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Dissertation |Echoes of Paradise |2019
ECHOES OF PARADISE
SYMBOLISM OF PERSIAN GARDENS IN IRAN AND INDIA DURING MUGHAL

RAJ
DISSERTATION IN ARCHITECTURE
2019-2020
Submitted by:
SOUMINI DHAR
160BARCHI163/SSAA/B.Arch./16
Guide: Ms. Neha Mallick, Assistant Professor
Coordinator: Radha Dayal, Associate Professor
SUSHANT SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTUREANSAL UNIVERSITY, GURGAON, INDIA

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This Dissertation is submitted by Soumini Dhar, student of Fourth Year B. Arch. Session 2019-2020, at
Sushant School of Art and Architecture, Gurgaon, as partial requirement for the Five-Year B. Arch. Degree
course of Ansal University, Gurgaon.
Originality of the information and opinion expressed in the Dissertation are of the author and do not
reflect those of the guide, the coordinator or the institution.
Signature of Guide
Signature of the Student:
Name: Ms. Neha Mallick
Roll No.: 160BARCHI163
Date:31/10/2019
Name: Soumini Dhar
Signature of Coordinator
Name: RADHA DAYAL
Date: 31/10/2019
Checklist for Dissertation Preparation
Dissertation Title: Echoes of Paradise – Symbolism of Persian gardens in India and Iran during
Mughal Raj
The Dissertation Guide was referred to for preparing this Dissertation (Student Log sheets signed by
Guide and Dissertation Journal are attached).
1. Specifications regarding Dissertation format have been closely followed as per the template.
2. The contents of the Dissertation have been organised as per the template.
3. The Dissertation has been prepared without resort to plagiarism.
4. All sources used have been cited appropriately.
5. The Dissertation has not been submitted elsewhere for a degree.
Signature of the Student:
Name: Soumini Dhar
Roll No: 160BARCHI163
Checklist | 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The end outcome of this undergraduate dissertation research project required a lot of supervision and
assist from various people and I am extremely obliged to have their guidance and direction along this
journey.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude towards my guide and advisor, Assistant
Prof. Neha Mallick, who has supported me throughout my dissertation with her patience, motivation and
immense knowledge. Her valuable guidance and the weekly discussions helped me to formulate my
research question and executing the research work. I thank her for helping me immensely throughout
the journey and the developing a systematic method of working on the paper, which encouraged me to
work towards my best capabilities.
I would like to thank our dissertation coordinator, Prof. Radha Dayal, for providing the students with
well-coordinated instructions and submission guidelines, followed by helping us to understand how to
write a quality research paper.
I would like to thank Prof. Piyush Das, for providing me his time for discussion for in-depth vision and
information regarding my topic of research followed by imparting me with knowledge about how
planning and work execution is done in real life for Heritage conservation buildings.
I would also like to thank Prof. Sylvie Dominique for providing me with immense support and motivation
and helping me with consistent guidance throughout from previous semester. Her guidance
tremendously helped me in forming up my research framework and research question.
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ABSTRACT
The identity of a society and its culture can be represented through its distinctive form of
architecture. Thus, this is the interfacing component, in terms of design, for transferring meaning
and identity to the present generation and the further generations to come. Persian gardens have
evolved throughout the various periods in history and have been reshaped with regard to the
culture and beliefs of the society.
The intent of this research is to develop a fresh synthesis of understanding the transformation of
a Persian recreational space Pairidaeza1 (Four walled garden) which will be focused towards
gardens from where they initially originated and its transformation in India, specifically during
the Mughal Reign. It would also focus on the origination and development of gardens in Indian
subcontinent and the significance of this element in the different styles of architecture, the
original and transformed typology followed by an analysis of the impacts of these gardens taken
place politically and on the culture of the region.
This research would also retrace the evolution of Mughal garden arts from their antecedents in
ﬁfteenth-century Central Asia, through the expansion of the Mughal empire in the sixteenth
through eighteenth centuries, and its ultimate collapse in the mid-nineteenth century. The
present study will also provide an insight on the contemplation of garden and culture in Mughal
India.
The research is carried out through a set of primary and secondary case studies in different
regions of Northern India (part of the Mughal empire) and Iran, and an analysis has been
attempted between the several typologies of the gardens which prevailed in Iran and India. It
intends to summarise the overall paradigm shift of contemplation of natural landscape in India
and the resulting nature of gardens in India.
1Pairidaeza is a modern Persian term used for describing an open space which is enclosed within walls,
particularly used for gardens. “Pairi” accurately translated as open space and “daeza” as the surrounding
walls. Thus meaning “walled gardens”. (Kaushar .S, 2001, p-111)
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S.NO FIGURE NO. HEADING SOURCE

1 Figure 1 Four elements of Nature according to Islamic belief - Author
Eden or heaven on Earth
2 Figure 2 A traditional Charbagh Garden Pattern from C.M Villiers 2001,
orientation of elements Illustration: Author
3 Figure 3 derivation of various shapes with the same geometry Subhash
Parihar,1999, Some
Aspects of Indo-
Islamic
Architecture
64 Figure 4 Idea of a Garden in 5000BC (Indus valley Author
Civilization)
5 Figure 5 Idea of a garden in Archaemenid period Author
6 Figure 6 Evolution of garden geometry Author
7 Figure 7 A Chahar Taqi garden layout in Cyrus’s complex Document d- Iran
8 Figure 8 The layout of the final garden Document d- Iran
9 Figure 9 A typical Mesopotamian Garden sketch Author
10 Figure 10 A typical Achaemenid Garden sketch Author
11 Figure 11 Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in Author
conjunction with the water source.
12 Figure 12 Section AA’ for the Garden site (Depicting slope Author
needed for the bagh to derive water from source)
13 Figure 13 Mechanism of a Qanat in Persian garden Author

14 Figure 14 Vertical access shaft of Qanat in Aerial view Document d- Iran
15 Figure 15 Garden Typology Moynihan. E
16 Figure 16 Scale of Gardens in different periods -
17 Figure 17 Pasargadae garden Site surrounding Google earth 2019

18 Figure 18 Pasargadae site plan Author
19 Figure 19 Pasargadae site section Author
20 Figure 20 Site orientation Author
21 Figure 21 Site contour and topography Author
22 Figure 22 Site axis Author
23 Figure 23 Fertile soil and vegetation Author
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24 Figure 24 Open pavilion near the site Author

25 Figure 25 Hierarchy of spaces in the Pasargadae plan Author
26 Figure 26 Pasargad, Iran Encyclopedia
Britannica. (2019).
27 Figure 27 Pasargadae garden complex plan Author
28 Figure 28 Tomb of Lodhi garden World History 101
(2019)
29 Figure 29 Plan of tughlaqabad fort Author
30 Figure 30 Plan of lodhi garden complex Author
31 Figure 31 Bagh-e-Babur Aerial view Encyclopedia
Britannica. (2019).
32 Figure 32 Bagh-e-Babur garden site Encyclopedia
Britannica. (2019).
33 Figure 33 Shalimar garden site (Rainawari, Srinagar, Kashmir) Author
34 Figure 34 Shalimar garden plan and section C.M Villiers,1913
35 Figure 35 Water fountain channel connected to Qanat C.M Villiers,1913
36 Figure 36 pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas C.M Villiers,1913
37 Figure 37 Water channel connection from the bagh to the Lake Author
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
BonafideCertificate..............................................................................................................................................................i
Checklist for Dissertation

