Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

Many studies in literature show that vermicompost alone or in combination with other
fertilizers can improve growth, yield and quality of various plants. A comparison of
vermicompost with other fertilizers can be made on the basis of different studies in literature.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco technology for the conversion of
various types of wastes into vermicompost. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and
stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the
agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental
problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc.
Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In
the last two decades, vermitechnology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes
and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of
the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH,
temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species
used.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena) is an important vegetable crop belongs to the family

Solanaceae and extensively cultivated in tropics and sub-tropics. It is grown in China, India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Philippines. It is also cultivated in America, Europe and Asia. It is one
of the most important vegetable crops of India (Zeven and Zhukovsky, 1975; Rashid, 1976;
Sekara et al., 2007). It is susceptible to various biotic and abiotic stresses at various stages of
growth and development. Among the biotic stresses, fungal pathogens cause number of diseases,
the most important ones are leaf blight and fruit rot (Phomopsis vexans), leaf spots (Alternaria
melongenae and Cercospora melongenae), damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum), wilt
(Verticillium dahliae), and root rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) (Shivaprakasam and Soumini
Rajgopalan, 1974; Iqbal et al., 2003). Fruit rot and leaf blight caused by Phomopsis vexans is one
of the major diseases in brinjal growing areas which reduces yield remarkably and market value
of crop decreases by 20 30% (Beura et al., 2008; Pandey, 2010).

P. vexans associated with brinjal has been reported from many areas in the warmer parts
except Europe and a few African countries (Harter, 1914; Smith et al., 1988). The pathogen is
believed to be originated from South Asia (Prance and Nesbitt, 2005). It is reported to infect
some of the wild Solanum species (Datar and Ashtaputre, 1988). The fungus is readily
transmitted through seeds internally as well as externally (Porter, 1943; Vishunavat and Kumar,
1993). The teleomorph of the fungus has not been detected in nature except Gratz (1942)
reported the occurrence of perithecia on 2% potato dextrose agar medium and assigned the name
Diaporthe vexans as teleomorph of P. vexans. The disease incidence of Phomopsis leaf blight
varied between agro-climatic regions of Karnataka. In India, the fungal pathogen was first
reported in Gujarat, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Karnataka. The fungus causes
severe infection during postflowering season and also causes post-harvest losses during
transport. However, precise field incidence, severity and the extent of loss caused by this fungal
pathogen is not available.

Solanaceae (nightshade) is a family comprising of 100 genera and 2,500 species. About half
of the family is comprised of members belonging to the genus Solanum. Most species of this
genus are endemic to Americas and only 20% belong to the Old World species (Sękara et al.
2007; Doganlar et al. 2002). The Solanum subgenus Leptostemonum comprise almost one third
of the genus. The three closely related and cultivated species of eggplants viz Solanum
melongena L. (brinjal, eggplant, aubergine), S. aethiopicum L (scarlet eggplant) and S.
macrocarpon (gboma eggplant) belong to this sub genus (Sękara et al. 2007; Doganlar et al.
2002). In addition to eggplant, the Solanaceae family also includes the important agricultural
species like tomato, potato, chilli as well as the model plant tobacco (Olmstead et al. 2008).
Solanum melongena L (2n = 24) is a perennial crop but is grown commercially as an annual crop
(Rajam and Kumar 2007). It is grown in tropical and temperate regions of the world. The three
main types of eggplant divided on the basis of fruit shape include egg-shaped (S. melongena var
esculentum), long and slender in shape (S. melongena var serpentium) and dwarf types (S.
melongena var depressum) (Rajam and Kumar 2007). S. melongena is also known by different
names. In North America it is popularly referred to as eggplant. It is called so because the fruit of
some varieties which are white are shaped like an egg (Bhat and Vasanthi 2008). In India it is
called as brinjal (Kashyap et al. 2003). In Australia it is called eggfruit, while the West Africans
call it garden fruit. The French call it aubergine. Other names are apple-oflove, Asiatic
aubergine, Guinea squash, gully bean, pea apple, pear aubergine, susumber, terong, apple of
Sodom, Jew’s apple, and brown jolly (Bhat and Vasanthi 2008).

Eggplant is a very popular native vegetable in Asia and the Mediterranean basin. In 2003,
eggplant world production was 29 million tons (t) from 1, 6 million hectares. The average yield
(18 t/ha) is extremely variable, depending on climate, cultural system, crop duration and grower
technology. (Frary et al., 2007) Eggplant prefers a soil that is deep, fertile, well drained, high in
organic matter, and has a pH of 5.5 to 6.8. A sandy loam soil is ideal when an early yield is
desired (Chen, 2002). Eggplant is damaged by frost and low temperatures. To produce high
yields of good quality fruit, it needs five months of warm to hot weather, with temperatures
varying between 21 to 30°C (Burt, 2005). Eggplants are usually planted in the field as seedlings.
The seedlings are purchased from commercial nurseries and need to be ordered at least 10 weeks
before planting. Transplant seedlings need to have 6–7 leaves and be 10–12 cm high (Ullio,
2003)
 Eggplant need uniform soil moisture conditions for high production. Dry periods may cause
shedding of flowers and young fruits (Burt, 2005). Eggplant is a long duration crop, with high
yields which remove large quantities of plant nutrients. An eggplant crop yielding about 60 t/ha
of fruit removes 190 kg N, 10.9 kg P and 128 kg K (Gnanakumari and Sathyanarayana, 1971).
Nutrient uptake in eggplant partly depends on the source of nutrients (Jose et al., 1988).

