BRICK

Constituents of good brick earth:

Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by moulding
clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning these blocks. In
order to get a good quality brick, the brick earth should contain the following constituents.
o Silica
o Alumina
o Lime
o Iron oxide
o Magnesia
Silica
o Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.
o It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
oIt also affects the durability of bricks.
oIf present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes
brittle.
Alumina
o Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
o It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in
moulding operation.
o If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
Lime
o The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
oIt prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
oIt causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
o Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
Iron oxide
o A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
oIt gives red colour to the bricks.
oIt improves impermeability and durability.
oIt gives strength and hardness.
oIf present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
o If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in
colour.
Magnesia
 Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)
oMagnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
oIt is responsible for reducing shrinkage
 Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth:
Below mentioned are some of the ingredients which are undesired in brick earth.
Lime
o A small quantity of lime is required in brick earth. But if present in excess, it causes
the brick to melt and hence brick looses its shape.
o If lime is present in the form of lumps, then it is converted into quick lime after
burning. This quick lime slakes and expands in presence of moisture, causing splitting
of bricks into pieces.
Iron pyrites
o The presence of iron pyrites in brick earth causes the brick to get crystallized
and disintegrated during burning, because of the oxidation of the iron pyrits.

o Pyrites discolourise the bricks.

Alkalis
o These are exist in the brick earth in the form of soda and potash. It acts as a flux in the
kiln during burning and it causes bricks to fuse, twist and warp. Because of this,
bricks are melted and they loose their shape.
o The alkalis remaining in bricks will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, when
bricks are used in masonry. With the passage of time, the moisture gets evaporated
leaving grey or white deposits on the wall surface (known as efflorescence). This
white patch affects the appearance of the building structure.
Pebbles
o Pebbles in brick earth create problem during mixing operation of earth. It prevents
uniform and through mixing of clay, which results in weak and porous bricks
o Bricks containing pebbles will not break into shapes as per requirements.
Vegetation and Organic Matter

o The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick earth assists in burning. But if
such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous. This is due to the fact
that the gasses will be evolved during the burning of the carbonaceous matter and it
will result in the formation of small pores.
Manufacturing of bricks
In the process of manufacturing bricks, the following distinct operations are involved.
• Preparation of clay
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning
Each of the above operation of the manufacturing bricks will now be studied at length.
Preparation of clay
The clay for brick is prepared in the following order.
• Unsoiling
• Digging
• Cleaning
• Weathering
• Blending
• Tempering
Unsoiling: The top layer of the soil, about 200mm in depth, is taken out and thrown away.
The clay in top soil is full of impurities and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of
preparing bricks.
Digging: The clay is then dug out from the ground. It is spread on the levelled ground, just a
little deeper than the general level. The height of heaps of clay is about 600mm to 1200mm.
Cleaning: The clay as obtained in the process of digging should be cleaned of stones, pebbles,
vegetable matters. If these particles are in excess, the clay is to be washed and screened. Such
a process naturally will prove to be troublesome and expensive.
Weathering: The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening and mellowing. The period
varies from few weeks to full season.
Blending: The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it , is spread out at its top.
The blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing. It is carried out by taking a small
amount of clay every time and turning it up and down in vertical direction. The blending
makes clay fit for the next stage of tempering.
Tempering: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness
and it is made fit for the next operation of moulding .Kneaded or pressed under the feet of
man or cattle .The tempering should be done exhaustively to obtain homogeneous mass of
clay of uniform character.For manufacturing good bricks on a large scale, tempering is done
in pug mill.A typical pug mill capable of tempering sufficient earth for a daily output of
about 15000 to20000 bricks.
A pug mill consists of a conical iron tub with cover at its top .It is fixed on a timber base
which is made by fixing two wooden planks at right angle to each other. The bottom of tub is
covered except for the hole to take out pugged earth. The diameter of pug mill at bottom is
about 800mm and that at top is about 1 m.The provision is made in top cover to place clay
inside pug mill .A vertical shaft with horizontal arms is provided at center of iron tub.The
small wedge-shaped knives of steel are fixed at arms.The long arms are fixed at vertical shaft
to attach a pair of bullocks .The ramp is provided to collect the pugged clay .The height of
pug mill is about 2m. Its depth below ground is 600m to800mm lessen the rise of the barrow
run and to throw out the tempered clay conveniently.In the beginning, the hole for pugged
clay is closed and clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When vertical shaft is
rotated by a pair of bullock, the clay is thoroughly mixed up by the action of horizontal arms
and knives and homogeneous mass is formed.The rotation of vertical shaft can also be
achieved by using steam, diesel or electrical power.When clay has been sufficiently pugged,
the hole at the bottom of the tub, is opened out and pugged earth is taken out from the ramp
by barrow i.e. a small cart with wheels for next operation of moulding.The pug mill is then
kept moving and feeding of clay from top and taking out of pugged clay from bottom are
done simultaneously.If tempering is properly carried out, the good brick earth can then be
rolled without breaking in small threads of 3mm

diameter.
Moulding:
The clay which is prepared as above is then sent for the text operation of moulding.Following
are two types of moulding:
i. Hand Moulding
ii. Machine Moulding
Hand moulding:

In hand moulding , the bricks are moulded by hand i.e.; manually. It is adopted where
manpower is cheap and is readily available for the manufacturing process of bricks on a
small scale.The moulds are rectangular boxes which are open at top and bottom.They may be
of wood or steel.It should be be prepared from well-seasoned wood. The longer sides are kept
slightly projecting to serve as handles. The strips of brass or steel are sometimes fixed on the
edges of wooden moulds to make them more durable.It is prepared from the combination of
steel plate and channel. It may even be prepared from steel angles and plates. The thickness
of steel mould is 6mm.They is used for manufacturing bricks on a large scale. The steel
moulds are more durable than wooden one and turn out bricks of uniform size.The bricks
shrink during drying and burning .Hence the moulds are therefore made larger than burnt
bricks (8-12%).
The bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types: Ground moulded and Table moulded
Ground moulded bricks: The ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it.The
mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The lump of tempered clay is taken and
is dashed is the mould.The clay is pressed in the mould in such a way that it fills all the
corners of mould.The surplus clay is removed by wooden strike or framed with wire. A strike
is a piece of wood or metal with a sharp edge.It is to be dipped in water every time.The
mould is then lifted up and raw brick ids left on the ground.The mould is dipped in water and
it is placed just near the previous brick to prepare another brick.The process is repeated till
the ground is covered with raw bricks.The lower faces of ground moulded bricks are rough
and it is not possible to place frog on such bricks.A frog is mark of depth about 10mm to
20mm which is placed on raw brick during moulding.It serves two purposes.
1.It indicates the trade name of the manufacturer
2.In brick work, the bricks are laid with frog uppermost. It thus affords a key for mortar when
the next brick is placed over it.
The ground moulded bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are made by
using a pair of pallet boards and a wooden block. A pallet is a piece of thin wood.The block
is bigger than the mould and it has projection of about 6mm height on its surface.The
dimensions of projection correspond to internal dimensions of mould.The design of
impression or frog is made on this block.The wooden block is also known as the moulding
block or stock board.
The mould is placed to fit in the projection of wooden block and clay is then dashed inside
the mould.A pallet is placed on the top and the whole thing is then turn upside down.The
mould is taken out and placed over the raw brick and it is conveyed to the drying sheds.The
bricks are placed to stand on their longer sides in drying sheds and pallet boards are brought
back for using them again.As the bricks are laid on edge, they occupy less space and they dry
quicker and better.
Table Moulded Bricks:
i) The process of moulding of bricks is just similar as above.But in this case, the mould
stands near a table size 2m x 1m. The bricks are moulded on the table and send for
further process of drying.
ii) However the efficiency of the moulder gradually decreases because of standing at
some place for a longer duration.The cost of brick is also increases when table moulding
is adopted.
Machine Moulding:
This type of moulding is carried out by two processes:
i) Plastic clay machine
ii) Dry clay machine
Plastic Clay Moulding
i) Such machine consists of a rectangular opening having length and width is equal to an
ordinary bricks. The pugged clay is placed in the machine and it comes out through the
rectangular opening.
ii) These are cut into strips by the wire fixed at the frame. The arrangement is made in such a
way that the strips thickness is equal to that of the bricks are obtained. So it is also called as
WIRE CUT BRICKS.
Dry Clay Machine moulding:
In these machines, the strong clay is finally converted in to powered form.A small quantity of
water is then added to form a stiff plastic paste.
ii)Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form dry and well-shaped bricks.
They do not require the process of drying.
Drying
The damp bricks, if brunt,are likely to be cracked and distorted.Hence the moulded bricks are
dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning. For the drying the bricks are
laid longitudinally in the stacks of width equal to two bricks,A stack consists of ten or eight
tiers.The bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layers. All the bricks are
placed on edges. The bricks are allowed to dry until the bricks are become leather hard of
moisture content about 2%.
Burning
Bricks are burned at high temperature to gain the strength, durability, density and red color
appearance.All the water is removed at the temperature of 650 degrees but they are burnt at
an temperature of about 1100 degrees because the fusing of sand and lime takes place at this
temperature and chemical bonding takes between these materials after the temperature is
cooled down resulting in the hard and dense mass.
Bricks are not burnt above this temperature because it will result in the melting of the bricks
and will result in a distorted shape and a very hard mass when cooled which will not be
workable while brickwork. Bricks can be burnt using the following methods:
(a) Clamp Burning
(b) Kiln Burning
Clamp Burning:
Clamp is a temporary structure generally constructed over the ground with a height of about
4 to 6 m. It is employed when the demand of the bricks is lower scale and when it is not a
monsoon season. This is generally trapezoidal in plan whose shorter edge among the parallel
sides is below the ground and then the surface raising constantly at about 15 degrees to reach
the other parallel edge over the ground.A vertical brick and mud wall is constructed at the
lower edge to support the stack of the brick. First layer of fuel is laid as the bottom most layer
with the coal, wood and other locally available material like cow dung and husk.Another
layer of about 4 to 5 rows of bricks is laid and then again a fuel layer is laid over it. The
thickness of the fuel layer goes on with the height of the clamp.
After these alternate layers of the bricks and fuel the top surface is covered with the mud so
as to preserve the heat.Fire is ignited at the bottom, once fire is started it is kept under fire by
itself for one or two months and same time period is needed for the cooling of the bricks.
Disadvantages of Clamp burning:
1. Bricks at the bottom are over-burnt while at the top are under-burnt.
2. Bricks loose their shape, and reason may be their descending downward once the fuel
layer is burnt.
3. This method can not employ for the manufacturing of large number of bricks and it is
costly in terms of fuel because large amount of heat is wasted.
4. It cannot be employed in monsoon season.
Kiln Burning:
Kiln is a large oven used for the burning of bricks. Generally coal and other locally available
materials like wood, cow dung etc can be used as fuel. They are of two types:
• Intermittent Kilns.
• Continuous Kilns.
Intermittent Kilns:
these are also the periodic kind of kilns, because in such kilns only one process can take
place at one time. Various major processes which takes place in the kilns are:Loading,
unloading, Cooling, and Burning of bricks.
There are two kind of intermittent kilns:
(i) Up-draught Intermittent Kilns
(ii) Down draught Intermittent Kilns
Down draught kilns are more efficient because the heat is utilized more by moving the hot
gases in the larger area of the kiln. In up draught kilns the hot gases are released after they
rise up to chimney entrance.
Continuous Kilns:
These kilns are called continuous because all the processes of loading, unloading, cooling,
heating, pre-heating take place simultaneously. They are used when the bricks are demanded
in larger scale and in short time. Bricks burning are completed in one day, so it is a fast
method of burning.There are two well-known continuous kilns:
Bull's Trench Kiln:Bull's trench kiln consists of a rectangular, circular or oval plan shape.
They are constructed below the ground level by excavating a trench of the required width for
the given capacity of brick manufacturing.This Trench is divided generally in 12 chambers so
that 2 numbers of cycles of brick burning can take place at the same time for the larger
production of the bricks. Or it may happen that one cycle is carried out at one time in all the
12 chambers by using a single process in the 2-3 chambers at the same time.The structure is
under-ground so the heat is conserved to a large extent so it is more efficient. Once fire is
started it constantly travels from one chamber to the other chamber, while other operations
like loading, unloading, cooling, burning and preheating taking place simultaneously.
Such kilns are generally constructed to have a manufacturing capacity of about 20,000 bricks
per day. The drawback of this kiln is that there is not a permanent roof, so it is not easy to
manufacture the bricks in the monsoon seasons.

Hoffman's Kiln:
Hoffman's kiln is generally circular in plan, and is constructed over the ground. The whole
structure is divided into the 12 chambers and the entire processes takes place simultaneously
like in Bull's trench Kiln.
A Hoffmann kiln consists of a main fire passage surrounded on each side by several small
rooms. Each room contains a pallet of bricks. In the main fire passage there is a fire wagon,
that holds a fire that burns continuously. Each room is fired for a specific time, until the
bricks are vitrified properly, and thereafter the fire wagon is rolled to the next room to be
fired.Each room is connected to the next room by a passageway carrying hot gases from the
fire. In this way, the hottest gases are directed into the room that is currently being fired.
Then the gases pass into the adjacent room that is scheduled to be fired next. There the gases
preheat the brick. As the gases pass through the kiln circuit, they gradually cool as they
transfer heat to the brick as it is preheated and dried. This is essentially a counter-current heat
exchanger, which makes for a very efficient use of heat and fuel. This efficiency is a
principal advantage of the Hoffmann kiln, and is one of the reasons for its original
development and continued use throughout history.In addition to the inner opening to the fire
passage, each room also has an outside door, through which recently fired brick is removed,
and replaced with wet brick to be dried and then fired in the next firing cycle.In a Hoffmann
kiln, the fire may burn continuously for years, even decades; in Iran, there are kilns that are
still active and have been working continuously for 35 years.
Difference between clam burning and kiln burning.

Difference between hoffman kin and bull trench kiln:

Classification of Bricks:
Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. They are classified into four
categories on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation, as given below.
1. First class bricks
2. Second class bricks
3. Third class bricks
4. Fourth class bricks
First Class Bricks:
These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns. The surface
and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply with all the
qualities of good bricks. These bricks are used for superior work of permanent nature.
Second Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns. The surface of these bricks is
somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks may have hair cracks and
their edges may not be sharp and uniform. These bricks are commonly used at places where
brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
Third Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in clamps. These bricks are not hard and
they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks give dull sound
when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places
where rainfall is not heavy.
Fourth Class Bricks:
These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as
aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc, because of the fact that the over burnt
bricks have a compact structure and hence they are sometimes found to be stronger than even
the first class bricks.
Tests on Bricks
To know the quality of bricks following 7 tests can be performed. In these tests some are
performed in laboratory and the rest are on field.
• Compressive strength test
• Water Absorption test
• Efflorescence test
• Hardness test
• Size, Shape and Colour test
• Soundness test
• Structure test
Compressive strength test: This test is done to know the compressive strength of brick. It is
also called crushing strength of brick. Generally 5 specimens of bricks are taken to laboratory
for testing and tested one by one. In this test a brick specimen is put on crushing machine and
applied pressure till it breaks. The ultimate pressure at which brick is crushed is taken into
account. All five brick specimens are tested one by one and average result is taken as brick’s
compressive/crushing strength.
Water Absorption test: In this test bricks are weighed in dry condition and let them
immersed in fresh water for 24 hours. After 24 hours of immersion those are taken out from
water and wipe out with cloth. Then brick is weighed in wet condition. The difference
between weights is the water absorbed by brick. The percentage of water absorption is then
calculated.The less water absorbed by brick the greater its quality. Good quality brick doesn’t absorb
more than 20% water of its own weight.
Efflorescence test: The presence of alkalies in bricks is harmful and they form a grey or white layer
on brick surface by absorbing moisture. To find out the presence of alkalis in bricks this test is
performed. In this test a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours and then it’s taken out from
water and allowed to dry in shade.If the whitish layer is not visible on surface it proofs that absence of
alkalis in brick. If the whitish layer visible about 10% of brick surface then the presence of alkalis is
in acceptable range. If that is about 50% of surface then it is moderate. If the alkalies’ presence is over
50% then the brick is severely affected by alkalies.