Preparation............................................................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgments………………………………………………………….....................................................................……iii
Abstract……………...………………………………….............................................................................................................iv
List of Tables / Figures / Illustrations ………………………………………………..…………......................………...v
Introduction……………………………...……………………………………………………………...……………………….….vi
Aim and
Objective………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………..vii
Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………viii
Scope and
Limitation………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………….……..………ix
Research
question……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ix
Chapter 1: Concept and Etymology of the Garden and its Historic significance
1.1 The Meaning of a Garden

1.2 Origination and development of gardens in Central Asia (500 BC)
1.3 Timeline of garden culture from the beginning of Human civilizations
1.4 Development of walled gardens or Pairidaeza in Persia during the Achaemenids
period.
Chapter 2 : Persian gardens in Iran during Achaemenids period (539-330 BC)
2.1 Site Morphology and geographical context for development of Bagh

2.1.2 Site morphology
2.1.3 Types of gardens in Iranian typology
2.2 Socio cultural and political aspects related to Persian gardens
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2.3 Developmental features for a Persian garden layout

2.4 Case study : Pasargadae gardens of Shiraz, Iran (539BC)
2.4.1 Factors governing the location of the garden and analysis of its constituents
2.4.2 Developmental Features of an Ancient Persian garden:
2.4.3 Developmental system of Pasargadae garden
2.4.4 Characteristics of Pasargadae garden
Chapter 3: Persian gardens in India during the Mughal period in northern Indian subcontinent
(1526-1857AD)
3.1 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Sultanate period (1206-1526 AD)
3.2 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Mughal Raj (1526-1675 AD)
3.2.1 Commencement of change of garden design in India
3.2.2 Socio cultural and political reasons for the development of the gardens
3.2.3 Diegesis of gardens under various Mughal leaders
3.3 Case study: Shalimar Bagh in Mughal India (Lahore, Pakistan)
3.4 Inference
Chapter 4 : Conclusion
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The term “Gardens” refers to a space which is usually planned outside a building intended for a
function such as a display or for recreational activities. It is an integral part of urban living and it
was equally important since the beginning of Human civilization. The development of garden
architecture in Central Asia dates back to the Mesopotamian period (3000BC), when nature was
realized as an element of Symbolism of life on earth, and gradually became a part of the
architecture, usually acting as a space for recreation and retrospection.
Though more attention was always provided towards the man-made architecture rather than the
naturally present landscape around it, it was until the 500BC, when the Persian gardening
methods evolved. Persia (modern day Iran) realized the beauty of nature incorporated into
buildings. It was a simple concept of providing pleasant accent to the building with the help of
gardens. The idea of creating “heaven on earth” emerged, which was purely a perception of
symbolism. And this simple idea of an ideal garden evolved into a complex systematic gardening
layout which still has a long lasting impression in the history of gardens in the world.
Persian gardens or Pairidaeza baghs, which were constructed in Central and southern Asia during
the fifth century BC throughout till eighteenth century AD constitute as one of the most
distinguished chapters in the history of garden and landscape. It was the time when nature was
considered to be enhanced and adorned with features. For the Persians, the motive of the
construction lied on symbolic purposes as well as altering the micro climate of the region. The
dominant purpose of creating these paradise gardens was to achieve the conception of ‘Paradise’
on Earth, or as one may say, ‘where heaven meets Earth’ (Dickie, 1985). Iranians believed on the
principles of Cosmos and incorporated them in their design.
Theme of Persian gardens is usually a combination of pre-Islamic garden and architecture and
the architecture method of centuries after that. Perhaps one of the reasons behind making
resemblance of the Mughal garden with the Paradise garden was all because of the extreme
beauty of the gardens. An inscriptional description of the beauty of garden, found at Qandahar
Fort (dated 1684 AD), mentions that one laid out a garden like ‘a picture (tasvir)’ and that the
sight of the garden has such bright effect that it turns the black collyrium (surma) of the eyes into
‘divine light’ (nur)’ (Sadaf Fatma, 2016) 2 Thus, gardens were compared, in beauty, not only with
the gardens of Paradise but with other worldly things of natural beauty as well.
2 Sadaf. Fatma, 2016, Gardens in Mughal India, Aligarh Muslim University 2016.
I. AIM:
To study the proposition of a Paradise garden in Ancient Persia and its transformation as
Charbagh in Mughal India. Which will be further followed by studying the characteristics
of its developmental design features in regions under the Mughal reign and the socio
cultural and political effects of these developments.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To establish the background idea and symbolism of a Persian Paradise Garden and its
development in Iran
2. To study the development of the Persian Charbagh in India under the Mughal reign and
the key motives behind these fabrications with respect to the geographical contexts.
3. To understand the association of these gardens with socio cultural and political behaviour
pattern in Mughal India.
4. To understand how the establishment of Persian Gardens in India has resulted into a
major change in the Landscape and Garden Culture on India
III. RESEARCH QUESTION
Has the contemplation of nature changed, from the time of its commencement in Persia,
to the time when Mughal Garden construction had reached its peak point in Indian
subcontinent?
IV. SCOPE:
The scope of this study would focus towards the changing paradigm shift of garden
architecture and the virtue of contemplation of nature in Persia and in Mughal gardens in
Iran and Northern India respectively. This would be followed by an overview of the socio
cultural and political aspects linked to the typology of the garden and will be focusing on
the time period when the Mughal rule prevailed in Northern India (15 th to late 18th
century).
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V. LIMITATION :
The study will be containing limited research on architectural design values other than the
landscape patterns since the study primarily focuses on the landscape like a component of
architecture. The research will not be highlighting the key Persian features of gardens and
landscapes in areas other than Central Asia.
Methodology
Understanding the etymology of a garden space

with respect to the architecture
Parameters
Physical Social Literature review
Geographical Economical 1. Pasargadae garden – Iran

2. Shalimar Bagh - Kashmir
Functional Political
Baburnama
Vegetation Cultural
Ain-i-akbari
Phenomenon Symbolistic
Feasibility Contemplation
Analysis
Connecting the thread between contemplation of nature in terms of symbolism and in term of
political view
Enhancement Garden as a Contemplation Merging :
of garden political of nature Aesthetics & symbolism
architecture statement (perspective) Functionality & politics
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The Concept and Etymology of a Garden
1.1 The meaning of a garden

