Chapter 24 Lecture In this lecture you’ll learn

• To describe electric current

in terms of the flow of
electric
l t i charge
h
• About conduction
mechanisms in different
materials, especially metals
Electric Current • To describe the relation
between electric current,
voltage, and resistance
using Ohm’s
Ohm s law
• To calculate electric power

Slide 24-1 Slide 24-2

Electric Current Clicker Question

• Electric current is the rate at which
electric charge crosses a given area.
– For steady current, Which one of the following represents a non-zero current
Q flowing from right to left?
I
t
– When current varies with time, its A In a solution
A. solution, positive ions move right and negative ions
instantaneous value is given by move left.
dQ
I B. A beam of electrons moves from left to right.
dt
C. Blood, carrying positive and negative ions at the same
– The SI unit of current is the ampere (A): 1 A = 1 C/s.
speed, moves from right to left through a vein.
– The direction of the current corresponds p to the direction of
D A metal car with no net charge speeds to the right
D. right.
flow of the positive charges.
– If both positive and negative charges flow in response to an
electric
l t i fifield,
ld th
the ttotal
t l currentt is
i the
th sum off the
th currents
t
carried by the two types of charges: I  I   I 
Slide 24-3 Slide 24-4
 Microscopic Model of Current Example
• In the absence of an electric field, the The 12-gauge copper wire in a home has a cross-sectional area
charge carriers move in random of 3.31 mm2 and carries a current of 10 A. The conduction
directions, so the average velocity is zero electron density in copper is 8.5x1022 cm-3.
and there is no current
current. (1) how many electrons flow past a given crosscross-section
section of the wire
• In the presence of an electric field, the in 10.0 minutes
charge g carriers acquire
q an average
g drift ((2)) Calculate the drift speed
p of the electrons.
speed vd
• In a short time interval t, all charge Q  I t  10 A  600 s   6  103 C  3.75 1022 electrons
carriers
i iin th
the volume
l A dt cross area A.
Av A
• Suppose there are n charge carriers per unit volume, each I 10 A
vd  
with charge g q, then the chargeg crossingg area A is q
nqA 
8.5 
8 5  1028 m-3 1.6 
1 6 10-19 C 3.31
3 3110-6 m 2 
Q  nqAvd t
 2.2 104 m/s  0.22 mm s
Q
• So the current is I   nqAvd
t
Slide 24-5 Slide 24-6

Clicker Question Conduction in Metals

• In the absence of an electric field, the free
electrons move in random directions
Suppose a current-carrying wire has a cross-sectional area • An electric field accelerates an electron,
that gradually becomes smaller along the wire so that the until the electron collides with a scattering
wire has the shape of a very long, truncated cone. How center. Then the electron’s velocity is
does the drift speed vary along the wire? randomized and the acceleration begins
again
qE
• The drift speed is given by vd  
1.
1 It slows down as the cross section becomes smaller
smaller. m
where
h  is
i th
the average titime b
between
t
2. It speeds up as the cross section becomes smaller. collisions.
3. It doesn’t change.
g • What causes collisions?
4. More information is needed. − Any deviation from periodic arrangement of atoms including
 Thermal vibrations of atoms
 Structural defects and impurities
Slide 24-7
− Other electrons (a small effect only at low temperature)Slide 24-8
 Ohm’s Law Resistance and Resistivity
• From the microscopic
p model,
2 • Th
The resistance
i t off an Ohmic
Oh i conductor
d t
 qE  nq 
I  nqAvd  nqA     AE of uniform cross-sectional area A and
 m  m
length L is given by
• For a conductor of length L, E = V/L L
nq 2 A R
I V  V A
m L
• Ohm’s Law: I  V R −  = 1/ is called the resistivity of the
material and its SI unit is m.
− R is called the resistance of the conductor
− The longer and the thinner the
− SI Unit: Ohm (1  = 1 V/A) conductor, the higher the resistance
• Another version relates the current density J and electric field: − From the microscopic p model,,
J  I A  σE m
 2
−  ( m ) is called the conductivity of the material
-1 -1
nq 
• B
Both
th versions
i off Oh
Ohm’s
’ llaw are empirical
i i l relations
l ti − Resistivity is in general a function of
− Materials that do not follow Ohm’s law are called nonohmic temperature
Slide 24-9 Slide 24-10

Resistors Clicker Question

• A resistor is a circuit element that produces resistance
Conductors a to d are all made of the same material.
• Resistors are often color-coded to indicate their values in ohms Rank in order, from largest to smallest, the resistances
• Sy
Symbols
bo s in a ccircuit
cu t diagram:
d ag a Ra to Rd.