Hardness test: In this test a scratch is made on brick surface with a hard thing. If that doesn’t left any
impression on brick then that is good quality brick.
Size, shape and colour test: In this test randomly collected 20 bricks are staked along lengthwise,
width wise and height wise and then those are measured to know the variation of sizes as per standard.
Bricks are closely viewed to check if its edges are sharp and straight
and uniform in shape. A good quality brick should have bright and uniform colour throughout.
Soundness test: In this test two bricks are held by both hands and struck with one another. If the
bricks give clear metallic ringing sound and don’t break then those are good quality bricks.
Structure test: In this test a brick is broken or a broken brick is collected and closely observed. If
there are any flows, cracks or holes present on that broken face then that isn’t good bricks

2. CEMENT
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together. Cements
used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon
the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of water.Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet
conditions or underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be
attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of
the cement in a mix with activated aluminium silicates, pozzolanas, such as fly ash. The chemical
reaction results in hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe
from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack (e.g., Portland cement).
Use
• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.
• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,beams,weather-shed,stairs,pillars etc.
• Construction for important engineering structures such asbridge,culverts,dams,tunnels,light
house,clocks,etc.
• Construction of water,wells, tennis courts,septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints,pipes,etc.
 • Manufacturing of precast pipes,garden seats, artistically designed wens, flower posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.
Types of Cements

Many types of cements are available in markets with different compositions and for use in different
environmental conditions and specialized applications. A list of some commonly used cement is
described in this section:
Ordinary Portland cement
Ordinary Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This
cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials
(such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon
dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then
blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance,
called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary
Portland Cement'(often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar
and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and
water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once
hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
Rapid hardening Portland cement

• It is firmer than Ordinary Portland Cement

• It contains more C3S are less C2S than the ordinary Portland cement.
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of ordinary Portland cement.
Low heat Portland cement
• Heat generated in ordinary Portland cement at the end of 3days 80 cal/gm. While in low heat
cement it is about 50cal/gm of cement.
• It has low percentage of C3A and relatively more C2S and less C3S than O.P. Cement.
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard ( B S. 1370 : 1974 ) limit the heat of
hydration of this cement.
Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• Maximum C3A content by 3.5% and minimum fineness by 2500 cm'/g.
• Firmer than ordinary pot land cement.
• Sulphate forms the sulpha-aluminates which have expensive properties and so causes
disintegration of concrete.
Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• For this cement, the silage as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• Its strength in early days is less and hence it required longer curing period. It proves
to be economical as slag, which is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.
Pozzolanic cement
• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana may be 10 to 25 % by weight.
e.2. Burnt clay, shale, Fly ash.
• This Cement has higher resistance to chemical agencies and to sea water because of
absence of lime.
• It evolves less heat and initial strength is less but final strength is 28 days onward
equal to ordinary Portland cement.
• It possesses less resistance to the erosion and weathering action.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness and it is cheap.
•
White Portland cement
• Grey colour of O.P. cement is due to presence of Iron Oxide. Hence in White Cement
Fe,,O, is limited to 1 %. Sodium Alumina Ferrite (Crinoline) NavAlF6 is added to act
as flux in the absence of Iron-Oxide. •:
• It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values and it also
cost lee than ordinary Cement because of specific requirements imposed upon the raw
materials and the manufacturing process.
• White Cement are used in Swimming pools, for painting garden furniture, moulding
sculptures and statues etc.
Coloured Portland
• The Cement of desired colour may be obtained by mixing mineral pigments with
ordinary Cement.
• The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this
percentage exceeds 10percent, the strength of cements is affected.
• The iron Oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The
coloured Cement are widely used for finishing of floors, window sill slabs, stair
treads etc.
Expansive cement
 This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulphoaluminate
and a stabilising agent to the ordinary cement.
 The expanding cement is used for the construction of water retaining structures and for
repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
High alumina cement
• This cement is produced by grilling clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime.
It can stand high temper lures.
• If evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.

Composition of Cement clinker

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds
formedin the burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence
ofwater.They are known as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them.
These compounds are as follows: Alite (Tricalcium silicate or C3S), Belite (Dicalcium
silicate or C2S), Celite (Tricalciumalluminate or C3A) andFelite (Tetracalciumalumino ferrite
or C4AF).
Tricalcium silicate
It is supposed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt cement.It is about 25-50%
(normally about 40 per cent) of cement. It renders the clinker easier to grind,increases
resistance to freezing and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an
early hardness and strength. However, raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits
increases the heat of hydration and solubility of cement in water. The hydrolysis of C3S is
mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of hydrolysis of C3S and the
character of gel developed are the main causes of the hardness and early strength of cement
paste. The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
Dicalcium silicate
It constitutes about 25-40% (normally about 32 per cent) of cement. It hydrates and hardens
slowly and takes long time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It imparts resistance
to chemical attack. Rising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early
strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages and decreases heat of
hydration. The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages, less than a month, C 2S has
little influence on strength and hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the strength
and hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.
Tricalciumalluminate
It is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5 per cent) of cement. It rapidly reacts with water and is
responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of action is regulated by the
addition of 2-3% of gypsum at the time of grinding cement. Tricalcium aluminate is
responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to volume
changes causing cracking. Raising the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens
resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration and
contraction during air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.
Tetracalciumalumino ferrite
It constitutes about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of cement. It is responsible for flash
set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value. Raising theC4AF content reduces
the strength slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.
Hydration of Cement
It is the reaction (series of chemical reactions) of cement with water to form the binding material.
In other words, in the presence of water, the silicates (C3S and C2S) and aluminates (C3A and
C4AF) form products of hydration which in time produce a firm and hard mass - the hydrated
cement paste.
The main hydrates of the hydration process are:
- Calcium silicates hydrate, including hydrated products of C3S, and C2S.
2 C3S + 6H→ C3S2H3 + 3 Ca(OH)2
2 C2S + 4H→ C3S2H3 + Ca(OH)2
- Tricalcium aluminate hydrate.
C3A + 6H→ C3AH6
- C4AF hydrates to tricalcium aluminate hydrate and calcium ferrite CaO.Fe2O3
in amorphous form.

Various tests on cement:

Basically two types of tests are under taken for assessing the quality of cement. These are
either field test or lab tests. The current section describes these tests in details.
Field test:
There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement.There
are four types of field tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength of the cement
as described below.
Colour
 The colour of cement should be uniform.
 It should be typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement,it should feel cool.
•
Presence of lumps
• Cement should be free from lumps.
• For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%,this increase of volume may be much as 20 to
40 %,depending upon the grading of sand.
Strength
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept
under water for 24 hours.It should set and not crack.
Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
fineness, compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.

Fineness
• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or
permeability apparatus test.
• In sieve test ,the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for
15 minutes through standard BIS sieve no. 9.The residue is then weighed and this
weight should not be more than 10% of original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test,specific area of cement particles is calculated.This test
is better than sieve test.The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of
particles of average size.
Compressive strength
• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1:3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds.The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the
moulds are of metals.For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes ,the cement required is 185gm
and 235 gm respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are
placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water
for curing.
• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3days and 7
days. Thus compressive strength was found out.
Consistency
The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement
pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of aneedle is attached a movable rod with an indicator
attached to it.
• There are three attachments: square needle,plungerand needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod.the plunger is gently lowered on the paste
in the mould.
 • The settlement of plunger is noted.If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from
the bottom of mould,the water added is correct.If not process is repeated with
different percentages of water till the desired penetration is obtained.
Setting time
• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage.The test is
performed to find out initial setting time and final setting time.
• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste.In the
beginning the needle penetrates completely.The procedure is repeated at regular
intervals till the needle does not penetrate completely.(upto 5mm from bottom)
• Initial setting time =<30min for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat
cement.
• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on
test block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded in previous step,and it is =<10hours.