In Iranian culture, the garden is considered as a cultural phenomenon and the significant
manifestation of architecture. Being realized as a part of the built architecture, gardens have elevated the
interaction of nature and man as well as the interaction of nature with architecture. The typology of a
garden would differ from a one geographical location to the other as well as the type of vegetation and
flora fauna, affects the garden design.
Ali Akbar Dehkhoda3 (Iranian philologist and poet) in 1956 wrote about the meaning of the word
Pardis4 Median language (Pairidaeza) meaning the Garden and wall. The term Pairidaeza stood for a
garden which is walled from all the four sides. Which means that a garden was particularly differentiated
from the external environment and it was highlighted with the help of boundary walls.
1.2 Paradigm shift in Design of garden during 30th century BCE
Garden is a natural form derived from the human mind and built by his hand, it is a lush and colourful
environment, elegant and refined and based on environmental conditions that in its formation human
tastes, skills, culture and his decision has a fundamental role (Abholghasem.S, 1998)5. Being a pseudo-
modernist Professors of modern architecture, he has presented with many definitions of the term garden
and its origination and geometry in Central Asia. His other definition of the Persian Garden is:
"Persian Garden is composed of simple and harmonious combination, accurate and stable relationship, considered
hierarchies, intellectual logic, geometrical system, regular farming, perpendicular lines, quadrilateral flat plots,
balanced divisions, direct pointed passages that are sometimes combined with space openness, directed flowing water
network that is developed in both covered and outdoor areas and smiles to the face of sky.” He considers the Persian
Garden as beautiful, multi-purpose and a functional work of art. (Abholghasem.S, 1998)6.
These developments of a Persian garden took place over a period of time. Gardening or garden
making was a key precursor to landscape architecture, which began in West Asia, Mesopotamia and
Persia. It then eventually led to its expansion in the different parts of the world. Garden has been
defined as ‘the purest of human pleasures and the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man’ (Bacon
1883). 7 According to Hunt, gardens are “concentrated or perfected forms of place-making’ (Hunt 2000).
3 Abedi, K. (2000). Sur-e esrafil wa Ali-Akbar Dekhoda. S.L: Naadar (pg 102)
4 Pardis – Typically means ‘paradise ‘in Persian language
5 Abholghasem .S, 1998. Iranica heirloom: Persian literature. Iranian Studies 31, 527-542
6 Abholghasem .S, 1998. Iranica heirloom: Persian literature. Iranian Studies 31, 527-542
7 Bacon, F. (1883).The Genius of the Place – The Garden Landscape 1620-1820, London. 51-56
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8Garden is also perceived as a symbolic site, resulting from the human’s attempts to materialize Eden on
the earth (Alon.T, 2004).9
Therefore, before the development of Persian gardens, the natural landscape was barely paid any
attention to. We are unable to discover any significant developments in gardens other than it being an
open buffer area. However, with the coming of the Mesopotamian empire after the Sumerian period, there
have been seen significant developments in the planning and design of gardens.
According to Moynihan (1980)10, the Persian gardens are the oldest evidence of creation of which dates
back to 546 BC in Pasargadae demonstrating generally modern features. The pattern of civilization as
seen during 5000BC still pertained to exist in the layout of these gardens. However, some of the concepts
employed, particularly the use of right angles and geometrical designs which established a connection
with the sacred area, are influenced by the historical concepts of Persian Symbolism.
Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

(Achaemenid period )
Figure 4: Idea of a Garden in 5000BC Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

(Indus valley Civilization) (Achaemenid period )
Various methods of garden designing have existed both in the ancient Harappan civilization and in
Mesopotamia. The influence of Mesopotamian techniques and concepts is furthermore evident on the art
and culture of Persia due to the close vicinity of the two civilizations, presence of the Elamids civilization11
8 Hunt, J.D. (2000), Greater perfections: the practice of garden theory, University of Pennsylvania Press.
9 Alon Mozes, T,2004, Gardens and the emergence of culture: The Meir Garden: The first Hebrew garden for the first
Hebrew city, Tel Aviv. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 24, 55-64.
10Moynihan, E, 1980, Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India, Scholar Press London.
11Elamids Civilization : an ancient pre-Iranian civilization that existed before the Achaemenids civilization. (2700-
1500BC)
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to the south of Persia, and the geographical similarities between the two civilizations of Persia and
Mesopotamia. (Tahereh, 2005)12
12 Tahereh.A, 2002, Terrestrial gardens : Persia, McGill University.
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1.3 Derivation of the geometry of the Charbagh garden
The conceptual derivation of the geometrical layout of Charbagh gardens in Persia was derived from
certain beliefs in Islamic culture. Since the Achaemenids time and basis of the ancient Zoroastrian13
beliefs, there are four holy elements: wind, earth, water and fire and using the same number (four), the
idea of the garden emerged. Layouts being developed keeping in mind these principles of beliefs, thus
generating the Charbagh pattern. (Wescoat J.L, 2002)14
Figure 1: Four elements of Nature Figure 2: A traditional Charbagh

according to Islamic belief - Eden or Garden Pattern from orientation of
heaven on earth elements
Thus emerged the well known quadrant division of garden planning also known as the Charbagh (four
division gardens). Hallmarks of these formal gardens are a geometric layout following geometric and
visual principles, implemented to nature by water channels and basin and flanked by fruit trees from all
the sides. They were usually placed on a sloping land, near a water source, from where water was derived
through the action of gravitational force and this was circulated around the periphery of the garden, after
which, it returned back to the water chamber to be re-used. Thus, the geometry of the garden was
governed by :
1. Topography of land (land contour)

2. Layout of water channel network
3. Availability of vegetation
4. Micro climate of the area (for a successful planning of the garden)
13Zoroastrian – a pre Islamic religion during 5th century BCE

14 Wescoat, J. L, Jr. Beneath Which Rivers Flow: Water, Geographic Imagination, and Sustainable Landscape Design,
in U. Fratino et al (2002)
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Figure 3: derivation of various shapes with the same geometry
The planning principles of these gardens were inspired from the verses of Holy Quran15, which stated:
“And give good tidings to those who believe and do righteous deeds that they will have gardens [in Paradise]
beneath which rivers of Milk and Honey flow. Whenever they are provided with a provision of fruit therefrom, they will
say, ‘This is what we were provided with before.’ And it is given to them in likeness. And they will have therein purified
spouses, and they will abide therein eternally.” (Q. 2-25)
According to the Quran, the phrase “gardens beneath which rivers flow” is a very common sentence
about depiction of the eternal Heaven. Other descriptors mentioning lush, green, and life are also common
elements that arise in the book. The gardens were heavily inspired for creating the element or
generating the experience of “Heaven” on earth, for the mankind to experience how it would feel like to
be in heaven. Thus, these gardens were only allowed to exist in heaven. The principal idea was of creating
such gardens, that only existed in heaven, on earth as well, for the mankind to experience what ‘heaven’
felt like. The elements of the earth can be prolifically seen in the design of the gardens:
Water – Symbolized life
Plants and Trees – Symbolized deity
Together they combined symbolized the eternal life.
15 Ganeri, A. (2002). The Quran. London: Evans 2002 (translated)
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1.4 Development of walled gardens or Pairidaeza in Persia during the Achaemenids period
(500BC)
The Achaemenids period envisioned a great amount of developments, both in terms of architecture
and incorporation of nature with the built. It was only during 539 BC when the prominent design of the
Charbagh emerged. The use of Chahar Taqi 16[the structure which is open to the four directions] and
geometrical quadripartite divisions in construction of belvederes in Persian Gardens was introduced.
Figure 6: Mesopotamian king Cyrus’s Figure 7: Garden is always walled or buffered

garden complex during 500BC (the from all the sides (to spatially demarcate its
division of external land and garden spaces presence)
by walls) – chahar taqi
These layouts were carefully planned and laid out. The key idea in focus, was to create a barrier
between the outside and inside world. The walled gardens provided a sense of detachment from the
external surroundings. In Islamic culture, heaven is described as a beautiful garden, with beautiful
colours, aroma, a pleasant place that creates a positive attitude towards life and death. This similar
concept was applied to the walled gardens, and thus, the pairidaiza was created.
Another reason for the creation of these gardens was because, since we are aware that Iran is a place
which experiences arid type of climate, it is evident that to create a heavenly place, it must be
differentiated well from the surroundings. Hence, Persian Charbaghs were flanked with vegetation and
trees for shade, followed by water channels and walkways to control the micro climate temperature, and
water screens were provided to act as a passively designed component.
16 The term Char-Taqi is linked with any geometrical figurine which is always divided into four different halves.
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A typical geometry laid out for the garden Walls extruded on all the four sides, to The garden further divided into smaller
differentiate from the surroundings segments, though which water channels run
Figure 8: Stages of development of a