Nutrient supply to crops depends on the use of legumes to add nitrogen to the system and
limited inputs of supplementary nutrients, added in acceptable forms. Manures and crop residues
are carefully managed to recycle nutrients around the farm. Management of soil organic matter,
primarily through the use of short-term leys, helps ensure good soil structure and biological
activity, important for nutrient supply, health and productivity of both crops and livestock.
Carefully planned diverse rotations help reduce the incidence of pests and diseases and allow for
cultural methods of weed control (Watson et al., 2002). Blossom end rot is very important for
eggplant. At first glance; damage from this disorder may not be obvious. However, home
gardeners can be frustrated and distressed when they notice dry sunken decay developing on the
bottom, or blossom end (opposite the stem), of the picked fruit of affected plants. Fruit may be
affected throughout the season, but the first fruit produced in a season are often most severely
affected (Draper et al., 2002).

In another investigation, the efficiency of three types of vermicomposts prepared from

paper waste, cattle manure and food waste on tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum), strawberry
(Fragaria×ananassa) and field pepper (Capsicum) were studied by Arancon et al. (2003a; 2004;
2005a). It was found that there was a significant increase in growth and yield parameters like leaf
area, plant shoot biomass, number of flowers, number of plant runners and marketable fruits
weight by the applications of vermicomposts as compared to inorganic fertilizers. Authors
speculated that growth responses were due to the ability of humic acids present in verm icompost
to act as plant growth regulators or because the humates may have absorbed hormo nal plant
growth regulators. Uma and Malathi (2009) found that plants of Amaranthus species in plots
receiving vermicompost had higher values of growth, yield and quality parameters as compared
to plants in plots receiving chemical fertilizers. In another investigation, the growth and yield of
garlic (Allium sativum) on application of vermicompost and farm yard manure was studied by
Suthar (2009). Content of various nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Cu, Fe and Zn were analyzed for
both vermicompost and farm yard manure. Vermicompost was found to have a higher nutrient
content as shown in Table 2.1. Different doses of vermicompost, compost and chemical
fertilizers were applied alone and in combinations. It was found that there was excellent plant
growth as well as yield in garlic (Allium stivum) plants that received vermicompost as main
nutrient supplier. Experimental plots with vermicompost at 15 t/ha mixed with 50 % NPK
showed 0.6 % higher leaf length, 31.4 % higher shoot length and 28.3 % higher average fruit
weight when compared with plots with farm yard manure at 15 t/ha mixed with 100 % NPK.
Plots with recommended dose of NPK fertilizers had 28.7 % lower leaf length, 2.5 % lower
shoot length, 74.6 % lower root length and 20.1 % lower total plant biomass when compared to
plots with vermicompost at 15 t/ha mixed with 50 % NPK. So, vermicompost proved to be better
than farm yard manure while combined treatment of vermicompost and chemical fertilizers
proved to be best.

Since 2001, existence of varietal reaction of eggplant cultivars to P. vexans have been
studied (Kalda et al., 1976; Singh and Chakrabarti, 1982; Ren and Zhang, 1993; Mohanty et al.,
1994; Das, 1995; Singh and Agarwal, 1999; Pandey et al., 2002; Kumar and Sugha, 2004; Khalil
et al., 2013). The application of fungicides in combination with micronutrients showed better
performance in reducing disease incidence and disease severity. Bavistin 50 WP (0.1%) alone or
in combination with micronutrients (Gypsum, ZnO and Boric acid) has been suggested for
management of Phomopsis blight and fruit rot of eggplant (Sugha and Kumar, 2003; Beura et al.,
2008; Hossain et al., 2013).

Recent studies on the application of Garlic bulb and Allamanda leaf extracts reduced field
incidence blight and fruit rot by 66% and 75% respectively (Mohanty et al., 1995). Plants
receiving vermicompost might have received nutrition in a balanced and sustained way than
those receiving inorganic fertilizers only (Arancon et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2008) and it might
have helped the plants in producing albino and malformed fruits in lesser number (Singh et al.,
2008). Better growth of plants under different doses of vermicompost might have favoured the
production of firmer, better coloured and quality fruit (Singh et al., 2008). Increase in N levels,
microbial activity on adding vermicompost leads to greater root expansion, which in turn leads to
greater uptake of nutrients, water and rate of photosynthesis, ultimately leading to better
flowering and heading (Taleshi et al., 2011). Early flowering and higher fruit yields on adding
vermicompost may be due to better growth of plants on vermicompost additions (Brown, 1995;
Atiyeh et al., 2000b, 2001; Arancon et al., 2004; 2006; Singh et al., 2008).

Vermicomposts contain chitinase enzyme (Hahn, 2001) which helps in controlling

arthropod pests (Edwards et al., 2010 a,,b). Soils with earthworms contain polychlorinated
phenols and their metabolites (Knuutinen et al., 1990; Edwards et al., 2010a, b). Attacks by
caterpillars could be controlled by spraying phenols and phenolic acids extracted from ginko
plants. (QiTian, 2001; Edwards et al., 2010a). Less attack of pests on plants grown in
vermicompost is due to the presence of soluble phenolic compounds in those plants (Edwards et
al., 2010 a, b). Growth of many fungi is suppressed by vermicompost application (Hoitink and
Fahy, 1986; Singh et al., 2008).

Hence, vermicompost is an effective organic fertilizer and bio-control agent which alone or
in combination of other type of fertilizers can enhance the growth, yield and quality of various
field crops like Eggplant (Solanum melongena).