VICAT APPARATUS
Soundness
• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.
• The cement paste is prepared.
• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
• It is covered at top by another glass plate.A small weight is placed at top and the
whole assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
 • The distance between the points of indicator is noted.The mould is again placed in
water and heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about
30 minutes. The boiling of water is continued for one hour.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured.The difference
between the two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed
10 mm.
Tensile strength
• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of
cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds.The mould is filled with mortar and then a
small heap of mortar is formed at its top.It is beaten down by a standard spatula till
water appears on the surface.Same procedure is repeated for the other face of
briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the
moulds.
• The briquettes are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is
found out.
3. CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Often,
additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical
properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a
fluid mass that is easily molded into shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which
binds the rest of the ingredients together into a durable stone-like material with many uses.
The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to:
Transport, place, compact, finish and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable
product. The amount of each material (ie cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties
of hardened concrete.
Production of concrete
A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the
cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser
aggregate acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the
coarse aggregate. The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the
mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the use of
admixtures.The stages of concrete production are:Batching or measurement of materials,
Mixing, Transporting, Placing, Compacting, Curing and Finishing.

Curing
Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture and temperature
conditions for freshly placed concrete for some specified time for proper hardening of concrete. Curing
in the early ages of concrete is more important. Curing for 14 days is very important. Better to continue
it for 7 to 14 days more. If curing is not done properly, the strength of concrete reduces. Cracks develop
due shrinkage.
The durability of concrete structure reduces.
The following curing methods are employed:
(a) Spraying of water
 (b) Covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc.
(c) Ponding
(d) Steam curing and
(e) Application of curing compounds.
(a) Spraying of water: Walls, columns, plastered surfaces are cured by sprinkling water.
(b) Wet covering the surface: Columns and other vertical surfaces may be cured by covering the
surfaces with wet gunny bags or straw.
(c) Ponding: The horizontal surfaces like slab and floors are cured by stagnating the water to a height of
25 to 50 mm by providing temporary small hunds with mortar.
(d) Steam curing: In the manufacture of pre-fabricated concrete units steam is passed over the units
kept
in closed chambers. It accelerates curing process, resulting into the reduction of curing period.
(e) Application of curing compounds: Compounds like calcium chloride may be applied on the curing
surface. The compound shows affinity to the moisture and retains it on the surface. It keeps the
concrete surface wet for a long time


Water cement ratio and compressive strength

 Water cement ratio can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
cement used in a concrete mix.
 Water has a great role on the strength and workability of concrete. After lots of
experiments it has been found that for a specific proportion of materials in a concrete
mix, there is a certain amount of water that gives maximum strength.

 A slight change in the amount of water causes much more differences in the strength of
concrete. If less water is used, the resultant concrete will be nearly dry, hard to place in
the form and may create difficulties in compaction. Besides this, with less water proper
setting will not be guaranteed and thus the strength of concrete get reduced considerably.
 Normally water cement ratio falls under 0.4 to 0.6 as per IS Code 10262 (2009) for
nominal mix (M10, M15 …. M25)
Role of Water in Concrete:

Concrete is a macro content. It contains micro ingredients such as cement, sand, fine
aggregate & Coarse aggregate. In order to acquire high strength concrete which withstands
up to our desired compressive strength, We need correct proportion of admixture to combine
these materials. Here comes the Water which will initiate this chemical process by adding
23%-25% of the cement volume. This initiates the chemical process and makes 15% of water
cement paste also known as a gel to fill the voids in the concrete.
Effects of too much water in concrete:As stated above we need 23% of water to initiate the
chemical process on cement. Adding more water than this allowable Water cement limit will
actually affect the strength.If we keep on adding water to increase the workability then the
concrete has lots of fluid materials where the aggregates will settle down. Once the water
evaporated it leaves lots of voids in concrete which affects the concrete strength.But if we
follow the guidelines in order to maintain the strength of the concrete then it will affect the
concrete workability and make us hard to handle and place them.

Workability
Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which affects the strength and
durability as well as the cost of labor and appearance of the finished product. Concrete is said
to be workable when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously i.e without bleeding
or Segregation. Unworkable concrete needs more work or effort to be compacted in place,
also honeycombs &/or pockets may also be visible in finished concrete.Definition of
Workability “The property of fresh concrete which is indicated by the amount of useful
internal work required to fully compact the concrete without bleeding or segregation in the
finished product.”
Factors affecting workability:
• Water content in the concrete mix
• Amount of cement & its Properties
• Aggregate Grading (Size Distribution)
• Nature of Aggregate Particles (Shape, Surface Texture, Porosity etc.)
• Temperature of the concrete mix
• Humidity of the environment
• Mode of compaction
• Method of placement of concrete
• Method of transmission of concrete
How to improve the workability of concrete
• Increase water/cement ratio
• Increase size of aggregate
• Use well-rounded and smooth aggregate instead of irregular shape
• Increase the mixing time
• Increase the mixing temperature
• Use non-porous and saturated aggregate
• With addition of air-entraining mixtures
Workability tests:
There are 4 types of tests for workability.They are slump test, compacting factor test, flow
test, and vee bee test
Slump test
The slump test result is a slump of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of concrete
under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of concrete.Metal
mould, in the shape of the frustum of a cone, open at both ends, and provided with the handle,
top internal diameter 4 in (102 mm), and bottom internal diameter 8 in (203 mm) with a
height of 1 ft (305 mm). A 2 ft (610 mm) long bullet nosed metal rod, (16 mm) in
diameter.Apparatus Required: Compacting Factor apparatus, Trowels, Graduated cylinder,
Balance and Tamping rod and iron bucket

The test is carried out using a mould known as a slump cone or Abrams cone. The
cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in
three stages, each time it is tamped using a rod of standard dimensions. At the end of the third
stage, concrete is struck off flush to the top of the mould. The mouldis carefully lifted
vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone. Concrete subsides. This subsidence
is termed as slump, and is measured in to the nearest 5 mm if the slump is <100 mm and
measured to the nearest 10 mm if the slump is >100 mm.

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped
concrete, the slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or
collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse
slump is an indication of too wet a mix. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse
slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for
which slump test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes; having slump 0 – 25 mm are used in
road making, low workability mixes; having slump 10 – 40 mm are used for foundations with
light reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete
placed with vibration, high workability concrete; > 100 mm.
This test is usually used in laboratory and determines the workability of fresh
concrete when size is about 40 mm maximum. The test is carried out as per specification of
IS: 1199-1959.
Physical properties of concrete:
 Elasticity of concrete
 Creep of the concrete
 Shrinkage of concrete
Elasticity of concrete:
Elastic modulus of concrete is not easy to determine, because of non-linear behavior of
concrete. Concrete is very strong in compression but very weak in tension and this is the
main reason for non-linear behavior of concrete.
To overcome this effect, concrete is use with reinforcing bars, which changes the behavior of
concrete from brittle to ductile behavior. when this case happens then concrete will show
strains before rupture.
Therefore, when applying modulus of elasticity to concrete, some cautions must be
considered. As we know, elastic modulus is the tangent at that point on the curve. So there
are different moduli, which will be used for determining behavior of concrete, depending
upon the conditions these every moduli will give, different values. These are;
. Initial tangent modulus
. Tangent modulus
. Secant modulus

Since concrete is not a linearly elastic material, the slope of stress-strain curve changes at
every point. That's why 3 different modulus are defined for concrete.
 Initial tangent modulus: It is given by the inclination of a tangent line at the origin of
the
stress-strain diagram. It is used to characterize concrete deflections at very low
stresses.
Figure shows a typical stress-strain curve of concrete in compression, where
Ec = initial tangent modulus at the origin, also known as short term static modulus
Es = secant modulus at A
Et = tangent modulus at A

Initial Tangent Modulous Ec=5000√fck

The initial tangent modulus Ec is also known as short term static modulus of
elasticity of concrete in N/mm2 and is used to calculate the elastic deflections.
EXAMPLE: find out elastic modulous of M25 GRADE of concrete.
Fck=25kg/cm2
Ec= 5000√fck = 5000 x √25 = 5000 x 5 =2500 kg/ cm2
Tangent modulus at a given stress: It is the inclination of a tangent line of the stress-strain
diagram at any given stress. It is used to simulate the structure to loading or unloading at
different loading stages. Loading and unloading can be applicable, for example, when a
numerical structural analysis is needed due to large accidental loads.
Secant modulus: It is given by the inclination of a secant line obtained between any two
points in the stress-strain diagram. In this case, it simulates the structure during its initial
loading stage when permanent loads prevail.