walled garden Pairidaiza
These stages of divisions can be seen even in the later stages; however, their geometry may be
different from the one as seen here. (Baghs became more rectangular in terms of configuration in later
stages). The main reason behind having a square shape was to allow the water channels pass from the
underway. Straight and linear geometry would allow a better channel for water transportation.
The aim of the design is to discipline nature and not to imitate it. Thus these gardens were planned
to enhance the attributes of nature, and create something called as the “Paradise on Earth”
(Alemi.M,1970)17 The Persian garden became the first garden ever to embrace the tradition of celebrating
nature and its components. The way these gardens were designed, provided utmost importance and
detail to the natural surroundings and it became an important part of the built and the surrounding.
Figure 9: The layout of the final garden Figure 10: The gardens of Ishzaq, Iran.
17 Alemi, M. 1390. Symbolism in persian gardens: the nature sense in the Safavid royal gardens. Manzar 17.
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Chapter 2: Challenges for development of the gardens
2.1 Site Morphology and geographical context for development of Bagh
David Stronach (1978) 18provides a detailed account concerning the scales of Achaemenids Gardens as
compared to those of Mesopotamian Gardens, and the innovations employed by the Achaemenids. ″It was
once believed that the Achaemenids modelled their gardens after those of Mesopotamia. Recent studies,
however, prove that this is only one small part of a much larger whole.” This was majorly influenced
through `the geographical and topographical contexts.
Figure 10: A typical Mesopotamian Garden Figure 11 : A typical Achaemenid Garden

sketch sketch
The scales of these gardens differed from each other greatly. According to Stronach (1978), the scales of
these gardens were a reflection of how strong and enormous the empire was. While in Mesopotamian
gardens, the scale of the garden was comparable to the built units, the scales were more proportionate
and contingent. However, in the era of Cyrus19 (king of Achaemenid empire in 539BC), gardens for him
was a showcase of the empire’s strength and more detail and ornamentation of it led to a conception of a
well-built empire. Usually the status of an empire was depicted through the gardens since they were
visually appealing.
18 Stronach, D. (1978). Pasargadae. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.

19 Cyrus the great – Ruler of Achaemenid empire in 539 BC
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2.1.1 Physical context of the site and availability of resources
The construction of a Persian Charbagh was extremely crucial in terms of planning and laying out its
geometry on the site. There were certain criteria’s which needed to be fulfilled, in coherence to having a
successful Bagh on the land. In general, the main characteristics of the Persian Garden can be seen in the
following:
i. Constructing a bagh on sloping land (in order to derive water from the source)
ii. Being enclosed with a wall all around (to differentiate it from external surrounding)
iii. Use of a permanent stream of water source
iv. Water flowing in such a way to create the sound of water (water slope)
v. Use of lots of shady trees and narrow passages
vi. Using only straight lines in garden design (to allow ease of water flow)
Figure 12 : Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in

conjunction with the water source.
The above conditions, if were fulfilled, only then the construction of a Bagh would be considered
successful. Bagh architecture is subjected to natural factors and conditions of the environment such as
fertile soils and water. Garden finds a special significance due to climatic differences in various regions
of Iran, especially in tropical areas. Persian Gardens are consisting of three main elements of water, plants
and architectural space. The most important thing to enliven the garden is to bring water from distant
way into the garden which creators of the garden by digging subterranean area also known as qanat.20
20 Qanat is an internal water carriageway system, which allows the transportation of water from the main source to
the bagh.
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In the period of Achaemenid, generally the water work configuration was not very evolved. Thus the
site was chosen in such a way the water source was located at a level higher than the site for the garden.
Thus due to the action of gravity, water could be easily derived and circulated around the internal side of
the garden. (Frye and Arberry.A, 1979) 21. The slope of the garden was also carved in a certain way such
that there would be a gentle slope for derivation of water, such that water does not overflow from the
original source. Usually this slope would range from 5-10% (Usually 20-50m of slope).22
1. Soil
The land consists of the major function as it holds the garden. Apart from general shape and
position, there are other factors such as soil type, slope and differences in levels, feasibility of
irrigation, and fertility. For instance, a main reason to construct gardens in steep lands with
natural slopes is because of water’s natural flux through the garden.
Iranian gardens may be constructed on a land with either a low or a steep slope. In the case where
a garden is constructed on a steep slope the type of garden is affected by this and it is constructed
in a variety of levels; doing so makes it possible to create waterfalls. Thus the soil plays a crucial
element in deciphering the nature of the garden.
2. Water
Flowing water is the most important element and considered extremely crucial for the garden.
Since the concept of the garden revolves around the carriage of water, it dominates the entire
system of the layout. 23The geometrical layout of the garden is governed by the water carriage
pattern for ease of flow.
Duct water flows through channels and streams and passes through the main stream, it flows
through lateral channels. Water exists at least in three aspects, namely, conceptual, functional,
and aesthetic. In most cases, ducts and springs have been the main sources of supply to gardens.
There are many instances where the amount of water and its management and distribution, done
accurately and carefully, has determined the garden’s area. The main planning is governed by
how to irrigate the gardens which is directly associated with the type of the land, to the point
where Iranian gardens are considered
21 Frye, R. and Arberry, A. (1954),The Legacy of Persia,Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, p.287.
22 Generally, slope was considered at a ratio of 1:10 – 1:5, depending upon the conditions, which were either
naturally present ot artificially constructed.
23 The water layout configuration was the main system that governed the geometry of the site
3. Subterranean canal (Qanat)
Most Iranian gardens, particularly in the central and desert regions are built in the origin of
subterranean canals because a very low amount of water floats on surface. When water comes
out of the source of Qanat, it is controlled and floated in the garden. Qanat is a water installation
that pulls water from underground through digging canals inside the soil and let the water flows
on the surface. they are complicated structures and their main elements are: installations on the
land, consisting Heranj (the source), pool, water canals and dividers
Figure 13 : Vertical access shaft of Qanat

in Aerial view
The installations inside the ground are: The mother well, Teran, Tarehkar (wet work), Khoshkeh
Kar (dry work) and milleh (bar). The system of water float in the subterranean canals employees
both pressure and gravity; therefore, water could be collected in the wet work part well based on
the proportion of the depth of mother well and the height of the water in main reservoirs (Asher,
1992). 24
4. Plants
Apart from geographical boundations, vegetation is also significant due to the location, cultivation
plan and its usefulness. Plants even play a role in protecting gardens against destructive natural
events. In an Iranian garden plants are used for different purposes including shade, yield, and
24 Asher, Catherine ,1992, The Mughal gardens of pleasure, (Cambridge, 1992).
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garden ornamentation (Ansari.M, 2007)25. Since usefulness is a very important aspect of Iranian
gardens, fruit bearing trees are more prevalent at the site and shading trees are less frequent.
Although in a climate like that of Iran, the shading trees consisted of a great significance. As a
result of the hot and dry climate of Iran, gardens contain mostly trees.
Use of flowers and shrubs to provide color and scent were also considered to be planted. Along
the streams in long streets are planted Cedar, Pine and Aspen, Tabriz and Rowan have mostly
been planted in clay lands. Wychelm, bid, and purple trees, have often been planted around pools.
The walkway routes of the a garden, were covered by fruit seedlings, plots around the gardens
were covered by grapevines. Instead of planting high trees and bushes among the plot to cover
the garden’s building, sprout shrubs (a kind of alfalfa) were used.
Cedar tree Pine tree Aspen tree Alfalfa shrub
Figure 14 : Vegetation trees and shrubs
5. Space
With a definition of garden, the space or architectural space, organizes the garden with an
elaborate discipline and forms the areas and sections inside and outside the garden. In this
regard, structures, landscapes, interiors, ornamental elements, and the relation between water,
plant and land are considered. In Iranian gardens, closed spaces are combined with open spaces
and are not separated from each other. We even see that water flows through the walkway paths.
The Iranian garden is continuously surrounded with a wall which is generally long and made of
adobe, and lacking any ornaments (except fences of ancient governors and regional rich people).
Hence, Iranian gardens have been both a place of solitude to rest in, and a place that is secure
since it is bound by walls and secluded from the external environment.
25 Ansari, M. A.A. Taghvaee & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on
Water and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
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2.2 Socio cultural and political aspects related to Persian gardens
Iranian gardens have eternally been associated as a metaphor for heaven or Paradise land on Earth.
Though these gardens were primarily correlated with enhancing the beauty of nature, or providing a
unique identity to the environment, they stood as a powerful symbol of Aristocracy as well. Officials were
profound with the technique of constructing gardens in areas under their reign which would display their
wealth and power. There has been a conspicuous correlation between the construction of grand gardens
and territorial expansion (Brookes.J, 1991) 26.The construction of the garden was directly related to the
depiction of the empire’s strength and power as well as the functional aspect of their use in political
background.
In the period of the Achaemenids empire, which was led by King Cyrus, had experienced numerous
constructions in terms of Persian gardens as a status of Royal power and territorial expansion. The key
idea was to construct gardens in areas which would support the physical conditions required for its
construction
As well as areas where the king would symbolise Rule and domination. Generally, a garden with a larger
area and better ornamentation would symbolise a stronger hold in political background and display the
wealth of a king. In Iran, mainly the ornamentation component was seen in the era of King Shahzadeh of
Safavid empire27, in his famous garden park Shahzadeh Mahan garden (1500AD). Similar approaches
were prevalent even in Mughal India, where the gardens were associated with the idea of expanding
territory and conquering the land. Generally, There were mainly five principal functions of the garden,
which are as follows:
• Recreational area for activities and leisure

