electricity to be stored for continued use. The researchers also conducted an

experiment to demonstrate the efficiency of a thermoelectric generator through a

simulation in Labview program.

Conclusions

At the end of this study, the researchers have proved the feasibility of

thermoelectric generators in harvesting thermal energy from the road pavements of

Tuguegarao City, Philippines. From the experiment, the highest temperature difference

produced the highest power output. Therefore, the researchers conclude that the city with

the highest temperature index could produce high levels of electricity and supply power

to street lights at night.

Recommendations

This study is limited in testing the prototype in small-scale and a controlled setting.

It is recommended for the future researchers to test the effectiveness of this design at the

proposed location for better and accurate results.

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