CREEP OF THE CONRETE

Creep is another time dependent deformation of concrete by which it continues to deform,

usually under compressive stress. The creep strains recover partly when the stresses are
released. Figure shows the creep recovery in two parts. The elastic recovery is immediate and
the creep recovery is slow in nature. Thus, the short term deflection will be added to the
long term deflection to get the total deflection of the structure.
Ec= short term modulous of elasticity(initial tangent modulous)
Ece=long term modulous of elasticity
Accordingly, the long term modulus Ece or the effective modulus of concrete will be needed
to include the effect of creep due to permanent loads. The relationship between Ece and Ec is
obtained as follows:
ε c = short term strain
ε cr = ultimate creep strain
According to hooks law, stress ᾇ stain, stress=Ec strain, fc=Ec x ε c
ε c = fc/Ec
where ε c = short term strain at the age of loading at a stress value of fc
ε cr = ultimate creep strain .
θ = creep coefficient = ultimate strain(creep)/short term starin(creep)
θ = εcr / ε c
The values of θ on 7th, 28th and 365th day of loading are 2.2, 1.6 and 1.1 respectively.
Then the total strain = ε c + ε cr = fc/Ece (stress=Ece x Strain)
Ece= effective modulous of concrete(long term modulous of concrete)
Hence , stress= Ece x train
Ultimate stress= Ece x total train(creep)
Ece = ultimate stress/ total strain(creep)
Ece = fc / (ε c + ε cr )
Ece = ε c x Ec / (ε c + ε cr )
Ece = Ec /( 1+ ε cr / ε c )
Ece = Ec/(1+ θ )

The effective modulus of Ece of concrete is used only in the calculation of creep deflection.
It is seen that the value of creep coefficient θ is reducing with the age of concrete at loading. It may also
be noted that the ultimate creep strain ε cr does not include short term strain ε c. The creep of concrete is
influenced by
Shrinkage of concrete:
Shrinkage is the time dependent deformation, generally compressive in nature. The
constituents of concrete, size of the member and environmental conditions are the factors on
which the total shrinkage of concrete depends. However, the total shrinkage of concrete is
most influenced by the total amount of water present in the concrete at the time of mixing for
a given humidity and temperature. The cement content, however, influences the total
shrinkage of concrete to a lesser extent. The approximate value of the total shrinkage strain
for design is taken as 0.0003 in the absence of test data (cl. 6.2.4.1).
Light weight concrete:
Lightweight concrete can be defined as a type of concrete which have an expanding agent in
that it increases the volume and decreases weight of the mixture.It is lighter than the ordinary
concrete with a dry density of 300 kg/m3 up to 1840 kg/m3;. it is about 87 to 23% lighter than
ordinary concrete.The most common type of aggregate used in that concrete. The main
specialties of lightweight concrete are its low density and thermal conductivity. Its
advantages are that there is a reduction of dead load, faster building rates in construction and
lower haulage and handling costs. Lightweight concrete can be prepared either by injecting
air in its composition or it can be achieved by omitting the finer sizes of the aggregate or
even replacing them by a hollow, cellular or porous aggregate. Particularly, lightweight
concrete can be
categorized into three groups:
i) No-fines concrete
ii) Lightweight aggregate concrete
iii) Aerated/Foamed concrete
NO-FINES CONCRETE:
No-fines concrete can be defined as a lightweight concrete composed of cement and fine
aggregate. Uniformly distributed voids are formed throughout its mass. The main
characteristics of this type of lightweight concrete is it maintains its large voids and not
forming laitance layers or cement film when placed on the wall.No-fines concrete usually
used for both load bearing and non-load bearing for external walls and partitions.
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE:
Porous lightweight aggregate of low specific gravity is used in this lightweight concrete
instead of ordinary concrete. The lightweight aggregate can be natural aggregate such as
pumice, scoria and all of those of volcanic origin and the artificial aggregate such as
expanded blast-furnace slag, vermiculite and clinker aggregate. The main characteristic of
this lightweight aggregate is its high porosity which results in a low specific gravity .The
main requirement for this type of concrete is that it should have adequate strength and a low
density to obtain the best thermal
insulation and a low drying shrinkage to avoid cracking.
AERATED CONCRETE:
Aerated concrete is made by introducing air or other gas into a cement slurry and fine sand.
In commercial practice, the sand is replaced by pulverizedfuel ash or other siliceous material,
and lime maybe used instead of cement .There are two methods to prepare the aerated
concrete. The first method is to inject the gas into the mixing during its plastic condition by
means of a chemical reaction. The second method, air is introduced either by mixing-in stable
foam or by whipping-in air, using an air-entraining agent.
Heavy weight concrete:The concrete having higher unit weight than ordinary concrete called
heavy weight concrete.The density achieved will depend on the type of aggregate used.
Typically using barites the density will be in the region of 3,500kg/m3, which is 45% greater
than that of normal concrete, while with magnetite the density will be 3,900kg/m3, or 60%
greater than normal concrete. Very heavy concretes can be achieved with iron or lead shot as
aggregate, 5,900kg/m3 and 8,900kg/m3 respectively. Cement contents and water/cement
ratios are similar to those for normal concretes, but the aggregate/cement ratios will be
significantly higher, because of the higher density of the aggregates.
The main application for heavyweight concrete is for radiation shielding (medical or nuclear),
for offshore, heavyweight concrete is also used for ballasting of pipelines. Heavyweight
concrete uses heavy natural aggregates such as barytes or magnetite or manufactured
aggregates such as iron ore and/ or lead shot.
MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE
Mix design is a process of selecting suitable ingredients and determining their relative
proportions with the objective of producing concrete of having certain minimum workability,
strength and durability as economically as possible.

A mix design can be designed in two ways as explained below

1. Nominal Mix
2. Design

Nominal Mix
It is used for relatively unimportant and simpler concrete works. In this type of mix, all the
ingredients are prescribed and their proportions are specified. Therefore there is no scope
for any deviation by the designer. Nominal mix concrete may be used for concrete of M-
20 or lower. The various ingredients are taken as given in the table below
Max. quantity Fine Aggregate
Max. Quantity
of dry to Coarse
Grade of water in
Aggregates per Aggregate
litres
50 kg of cement Ratio, by mass
M-5 800 60
M-7.5 625 Generally 1:2 45
but may varies
M-10 480 34
from 1:1.5 to
M-15 330 1:2.5 32
M-20 250 30
Design Mix
It is a performance based mix where choice of ingredients and proportioning are left to the
designer to be decided. The user has to specify only the requirements of concrete in fresh as
well as hardened state. The requirements in fresh concrete are workability and finishing
characteristics, whereas in hardened concrete these are mainly the compressive strength and
durability.