• Political meetings
• Occasional Military Base for Army
• Family gathering and weddings
• Surrounding areas getting converted to Bazaar
The role played by the gardens in the life of Muslims, in general, and for theMughals, in particular, appears
to stem from the concept of the ‘ideal garden’ of Paradise as portrayed in the Quran. It has been discussed,
repeatedly, in the Quran that whosoever will do the righteous deeds and make God happy, will be
26 Brookes, L. (1991). Brookes:. Politics in Islamic gardens, 19(2), p.187.

27 Shahzadeh Mahan garden – a 16th century garden of the Safavid dynasty in Persia.
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rewarded the ‘Garden of Paradise’ (Jannat-ul Firdaus), ‘Garden of Eternity’ (Jannat-ul Adnin) and the
‘Garden of Bliss’ (Jannat-un Naim) etc. below which rivers flow. However in Persian subcontinent, the
symbolism of the gardens and the idea of creating heaven on earth was a major component, rather than
being a political statement. Nevertheless, in later stages, there have been traces of gardens being linked
with the strong and the powerful, since for the concept that only the king’s and the queen’s were allowed
to live in heaven.
2.4 Case study : Pasargadae gardens of Pasargad, Iran (539BC)
2.4.1 Introduction
The Pasargadae gardens in Iran is the first prominent Persian garden which was developed during
the Achaemenids Period (539BC – 330BC) under the reign of King Cyrus. According to Moynihan, Cyrus’s
Tomb and palaces were constructed amid a big garden located in a green plain irrigated by several
Watercourses branching off Polvar River. It was the first garden created, under the Achaemenid empire,
and the first ever garden that depicted the Pairidaeza.
Site location : Pasargad, Iran

Orientation : East-west axis
Typology : Garden complex
Period : 5th century BC
Site area : 2250 sqm
Construction by : King Cyrus
(Achaemenids empire)
Figure 16 : Pasargadae garden site

Location
Kings palace
Garden complex
Water fountain attached to

the Qanat
Walls attached to the garden

Separating from the external
environment
Figure 17 : Pasargadae garden plan

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Figure 18 : Site plan
River
Bagh site
Slope down
Figure 19 : Site Section AA’
Pasargadae appeared as a rather empty city where monumental buildings where loosely distributed
over a large area. It became evident that these constructions may be considered today as the only visible
parts remaining from Cyrus’s project at Pasargadae as a capital for ruling the province of Persia.
(Stronach,1997) Excavations at the site revealed more open spaces present around the garden site area
than built. The neighbouring buildings were made of lines of rooms, not larger than 100 m², generally
built parallel to the slope. This postulates that a more open space was preferred for constructing the
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gardens, as well as the availability of water source, which governed its location. Achaemenid’s territorial
development and expansion were based on water control and a network of interrelated small farming
settlements. French comprehensive studies on the remains of dams and canals on two connected dams,
located near the Shahidabad village thirty kilometres north of Pasargadae, provided evidence that the
water was regionally controlled by the Achaemenids (Ansari, M. & H.M. Nejad, 2008.)28
2.4.1 Factors governing the location of the garden and analysis of its constituents:
Figure 19 : Site Orientation Figure 20 : Site Contour and Terrain map
Site orientation according to Sun and Wind Sloping terrain

path Site is dominated by the sloping terrain
The site is oriented in a manner such that it factor due to the transmission of water with
provided maximum daylight diffusion into the the help of natural phenomenon(gravity).
garden, followed by swift ingression of wind Pasargadae garden was located down the
movement. slope to increase water flow.
28 Ansari, M. & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on Water
and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
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Figure 21 : Polvar river located at the east end of the site Figure 22 : Site Axes
Location of water source Axis of the site

The major factor for site’s mechanism is to derive The entry and exit of the site was well planned
water from a permanent source. Polvar river, located according to the axis. Line 1 represents the axis route
near the site provided an excellent condition for the from the residential districts and line 2 represents the
garden’s construction. axis from the tomb (once a palace) to the garden
Figure 23: Fertile soil and vegetation
Open area around the site

Rich and Fertile soil
The gardens were generally laid out in an open space,
Soil behaved as the principal element regarding the
which would not cause any hinderance to wind
garden construction, and it was the key feature which
movements or sun light, followed by generally
predicted whether the garden would be able to
located away from the settlement pattern to allow
sustain or not. Located near the river bed, it was the
decongestion.
optimum location for the garden.
2.4.2 Developmental Features of an Ancient Persian garden:
All elements required for the Persian Garden were designed and planned by the architect concerned.
It involved the planning of the following techniques:
• Deciphering soil’s bearing capacity
• Deciding orientation of the site components
• Laying out the water channels and connecting them to the water source
• Irrigation systems (Qanats)
• Plantation of favoured vegetation and trees
• Developing paths or walkways which connect the palace to the garden complex
• Understanding scale of the garden that can be achieved
• Procuring materials which were relevant in the construction
• Adjustment of environmental elements such as :
o Knowledge of water transmission
o Plantations
o Adjustment of slope due to water flow
All these challenges call for creative engineering of resources in order to solve all problems
concerning cultivation and irrigation. "Iranians love of trees, water, and flowers has gradually turned into
an eternal love which has manifested itself into Persian Gardens. The Persian Garden is Eternal. It sees
the beauty of every blossom and loves every nuance of colour, but to him a garden means more than that″
(Arthur. A, 1938).29 The principal source of water to the Persian gardens were30:
(i) lakes or tanks