1. Ra > Rc > Rb > Rd

2. Rb > Rd > Ra > Rc
3. Rc > Ra > Rd > Rb
4. Rc > Ra = Rd > Rb
5
5. Rd > Rb > Rc > Ra

Slide 24-11 Slide 24-12

Clicker Question Clicker Question

Two wires, A and B, are made of the same metal and have A wire of resistance R is stretched uniformly until
equal length, but the resistance of wire A is four times the it has twice its original length. What happens to
resistance of wire B. How do their diameters compare? the resistance?

1. Stays the same

1. dA = 4 dB 2. Increases by a factor of 2
2. dA = 2 dB
3. dA = dB 3
3. D
Decreases b
by a ffactor off 2
4. dA = 1/2 dB 4. Increases by a factor of 4
5
5. dA = 1/4 dB 5
5. Not enough information

Slide 24-13 Slide 24-14

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity Semiconductors

• Semiconductors are at the heart of modern electronics.
( ) Metal
(a) M l
• At zero temperature, there are no free charge carriers in an intrinsic
semiconductor
• As temperature increases
increases, electrons and “holes”
holes (absences of electrons)
are thermally excited, resulting in exponential decrease in resistivity.
• The electrical properties of semiconductors can be altered by doping or
controlled addition of small amounts of impurities
impurities.
– N-type: Impurities are donors (e.g., P in Si) and introduce electrons
– P-type: Impurities are acceptors, (e.g., B in Si) and introduce holes

Slide 24-15 Slide 24-16

 Superconductivity Electric Power
• Superconductors exhibit zero resistance • As the charges move through a resistor, the charges lose their
energy during collisions with the atoms in the resistor
below a characteristic critical temperature
• Once a current is set up in a • This energy is transformed into internal energy in the resistor
superconducting
d ti ring,
i it persists
i t without
ith t • The rate at which energy is dissipated in a resistor
resistor, or power (SI
any applied voltage. unit: W) is given by: P  dU  d QV   IV
• First discovered in 1911 in Hg. dt dt
• Conventional superconductivity was – The expression can be used to determine the power
explained theoretically in 1957. provided by an energy source supplying a current I with
• High
High-temperature
temperature superconductors were potential difference V.
p
discovered in 1986. – Alternative forms of power in a resistor:
• Applications: P  I 2 R   V 
2
R
– Power
Po er transmission and energy
energ storage
– Powerful electromagnets for particle • Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy: 1 kWh  3.6  106 J
accelerators, MRI, maglev trains • Example: A 100 W light bulb has a resistance of 144  at
– SQUIDs as ultrasensitive typical household voltage of 120 V; when connected to a 60 V
magnetometers outlet, it will consume 25 W.
Slide 24-17 Slide 24-18

Clicker Question Clicker Question

Two lightbulbs operate at 120 V, but one has a power rating

The diameter of wire A is greater than the diameter of wire
of 25 W while the other has a p
power rating
g of 100 W.
B but
B, b t their
th i lengths
l th andd resistivities
i ti iti are identical.
id ti l F For a
given voltage difference across the ends, which wire gets Which one has the greater resistance?
hotter?

1. The 25 W bulb
1. Wi
1 Wire A 2. The 100 W bulb
2. Wire B
3. Both have the same
3 Both are the same
3.
4. This has nothing to
do with resistance

Slide 24-19 Slide 24-20

 Clicker Question Electrical Power Transmission
• Longg distance p power transmission lines operate
p at very
y high
g
voltages – often hundreds of kVs. Why?
• Suppose we want to transmit 1000 MW power from a power
A TV set draws about 2.5
2 5 A when connected to 120 V V. plant
l t tto a city
it andd th
the resistance
i t iin th i i liline iis 2 .
the ttransmission
What is the cost (with electrical energy at 6¢/kWh) of How much power is lost in transmission?
running the TV for 8 hours?
– If V is the transmission voltage,
g , then the transmission
current is I = P/V
1. 1.4¢ – So the power lost in transmission is Ploss = I2Rw = (P/V)2 Rw
2. 3.0¢ • For 115 kV, Ploss = 151 MW (15%)
3. 14.4¢ • For 230 kV, Ploss = 38 MW (3.8%)
4
4. 30 0¢
30.0¢

Slide 24-21 Slide 24-22

Summary
• Electric current is the rate of electric charge flowing through
a given area
– The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), equal to 1 C/s.
– Current in a conductor depends on the density n of charge
carriers, their charge q, and their drift velocity: I = nqAvd.
• Ohmic conductors, including most metals, obey Ohm’s law:
I  V R
• The resistance of an Ohmic conductor with resistivity , cross-
sectional area A and length L is given by
L
R
A
• Electric power dissipated in a resistor is given by:
P  I V  I 2 R   V 
2
R
Slide 24-23