Stone
Classification of rocks
1.geological classification
2.Physical classification
3.Chemical classification

1) Geological classification :
Depending upon the process of formation rocks can be divided into three main classes
namely
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks
a) Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed as a result of solidification of molten mass
( magma) laying below or above the earth surface.
The Igneous rocks are further classified as
i) Plutonic rocks:Rocks formed due to cooling of magma at a considerable depth from
earth's surface. The rocks possess large crystals as it is formed due to slow cooling of lava.
The thick covering of earth crust at the top is responsible for the slow cooling. Example:
Granite.
ii) Hypabyssal rocks:These rocks arc formed due to cooling of magma at a shallow depth
from the earth's surface. The cooling is quick and these rocks posses finely grained
crystalline structure. Example: Dolerite.
iii) Volcanic rocks:These rocks are formed due to cooling of magma at the surface of the
earth. The rate of cooling is quicker. As a result of this, they are non-crystalline, amorphous
and glassy in texture. Example:Basalt.
 (Formation of igneous rocks)
B) Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of materials like sand, clay, disintegrated rock,
dead sea organism, etc. The sediments get consolidated in horizontal beds on account of the
pressure exerted by overlying material. The deposition of suspended particles is responsible
for the formation of most of the sedimentary rocks.
Example: Sand stone,lime stone, Gypsum Shale,etc.
C) Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks by the action of earth
movements, temperature changes, liquid pressure, etc., acting on these rocks. The igneous
rocks or sedimentary rocks are changes its character when they subjected to great heat and
pressure. The process of change is known as the metamorphism. The metamorphic rocks as a
foliated structure. Examples: Slate, marble, gneiss. (As a result of metamorphosis. lime stone
and marl become marble, basalt and trap become schist, laterite and granite become gneiss).
2) Physical classification
This classification is based on general structure of rock. Stones are classified under three
heads based on physical classification
i) Stratified rocks
ii)Unstratified rocks
iii) Foliated rocks
i) Stratified rocks
These rocks possess planes of cleavage and rocks can be split up along these planes.
Materials from the disintegration of originally formed rocks form stratified rocks. Example:
Sedimentary rocks.
ii)Unstratified rocks
The structure of these rocks may be crystalline .Example: Igneous rocks.

iii) Foliated rocks

Metamorphic rocks have foliated structure. In this case layers of stratification are not formed
due to deposition but due to metamorphic act ion of heat and pressure.
3) Chemical classification
Stones for engineering works are divided into three classes based on chemical composition
i) Silicious rocks
ii) Argillaceous rocks
iii) Calcareous rocks
i) Silicious rocks
The main composition of these rock is Silica. The rocks are hard and durable. It is unaffected
by weathering action. Example: Granite, Quartzites, Basalt.
ii) Argillaceous rocks
The main composition ofthese rock is Clay. They are brittle but hard and durable. Example:
Porphyry, Laterite, Clay slate.
iii) Calcareous rocks
The main composition of these rock is Lime. Example: Lime stone, Dolomite. Marble
Kankar,
Uses of Stone
Following are the uses of stone in civil engineering works:
1. The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, arches, damp-proof courses, floors.
etc.
2. The stone are used facing work to give massive appearance.
3. Crushed stones are widely used in the manufacture of artificial stones.
4. The Stones are used as aggregate for cement concrete, roads, etc.
5. The stones arc used as ballast for railway lines.
6. Stones are used for ornamental works in the buildings in the form of moldings with large
projections.
7. Flag stone slabs are used for paving.
8. Lime Stone is necessarily used for manufacture or cement.
9. On account of high crushing strength, stones are used in construction of dams, retaining
walls,
weirs, harbours abutment for piers, etc.
10. Slate in the form of tiles is used as an excellent roof covering material.
Characteristics of Good Stones
In selecting as tone for engineering work .the following characteristics should be looked into.
1. It should be strong hard and durable to withstand the deteriorating action of rough weather.
2. It should have pleasing uniform colour and fine grained compact-texture.
3. It should be remain unaffected by smoke and atmospheric acids.
4. It should be free from cracks cavities, flaws, decay or patches of soft material.
5. The surface of a freshly broken stone should be sharp, clean and bright with uniformity of
Colour and texture.
6. The specific gravity of stone should not in any case be less than 2.7.
7. It should be crystalline and homogeneous structure.
8. It should not absorb more than 0.60percent of its weight of water after 24hours of
immersion. 9. It should be seasoned.
9. it should be easily workable.
11. It should stand fire well for some time without serious injury.
12. It should be easily obtainable and economical.
Quarrying of Stones
The process of taking out stones from natural rock bed is known as quarrying or. It is the art
of extracting stones for engineering purposes from natural rock.
Selection of site for quarry: Following are the point to be kept in mind while selecting site
for quarry:
1. Availability or tools, power, materials and labour for the easy and efficient working of
quarry. 2. Availability of site for dumping of refuse.
3. Distance of quarry from roads, railways, sea coast. Etc., for transportation.
4. Drainage of quarry pit
5. Economy in quarrying
6. Facility of carrying and conveying stones from quarry.
7. For quarrying by blasting, absence of permanent structures in the nearby area.
8. Geological data regarding rock forming at the site.
9. Quality of stone available from quarry.
10. Quantity of Stone likely to be obtained from quarry.
Methods of quarrying :Depending upon the nature of rock and the purpose for which stone
is to be used, the process of quarrying can he performed by the following methods.
1. Quarrying by hand tools
2. Quarrying by channeling machine
3. Quarrying by blasting
1. Quarrying by hand tools :Quarrying by use of hand tools may be done in three different
ways:
a) By excavating: In this method, the stones are excavated with the help of pick axes,
hammers, showels, chisels etc. This method is useful when stones are soft.
b) By heating: The top surface of rock is heated by using fuel. Due to unequal expansion,
the upper layer of rock separates out.The detached portion, of rock is then removed by pick
axes, crow bars etc.
c) By wedging: In quarrying by wedging a number or holes first drilled on the surface ofrock
in a straight line. The holes arc usually 12mm diameter. 15 to 20cm deep
and are spaced at 10 to 15cm apart. Feather and plugs are then inserted in
each hole, Tops of the plugs arc then simultaneously driven by hammer till
 the rock cracks along the line of holes. This method of quarrying is suitable
for sedimentary and soft rocks.
2. Quarrying by channeling machine
In this method, channeling machines driven by steam, compressed air or electricity are used.
With the help of channeling machines vertical or oblique grooves or channel can be cut to a
depth of 2.4 to 3.7m. After the channels are cut around the stone block which is be removed
from the rock mass, horizontal holes are drilled beneath the block and the block is then
broken loose from its bed by driving wedge in the holes.
This method is suitable for quarrying marbles, lime stones, soft sand stones.
3. Quarrying by blasting
This method is suitable for quarrying hard stone and compact rocks. Blasting consists of
splitting, separating or loosening a portion of rock from its mass by use of explosives. This
method is also used for splitting larger blocks of stones into stones of smaller sizes.
Tools for blasting
The following tools are used for blasting:
1.Dipper: It is used to drill a hole to the required depth.
2. Jumper: It is used to make blast holes.

3. Priming needle: It is in the form or thin copper rod. Used for making an passage for the
insertion of fuse to cause explosion in the hole.

4.Scrapping spoon: It is used to scrap or remove dust of crushed stones from blast holes.

5.Tamping bar: It is used to tamp the material while refilling blast holes.
Materials for blasting
• Detonators (Copper cylinder)
• Explosives (Dynamite or gun powder)
• Fuses
The various operations involved in this process are:
• The blast holes of required depths and diameters are made with jumpers, dippers and
scrapping spoons.
• The blast holes are cleaned. They are made dry by rotating a small iron rod with a piece of
dry cloth tied at its end. After few rotations, the rod is taken out.
• Proper quantity of blasting powder (Gun powder or dynamite) is poured into the hole by a
funnel and copper tube.
• The remaining portion of bias hole is filled in layers with dry sandy clay, moorum or ant-
hill earth. Each layer is tamped by brass camping bar.
• A 2mm diameter copper rod known as priming needle is then inserted into the tamped
material to reach the charge in the hole. The priming needle is then withdrawn slowly,
leaving a long narrow hole.
• Gun powder is then poured inside this hole and on the top, a fuse is introduced which
extends outside the hole for a length of 60 to 90cm.
• The free end or the fuse is fired. This can be done either with a match or with electricity.
• The explosion takes place and rock is disintegrated into small pieces.