(ii) wells or step-wells
(iii) canals, harnessed from the rivers,
(iv) natural springs.
29 Arthur.A, 1938. Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis on Water and Trees. African and
Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
30 Siddiqui.Hussain,(1986) ‘Water-works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times’, Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient, (Feb., 1986)
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2.4.3 Developmental system of Pasargadae garden
Site access from King’s Palace
Main Building and Secondary
Building
Plant type and Vegetation
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Water circulation in and around the garden
2.4.4 Characteristics of Pasargadae garden
i. Kushk (Pavilion) of garden
The garden complex of Pasargadae consisted of a small pavilion which is a unique sample of
indigenous architectural design. The pavilion is 10m in height and served as a thoroughfare
between the palace and the garden. The entire pavilion is constructed through precisely cut stone
blocks from large monoliths and they were approximately 450mm by 300mm size. This ensured
a thermal lag in the block, which prevented the summer heat to enter the pavilion as well as the
garden.
Figure 26: Open pavilion situated near the Pasargadae garden
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ii. Vegetation and Plants
Pasargadae garden became a site where various typologies of trees and plants could be
cultivated, which not only provided a pleasant look to the environment, but also provided shade
and coolness.
Plants such as cedar, pine, aspen were tall enough to act as a buffer and visually segregate the
internal and external environments and fruit trees such as pomegranates, grape shrubs, apple
trees and oranges were grown in these gardens and sometimes they became a source of
production for fruits.
iii. Water works and irrigation system
Pasargadae garden’s waterworks formerly originated from downstream tributary of Polvar

River, which after traveling a certain distance joined the main stream, entered directly into the
ground floor via water ducts Qanat and was transported to a nearby reservoir through which
water was supplied and used for the purpose of irrigation and water circulation around site.
iv. Spatial Hierarchy

The garden In order to protect the garden from outside and in line with the principle of
introversion in Islamic architecture, entering the garden and the pathway to the pavilion has been
designed with an accurate hierarchy. Similar to traditional houses, mosques and schools, the
entrance to the garden occurs from a completely public area to a semi-public one and then to the
private.
site entry
A – public zone
B – semi public zone
C – private zone
Figure 27: Pasargadae garden site complex
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Chapter 3: Persian gardens during the Mughal period in Northern Indian subcontinent
(1526 – 1857 AD)
3.1 Introduction
Although gardens were constructed prior to the Mughal influence as well as even after their decline
in 19th century, however gardens of the Mughal era have the most lasting impression on the identity of
India. Mughal gardens have coined the term "Charbagh" or the four squares gardens which is a synonym
of Persian paradise garden, seen in India. At the scale of an individual volume, this typology of gardens
has likewise evoked a common spatial image – square enclosures, symmetrically divided into four equal
parts delineated by slightly elevated walks and water channels that create the garden type. “In addition
to its iconic form, the Charbagh has a strong symbolic association with the Holy Quran, gardens
underneath which rivers ﬂow,that await all faithful Muslims who have done good works at the Day of
Judgment.” (Johnstone,2003). 31Being ruled by various dynasties prior to the Mughal influence, India as
a whole entity, experienced an extensive paradigm shift in the prospective of contemplation of nature.
3.2 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Sultanate period (1206-1526 AD)
Timeline of the Delhi Sultanate
Natural landscape under the Delhi Sultanate (predecessor: Ghurid 32Dynasty) did not experience a
substantial amount of difference. The gardens laid out by them were primarily buffer zones or green
31J. Johnstone,2003, The Itinerary of Ludovico Di Varthema of Bologna from 1502-to 1508,(N.Delhi, 1997), pp. 64-65.
32 Ghurid dynasty – ruled before the advent of the delhi sultanates.
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areas which surrounded the architecture, and these areas could be used as a recreational space for
various activities such as leisure, significant occasions, gatherings and celebrations followed by acting as
a cultural zone (but cultural zones were more prominent in the era of Mughal empire).
The sultanate did not perceive garden as an element of beautification, however the tombs that they
erected were flanked by gardens from all the sides, to impose a dominant focus towards the tomb. During
the initial phase (from Mamluk dynasty to Khalji), there were no significant developments in the gardens
other than them being recreational spaces. These spaces were mostly vacant areas, ornamented by
bushes and shrubs and a few trees to provide shade and bear fruits. However some development in the
gardening strategies has been noticed during the last dynasty which is during the reign of the Lodhi’s.
(Eicher, 1997). 33
Figure 27 : Tomb site of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluk (Tughluk Dynasty) Figure 28: Tomb site of Muhammed Shah
1320-1412 1451-1526
Figure 29 : Figure 30 :
Giyas-ud-Din Tughluk’s fort plan in Tughlakabad Site location of Tomb of Lodhi garden in Delhi
Asymmetrical garden set out in the palace complex
33 Eischer.1997 Gardens of the Mughal,. University of Pennsylvania Press.
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There has been a pattern that the gardens of The Sultanates have been labelled as asymmetric and
nothing interesting about them. From the above analysis, we can receive a viable outcome that the scales
of gardens differed from ruler to ruler. There was a deliberate amount of finesse which was seen during
the time of Lodhi’s reign. The gardens were built on specific ideas. The definition of a garden differed
from an individual to another. However, the idea behind the development of these gardens remained
unique.
3.2 Contemplation of gardens in India during the Mughal Raj (1526-1675 AD)
When the Delhi Sultanate fell weak, after consequent wars, the Mongols (Mughals) were successful
enough to acquire more than forty percent of the Northern India under their Reign. And thus began a new
chapter for Hindustan. Moghuls brought their traditional customs with them and planned to build
monuments and structures, especially gardens all over the regions to denominate control and power in
the Indian Subcontinent.
The origin of Mughal gardens can be traced to central Asia, while the climax was reached in India over a
long period of time (Koch, 1997). Started by Babur in the first place, Mughal gardens were influenced by
gardens of other regions and times such as regional influences from central Asia, Kashmir, western
Punjab, Persia and Delhi sultanate (Wescoat, 1996). Mughal gardens had always had a powerful impact
on architectural history and design as one of the pre-eminent expression of Islamic art, culture, and
values. It represents the extraordinary synthesis of human concerns. It integrates the finest features of
natural and built environments with the finest traditions of local and regional landscape design. They
draw together human aspirations for worldly spiritual order by merging the Paradise imageries with real
garden design on earth (Wescoat, 1996).
Timeline of the Mughal Reign in Northern India
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3.2.1Commencement of change of Garden design in India
The initiator of the Mughal gardens in India was Zaheeruddin Babur (15 th CE, First Mughal ruler in the
Indian Subcontinent) who had witnessed the beauty of Timurid gardens in Central Asia during his early
days. Being the earliest ruler of the Mughal Dynasty, his vision for creating Mughal gardens consisted of
both beautification and strategic developments (Dixon,1987). Babur was greatly influenced by the
Persian culture, which affected both his own actions and those of his successors in the Indian
subcontinent. (Sparavigna, 2015).
Unimpressed with the conditions of the open recreational areas in Northern India, Babur decided to erect
garden structures all over the reign of territory which supported it physically. His designs and ideas had
caused an immense change and developments in the Landscape history of Mughal India. Since, the
geographical conditions and topography surveyed in India were found to be suitable for the creation of
the Persian gardens, hence, Babur envisioned creating paradise gardens in India, which somehow
brought major developments in the History of garden architecture in India.
Babur (1526 – 1530) wanted to distinguish his gardens from the ancestors and develop his own ideology
due to his love for nature and poetry. He relied on the fact that erecting these garden structures for him
meant to establish a seat of power and domination. As argued by James Wescoat (1988), He would usually
use this as a “visual metaphor” for establishing rule. “Building his gardens in India outside the citadels or
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fortress palaces of pre-Mughal rulers in deliberate opposition to them, as symbols of the appropriation
of land and "royal emblems of territorial control."'
However besides the territorial control, His purpose for the development of the gardens was to establish
the ‘idea’ of a paradise on land, which he took inspirations from the Persian gardens. Even though their
focus had very little to do in terms of sophistication. For him, the geographical factors mattered more
than any other specific factor. Gardens needed to be laid carefully on a sloped land, from where water
could be derived through the action of gravity and the needed a specific type of climate to for the
cultivation of the trees and bushes. Thus for him, it was more about the physical ornamentation and the
development of the garden. He would often pay careful attention towards the landscaping elements and
the vegetation. “they were intended as an image of his reign and empire as garden, paradise of the ideal
king whose good government had brought about a new golden age of an unending spring.” (Moynihan,
1980).
Commenting upon the paradisiacal form of the Mughal gardens, James Wescoat (1995) rightly remarks
that Mughal gardens expressed a ‘denotation but not connotation of Islamic Paradise and they achieved
the form, but not the meaning of paradise gardens.’ Thus, practically the Mughals wanted to create a
metaphor of paradise and not the real paradise.
Ralph Blakstad (1998) criticized the stereotype notion of Paradise that ‘Paradise garden is an allegorical
description for a psychic state and garden as a physical fact is not a Paradise.’Aesthetically, Mughal
gardens were created with the pictorial imagery of Quranic paradise but their philosophical intention
had pragmatic goals related to the world.
The gardens were laid out according to the general characteristics that are: slope of land, located near a
permanent water source, type of soil and its bearing capacity and fertility, and with proper orientation
Sfrom solar and wind path. Vegetation, trees and flowers that were cultivated were roses, violets,
sunflowers, jasmine, marigolds, poppies, carnations, hollyhocks, wallflowers, delphiniums, hibiscus,
hyacinths, jasmine, lilies, narcissus, lotus, lilacs and tulips, which were all watered by hand during the
extensive dry season. For irrigation purposes, artificial lakes, canals and wells with raised water by an
arrangement of wheels and levers was used for many years before Mughal (Lehrman, 1980).
3.2.2 Socio cultural and Political reasons for the development of the gardens
The table depicts the various Persian gardens and Mughal gardens, over a period of time, with an
understanding of the respective areas. It can be analysed from these tables that, the size of the gardens
varied from period to period, which were depended upon the following factors :
• Size of the empire and their hold in Democracy.
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• Availability of land and proper water resources.
• Land Morphology which would allow the development of the gardens.
• Political constraints (Size of garden depended on the King’s hold in monarchy).
Apart from its conceptual metaphysical aspect, the royal Mughal gardens may be viewed as symbol of
royalty, reflection of kingship and territorial control. (Wescoat, 1996)34
• Gardens being used as Army bases (Thus a larger monarchy would need a larger land and hence
a larder garden).
• They served as ground for royal ceremonies, such as coronations, enthronement and
encampment or carvansarai.
• They served as grandeurs for victory celebration as well as halting places for friendly
companions of other dynasties.
• The Mughal emperors such as Akbar and Aurangzeb were crowned in the gardens. The traditions
were followed from their ancestors.
There happens to be a direct co-relation between the building of grand gardens and territorial and
geographical expansion, be it Timur in Samarqand; Shah Abbas in Isfahan; or Akbar in Hindustan. Thus,
the synthesis of garden design with territorial expansion and geographic science exemplified by
Baburnama had not been forgotten. It was continued by his successors Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and
other regional rulers more intensely.
34 Wescoat, J. and Wolschke-Bulmahn, J,(1996), Mughal gardens,Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research
Library and Collection.
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3.3 Case study Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Kash
1.6 KM
Figure 33: Shalimar garden site