Precautions to be taken in blasting

The following precautions should be taken during blasting:
• Sometimes a change fails to explode due to any reason. The fresh hole should not be too
near the failed hole.
• The gases formed when explosion occurs will follow the line of path which offers the
least resistance. Such a line is known as the Line of least resistance or L.L.R. In practice
LLR is taken as the shortest distance between the center of charge and Lind the nearest
rock surface. The LLR play important part in determining the quantity of explosive and it
should be carefully decided.
• The needle and tamper should be made of copper bras or bronze and not of steel.
• Red flags, caution boards should be placed along the boundary of blasting area.
• The length of the fuse should be sufficient to enable the man lighting the fuse to reach the
place of safely before explosion takes place.
• If the water is entering the blast hole, the charge of explosive should be placed in thin
iron plate or in water proof paper.
• The work of blasting should be carried out by trained and experienced person.
• The explosives should be stored in magazine especially built for this purpose.
Dressing and Polishing of Stones
The process of cutting and converting the stones to the require shape and to give them a
smooth finish is called cutting and dressing of stones.
They stones, when obtained from a rock, are very irregular in shape and size. They are,
therefore, dressed for proper bedding, thin joints and speed construction, the stones should be
cut and dressed as soon after quarrying as possible because stones when freshly quarried
contain some moisture "quarry sap" and In this state they are softer and can be easily dressed.
Advantages of dressing
The following are the advantages of dressing
• Dressed stones call be transported easily & economically.
• Dressed stones can be used for stone masonry works, ornamental works.
• Dressing of stones at quarry site reduces the cost of labour ( as it is possible to get cheap
labour at quarry site).
Factors affecting the selection of a type of dressing
The following are the factors which affect the selection of type of dressing
1. The type of stone
2. The architectural effects desired
3. The position of stone and its function in the structure
4. The atmospheric considerations
Types of dressing
The different types of surface dressing or surface finish of stones are discussed below:
1. Scabbling dressing
The dressing in which irregular projections of the queried stone are removed by means of a
scabbling hammer is called scabbling dressing. This is usually done at quarry. The stones
thus dressed roughly are called scabbled stones, and the surface finish provided in this way is
termed as scabbling finish.
2. Hammer dressing
The dressing in which the stones are made roughly square or rectangular by means of a
mason's hammer is called hammer dressing. The stone blocks are simply made square to
enable the mea son-to provide proper joints in the masonry work.
3. Rough tooled dressing
The dressing in which projections from the surface of u stone block arc removed by means of
chisels until no portion of the dressed surface is more than 10mm from a straight edge placed
on it is called rough tooled dressing or one line dressing. The stones thus dressed are called
rough tooled
or one line dressed stones and the surface finish provided in this way is known as rough
tooled finish. This type of dressed stones generally used for coursed rubble masonry.
4. Tooled dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from the surface of stone blocks are removed by
means of chisels until no portion of the surface is more than 3 mm from a straight edge
placed on it, is called tooled dressing. This type of dressed stones used for superior type of
coursed rubble masonry.

Fig.1.9: Hammer and Tooled dressed surface

• Furrowed finish
The surface of the exposed face is finished by making a number of vertical and horizontal
grooves about 10 mill wide. 2 cm wick margin is also made around the edges or the exposed
face.
6. Reticulated finish
In this finishing 2.cm wide margin, chamfered at 45° is marked on the edges and irregular
depressions are developed on the enclosed space of the exposed face.

Fig 1.10: Furrowed and Reticulated finish

7. Vermiculated finish
This finish appears just like worm eaten surface. It is similar to reticulated finish except that
depressions in this surfacing are more curved and good looking in appearance.
8. Finely punched dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from the surface of a stone block are removed by
means of pointed tools or a punch giving a clotted appearance is called finely punched
dressing. This type of dressing is usually specified to give architectural appearance to the
masonry work .
 Fig.1.11: Punched and Polished surface
9. Cut stone dressing
The dressing in which all the projections from all the faces or a stone block are removed by
means of a sharp chisel, rend ring the surface free of chisel marks is called cut stone dressing.
This type of dressed stones used for ashlar masonry.
10. Rubbed dressing
The dressing in which a perfectly smooth surface finish is obtained by grinding or rubbing a
cut stone by hand or by machine is called rubbed dressing. This type of dressed stone used
for ashlar masonry.
11. Polished dressing
The dressing in which the rubbed stone surfaces are polished by manual labour, using sand
and water pumice stone etc. or by means of a rubbing machine is called polished dressing.

TIMBER
Classification of tree
 Classification of Trees

Trees can be divided into the following groups

1. Endogenous Exogenous
2. These are explained as below:

1. ENDOGENOUS:

Trees which grows inward in a longitudinal fibrous mass, such as canes, bamboo,
palms etc

2.EXOGENOUS:

Trees which grows outward from the centre in approximate concentric rings across
the longitudinal section of the stem. Each ring representing a layer deposited every
year. Extensively used in engineering works. Exogenous trees are further divided
into

B-1) Conifer:

 Evergreen tree yielding softwood

 Trees with pointed leaves
 Pine, Chirr

B-2) Deciduous:

 Trees with broad leaves yielding hardwood

Shed their leaves in winter (Sal, Sheesham etc)

Structure of tree
A tree basically consists of three parts namely,trunk,crown and roots.the function of the trunk
is to support the crown and to supply water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves through
branches and from the leaves back to the roots.the roots are meant to implant the trees in the
soil ,to absorb moisture and the mineral substancesit contains and to supply them to the trunk.
structure of tree:
From the visibility aspect,the structure of tree can be divided into two categories :-
(1). Macrostructure
(2). Microstructure
Macrostructure:-
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called the
macrostructure.Following are its different components:
(1) Pith:
the innermost central portion of the core of the tree is called the pith or medulla. It varies in
size and shape and for different types of trees.It consist entirely of cellular tissues and it
nourishes its plant at its young age.when the plant becomes old,the pith dies up and decays
and the sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres deposited round the pith.the pith of the
branches is nothing but merely a prolongation of the stem.
(2) Heartwood:
The inner annular rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood.It is usually dark in
colour .as a matter of fact ,it indicates the dead portion of tree and as such,it does not take
active part in the growth of the tree.But it imparts rigidity to the tree hence it provides strong
and durable timber for various engineering purposes.
(3) Sapwood:
The outer annular rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known as sapwood.It is
usually light in colour in light and weight.It indicates recent growth and it contains sap.The
annual rings of sap wood are less sharply defined than those of heartwood.It takes active part
in the growth of the tree and the sap moves in upward direction through it. The sapwood is
also known as the alburnum.
(4) Cambium layer
The thin layer of sap between sapwood and inner bark is known as the cambium layer.It
indicates sap which has not yet been converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed for any
reason,the cambium layer gets exposed and the cells cease to be active resulting in the death
of the fibre.
(5) Inner bark:
The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as the inner bark.it gives
protection to the cambium layer from any injury.
(6) Outer bark
The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as the outer bark.it is the outermost protective
layer and it sometimes contain cracks and fissures.it consists of cells and wood fibre and is
also known as the cortex.
(7) Medullary rays
The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known as the medullary
rays.the function of these rays is to hold together the annular rings of heartwood and
sapwood.these rays are sometimes broken and in some varieties of trees,they are not very
prominent.
Microstructure:
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called the microstructure.
A living cell consists of four parts namely membrane ,protoplasm,sap and core.The cell
membrane consists mainly of cellular tissues and cellulose.The protoplasm is a granular,
transparent ,viscous vegetable protein composed of carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen and
sulphur.The core of cell differs from protoplasm merely by the presence of phosphorus and it
is generally oval.
The cells ,according to the function they perform,are classified into the following three
categories:
- Conductive cells
- Mechanical cells
- Storage cells
(1).conductive cells:
These cells serve mainly to transmit nutrient from root to the branches and leaves.
(2).mechanical cells
These cells are elongated ,thick walled and have tightly interconnected narrow interior
cavities.these cells impart strength to the wood.
(3).storage cells:
These cells serve to store and transmit nutrients to the living cells in the horizontal direction
and they are usually located in the medullary rays.
Difference between hard wood and soft wood