(Rainawari, Srinagar, Kashmir)
3.3.1 Statistics of the site :
Site location : Rainawari, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir (near Dal lake)
Site area : 147,370 sqm (590m x 250m)
Site orientation : Northeast-Southwest
Period of construction : 1619 AD
Construction led by : Emperor Jahangir
Shalimar Bagh is an adaptation of the formal Persian Chaharbagh pattern, as seen in Iranian
gardens. Traditionally uniform in shape, with a water source in its centre and four radiating
streams that divide the garden into four sections. The garden being located at a higher level, in a
comparison to the Dal lake, incorporates a very long passage (1600m) of Qanat system,(11m
width) which connects the Shalimar garden and the Dal lake.
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Figure 34 : Shalimar garden plan and section
The central water canal of the garden (Shahnahar35) forms its main axis, uniting the three terraces with
their regularly placed fountains and tree-lined vistas. Beginning at the top of the garden, the canal runs
through each of the baradaris (pavilions) in the garden. At each terrace, the canal flows into a larger pool,
highlighting its baradari.
Within the Shalimar Bagh, each of the three terraces had a different function and level of privacy: a public
garden (first terrace), a private garden, also called the Emperor's Garden (second terrace) and the zenana
(harem) garden, on the third terrace.
Figure 35 : Terracing in levels in Bagh Fig36 :Water fountain channel connected to Qanat
35 A typology of a qanat, but in India it was called a shahnahar.
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The purpose of the terracing was done for the following reasons:
1. Water collection chamber that is also linked to the side flow from the garden.
2. This terrace has numerous fountains that is supplied water from the third terrace, from where
it flows to the lowest terrace. The second terrace is considered the most impressive in view
of the twenty three niches provided in the arched recess just behind the cascade.
Fig37 : pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas Fig38 : pavilion overlooking the Diwan-e-khas
Figure : Terracing in levels in Bagh Figure : Terracing in levels in Bagh
These terraces also provided viewpoints from the site towards the city and the lake. The main reason
for this was done to allow water flow from the highest point to the lower point, and the again allowing
recirculation of the water. The water channel, or the Qanat, which connects the Bagh to the lake, was
not supposed to be initially planned as such a long channel. It was done to connect the lake. However,
due to the location of the Bagh at such a distance from the water source, the channel was made long and
11m wide, to allow efficient flow of water. “A canal, about a mile in length and twelve yards broad, runs
through the marshy swamps, the willow groves, and the rice-fields that fringe the lower end of the lake,
connecting the garden with the deep open water. On each side there are broad green paths
overshadowed by large chenars36” (Villiers .C , 1913)
Fig 39 : Water channel connection from the bagh to the Lake
Figure : Terracing in levels in Bagh

36 Chenar – an oriental plane tree, which had been particularly cultivated in the region of Iran
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Village settlements
Possible location of the garden

Actual location of the garden
Dal lake
Village settlements
Fig 40 : Possible locations of the bagh and the actual site
Inferences :
1. The garden, even though was located at a great distance from the water source (1.6 Km), it was
observed as a political understatement as it was built in within the city, rather than being on the
outskirt of the city.
2. The location, as we can observe from the above map, demarcates that the location chosen for the
construction of the garden lied in the centre of the village, which was a statement of domination,
rather than being made on the periphery of the city.
3. The location of the garden would also conduct as a means of revenue generation.
4. They became a pleasing abode for foreign officials and travellers as well.
5. They symbolistically provided the contemplation of “peaceful domination”- The political message
of imposing the territorial encapture was clear.
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Analysis of parameters considered in design of gardens :
Conclusion
In course of time, the gardens in Mughal India witnessed a shift in its scope from being merely a
physical site to a well demarcated ‘cultural zone’. Gardens in Mughal India synthesized the aesthetic,
symbolic to fit the functional needs of the society. The Mughal gardens are been considered as the
symbolic representation of the Quranic Paradise. However, in practical situations, Mughals wanted to
create a metaphor of Paradise, just to place themselves supreme over their subjects.
Thus, apart from its conceptual metaphysical aspect, the royal Mughal gardens may be viewed as a
symbol of royalty, reflection of kingship and territorial control. The gardens also emerged as a symbol of
efficiently administered territory, an emblem to show the triumph of the ruler by celebrating the
ceremonies like coronation and victories, and as a halting place for rulers and officials and the
acquaintances of the king. Often gardens served as a political and administrative space for holding court
and dispensing justice. In short, the gardens acted as a political arena where both rituals of powers and
control of resources were at stake.
Based on literary evidences and maps, we can understand that the spread of the Mughal gardens in
India were nonetheless belonging to the political arena rather than being more symbolic. However, the
initial idea of the construction of these gardens were to enhance the natural landscape of India.
Garden was a significant component of ‘urbanization’ and urbanization worked as stimulus in laying
out ‘gardens’. High expenditure was required in the laying out as well as in the maintenance of the
gardens. Economically, gardens generated income by selling fruits, flowers and vegetables. This income
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was generated by sub-letting the gardens for commercial purposes but income was ever lesser than the
expenditure. Ultimately, it led to the disparity in sanctioned and actual number of gardeners and oxen.
To meet out the deficiency, there were concessions in garden tax (sar-i darakhti), from time to time, by
the Mughal emperors.
Also, like other transcultural things, gardens also played an inevitable role in connecting the
provinces and even the countries since plants were transported from one place to another, sometimes in
compatible climate and sometimes in less compatible through technological and artificial means. Not only
the plants but architectural features such as pavilions, water tanks, walls of the gardens and hydraulic
engineering were also transferred from one region to another which ultimately resulted in ‘cultural
assimilations’.
In short, the gardens of the Mughal in India demarcates a line between ‘imagined’ and ‘real’ and
between ‘purpose’ and ‘usage’. And it further contributes to a paradigm shift of changing the meaning of
gardens Thus, sometimes, the poetical and symbolic retrospection of garden as a paradise was followed
and sometimes it was accompanied by economic, political, cultural and other uses and meanings.
The Mughals started to build gardens along the way to claim their territories and to overcome the
hot climate of the new land. Babur’s tradition was almost discontinued during Humayun’s reign due to
chaotic political conditions. However, Akbar followed more or less the same line of his grandfather,
especially in claiming the territoriality by building gardens on newly conquered territories. His focus
inclined more towards the union of territories and therefore he built gardens over multiple places as a
symbol of peace and unity among the dynasties. Jahangir who inherited the love of nature from his great
grandfather became the great garden builder. The tradition of garden building reached its zenith in the
reign of Shah Jahan when innumerable gardens were re-built and built. The best specimen of well-
planned garden can be seen in Taj Mahal and Shalimar bagh in kashmir. He transformed the garden
design into the riverfront scheme in the garden of Taj and in the palace gardens of newly built
Shahjahanabad, a scheme which was earlier adopted by Babur on the opposite side of the river Jamuna
at Agra. Although Aurangzeb abandoned the tradition of building monumental gardens except a few, he
put in efforts to maintain the existing gardens.
Thus, sometimes, the poetical and symbolic retrospection of garden as a paradise was followed and
sometimes it was accompanied by economic, political, cultural and other uses and meanings. Thus the
journey of Persian gardens from Iran, and their characteristics and idea have experienced a great
paradigm shift and it has evolved greatly in terms of symbolism and political characteristic.
Page |
References and Bibliography :
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Ali, Asif. 2016), Mughal Gardens in India: Symbolic or Climate Responsive, Indian, Journal of Archaeology
Alon-Mozes, T,2004.,Gardens and the emergence of culture: The Meir Garden: The first Hebrew garden for
the first Hebrew city—Tel Aviv. Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 24, 55-64.
Ansari, M. A.A. Taghvaee & H.M. Nejad, 2008, Cultural Beliefs Regarding Persian Gardens with the Emphasis
on Water and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.
Bacon. F, 1883,The Genius of the Place – The Landscape Garden 1620-1820. London. 51-56
Balabanlilar, Lisa, 2009. “Emperor Jahangir and Pursuit of Pleasure,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
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Borazjani, V. & M.R. Javadi. ,2004, Persian Garden: Ancient Wisdom, New Perspective. Contemporary Arts
Museum of Tehran Publications. Tehran.
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Books, New York.
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Eighteenth-Century India." Ars Orientalis 39 (2010): 175-97.
Dadlani, Chanchal. 2018. From Stone to Paper: Architecture as History in the Late Mughal Empire. New
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Ernst, Carl W., and Annemarie Schimmel. 2004. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South
Asian Sufi Center. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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Islamic Art and Architecture, edited by Finbarr Barry Flood and Gulru Necipoglu, 811-45. Oxford: Wiley
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165.)
Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Essays. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press,
2001. [Includes several of her classic essays on gardens.]
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Landscapes of Water: History, Innovation and Sustainable Design 1(pq 282-88.)
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Dissertation |Echoes of Paradise |2019

SYMBOLISM OF PERSIAN GARDENS IN IRAN AND INDIA DURING MUGHAL

Guide: Ms. Neha Mallick, Assistant Professor

Coordinator: Radha Dayal, Associate Professor

SUSHANT SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTUREANSAL UNIVERSITY, GURGAON, INDIA

Name: RADHA DAYAL

Checklist for Dissertation Preparation

Signature of the Student:

Name: Soumini Dhar

Roll No: 160BARCHI163

S.NO FIGURE NO. HEADING SOURCE

13 Figure 13 Mechanism of a Qanat in Persian garden Author

17 Figure 17 Pasargadae garden Site surrounding Google earth 2019

24 Figure 24 Open pavilion near the site Author

Checklist for Dissertation

List of Tables / Figures / Illustrations ………………………………………………..…………......................………...v

1.1 The Meaning of a Garden

Chapter 2 : Persian gardens in Iran during Achaemenids period (539-330 BC)

2.1 Site Morphology and geographical context for development of Bagh

2.3 Developmental features for a Persian garden layout

III. RESEARCH QUESTION

Understanding the etymology of a garden space

Physical Social Literature review

Geographical Economical 1. Pasargadae garden – Iran

The Concept and Etymology of a Garden

1.1 The meaning of a garden

1.2 Paradigm shift in Design of garden during 30th century BCE

Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

Figure 4: Idea of a Garden in 5000BC Figure 5: Idea of a Garden 500BC

12 Tahereh.A, 2002, Terrestrial gardens : Persia, McGill University.

1.3 Derivation of the geometry of the Charbagh garden

Figure 1: Four elements of Nature Figure 2: A traditional Charbagh

1. Topography of land (land contour)

13Zoroastrian – a pre Islamic religion during 5th century BCE

Figure 3: derivation of various shapes with the same geometry

Water – Symbolized life

Plants and Trees – Symbolized deity

Together they combined symbolized the eternal life.

15 Ganeri, A. (2002). The Quran. London: Evans 2002 (translated)

Figure 6: Mesopotamian king Cyrus’s Figure 7: Garden is always walled or buffered

Figure 8: Stages of development of a

Chapter 2: Challenges for development of the gardens

2.1 Site Morphology and geographical context for development of Bagh

Figure 10: A typical Mesopotamian Garden Figure 11 : A typical Achaemenid Garden

18 Stronach, D. (1978). Pasargadae. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press.

2.1.1 Physical context of the site and availability of resources

iii. Use of a permanent stream of water source

v. Use of lots of shady trees and narrow passages

Figure 12 : Sectional sketch depicting the site layout in

3. Subterranean canal (Qanat)

Figure 13 : Vertical access shaft of Qanat

24 Asher, Catherine ,1992, The Mughal gardens of pleasure, (Cambridge, 1992).

Cedar tree Pine tree Aspen tree Alfalfa shrub

Figure 14 : Vegetation trees and shrubs

Water and Trees. African and Asian Studies 7, 101-124.

2.2 Socio cultural and political aspects related to Persian gardens

• Recreational area for activities and leisure

26 Brookes, L. (1991). Brookes:. Politics in Islamic gardens, 19(2), p.187.

2.4 Case study : Pasargadae gardens of Pasargad, Iran (539BC)

Site location : Pasargad, Iran

Figure 16 : Pasargadae garden site

Water fountain attached to

Walls attached to the garden