Defects in timber:
Various defects occurring in timber are grouped into following five categories:
(1)defects due to conversion
(2)defects due to fungi
(3)defect due to insects
(4)defects due to natural forces
(5)defects due to seasoning
1)Defects due to conversion:
During converting timber to commercial form the following defects may occur:
(i) chip mark: this defect is indicated by marks placed by chips on the finished surface of
timber .they may also be formed by parts of a planning machine.
(ii)Diagonal grain: this defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber.it is indicated by
diagonal mark on straight grained surface of timber.
(iii)Torn grain:this defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished
surface of timber by falling of a tool or so.
(iv)Wane:this defects is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the
manufactured piece of timber.
2)Defects due to fungi:
Fungi attack timber only when
(1)The moisture content of timber is above 20%.
(2)If there is a presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.
Due to attack of fungi following defects occur:
(i)Bluestain:the sap of the wood is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain type of
fungi.
(ii)Brown rot:the fungi of certain types remove cellulose compound from wood and hence
the wood assumes the brown colour.this is known as the brown rot.
(ii) Dry rot:the fungi of certain types feed on wood and during feeding ,they attack on wood
and convert it into powder form.This is known as dry rot.
This type of defect occur in place where there is dampness and no free circulation of air.The
dry rot may be prevented by using well seasoned timber free from sap.
(iii)Wet rot:some varietiesof fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood of timber in
doing so timber is converted into a greyish brown powder.This is known as wet rot.
(iv) White rot:this defect is opposite of brown rot.In this defect the wood assumes the
appearance of a white mass consisting of cellulose compounds.
3)Defect due to insects:
Defects in timber occur due to various types of insects.
Such as: beetles, marine borers, termites
Decay of timber occurs due to the above insects.
4)Defects due to seasoning:
Following defects occur in the seasoning process of wood.
(i) Bow: the defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of timber.
(ii) case-hardening: the exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It therefore shrinks and
is under compression. The interior surface which has not completely dried under tension.
This defect is known as the case-hardening.
(iii)Check: a check is a crack which separates fibres of wood. It does not extend from one
end to the other.
(iv)Collapse: due to uneven shrinkage, the wood sometime flattens during drying. This is
known as collapse.
(v) Cup: this defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction of timber.
(vi) Honey-combing: due to stresses developed during drying, the various radial and circular
cracks in the interior portion of timber. This defect is known as honey-combing.
(vii) Radial shake: these are radial cracks.
(viii)Split: when a check extends from one end to the other, it is known as a split.
(ix) Twist: when a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length, it is known as a
twist.
(x)Warp:when a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have warped.

Processing of timber
Following are four stages for processing of timber
1)felling of tree
2)Seasoning of timber
3)Conversion of timber
4)Preservation of timber
1)felling of tree:
To get timber, the tree are cut down to fall on ground .this is known as felling of
trees.
2)Seasoning of timber
The process of drying out the water from "wet" or"green" timber is termed "seasoning",
Seasoning timber causes many changes in its properties, and in practically every case
the change is an improvement. There is only one principal disadvantage in drying timber,
namely, the loss in volume due to shrinkage. However, by a correct understanding of the
shrinkage of timber this effect can be minimized,and timber can then be confidently used
without fear of adverse behaviour subsequently in service.
Types of Seasoning
(i)Natural Seasoning: It may be air seasoning or water seasoning. Air seasoning is carried out
in a shed with a platform. On about 300 mm high platform timber balks are stacked as shown
in Fig. 1.8.
(ii)Care is taken to see that there is proper air circulation around each timber balk. Over a
period, in a natural process moisture content reduces. A well-seasoned timber contains only
15% moisture. This is a slow but a good process of seasoning. Water seasoning is carried out
on the banks of rivers. The thicker end of the timber is kept pointing upstream side. After a
period of 2 to 4 weeks the timber is taken out. During this period sap contained in the timber
is washed out to a great extent. Then timber is stalked in a shed with free air circulation.

(iii) Artificial Seasoning: In this method timber is seasoned in a chamber with regulated
heat,controlled humidity and proper air circulation. Seasoning can be completed in 4
to 5 days only. The different methods of seasoning are:
(a) Boiling
(b) Kiln seasoning
(c) Chemical seasoning
(d) Electrical seasoning.
(a) Boiling: In this method timber is immersed in water and then water is boiled for 3 to 4
hours.Then it is dried slowly. Instead of boiling water hot steam may be circulated on
timber.The process of seasoning is fast, but costly.
(b) Kiln Seasoning: Kiln is an airtight chamber. Timber to be seasoned is placed inside it.
Then fully saturated air with a temperature 35°C to 38°C is forced in the kiln. The heat
gradually reaches inside timber. Then relative humidity is gradually reduced and temperature
is increased, and maintained till desired degree of moisture content is achieved.
The kiln used may be stationary or progressive. In progressive kiln the carriages
carrying timber travel from one end of kiln to other end gradually. The hot air is supplied
from the discharging end so that temperature increase is gradual from charging end to
discharging end. This method is used for seasoning on a larger scale.
(c) Chemical Seasoning: In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of suitable
salt.Then the timber is dried in a kiln. The preliminary treatment by chemical seasoning
ensures uniform seasoning of outer and inner parts of timber.
(d) Electrical Seasoning: In this method high frequency alternate electric current is passed
through timber. Resistance to electric current is low when moisture content in timber is high.
As moisture content reduces the resistance reduces. Measure of resistance can be used to stop
seasoning at appropriate level.
However it is costly process. This technique has been tried in some plywood industries but not in
seasoning of timber on mass scale.
Different methods of seasoning:
Air Seasoning
The traditional method for drying wood, air seasoning is also the longest, taking six to nine
months. To air season wood, stack logs or planks outside on pallets in such a manner that air can
circulate vertically and horizontally through the timbers. The raised pallets also keep wood away
from vegetation and damp ground. Plank and log ends are often wrapped or sealed to prevent
excessive moisture loss through these areas. Protect the drying wood from the elements with an
overhead canopy.
Kiln Seasoning
The most common and effective commercial process for drying wood is kiln seasoning,
which accelerates the process of removing moisture through the use of external energy. Drying
takes two days to one weekend, depending on the type of wood. Two methods, progressive and
compartmental, are used for kiln seasoning. In a progressive kiln, timber enters at one end and
travels on a trolley through chambers with different air conditions to progressive dry the wood.
This method produces a constant flow of seasoned timber. Wood seasoned via the
compartmental process remains in a single building where it is subjected to a program of varying
conditions until the moisture content is removed. This process is used for hard-to-dry or
expensive wood.
Solar Kiln
This method combines the speed of kiln seasoning with the low energy of air drying. Solar kilns
have single-thickness windows on the south side of the structure that work as collectors to trap
the sun’s energy. Heat collectors, made from black metal are attached near the top of the window
sashes. Various methods force the heated air to circulate through the kiln to dry the wood. Some
solar kilns have insulation to retain heat at night. This process takes approximately twice as long
as traditional kiln seasoning. Because of its gentle nature, it is well suited to producing wood for
furniture fabrication.
Microwave Seasoning
Microwave seasoning uses pulsed energy directed into timbers to drive out moisture in a
manner that will not cause seasoning degrade. This method also provides advantages such as
high speed and high quality and is well suited for seasoning lumber, blocks, veneer, chips, paper
and wood-based composite materials. Areas in the wood with the most moisture absorb the most
energy resulting in even temperature during the drying process and a uniform moisture content.
These factors enhance quality and reduce timber checking and warping.
Advantages of seasoning:
Three most important advantages of seasoning have already been made apparent:
1. Seasoned timber lasts much longer than unseasoned. Since the decay of timber is due to the
attacks of wood-destroying fungi, and since the most important condition of the growth of these
fungi is water, anything which lessens the amount of water in wood aids in its preservation.
2. In the case of treated timber, seasoning before treatment greatly increases the effectiveness
of the ordinary methods of treatment, and seasoning after treatment prevents the rapid leaching
out of the salts introduced to preserve the timber.
3. The saving in freight where timber is shipped from one place to another. Few persons
realize how much water green wood contains, or how much it will lose in a comparatively short
time. Experiments along this line with lodge-pole pine, white oak, and chestnut gave results
which were a surprise to the companies owning the timber.
 Freight charges vary considerably in different parts of the country; but a decrease of 35 to 40
per cent in weight is important enough to deserve everywhere serious consideration from those
in charge of timber operations.
When timber is shipped long distances over several roads, as is coming to be more and more
the case, the saving in freight will make a material difference in the cost of lumber operations,
irrespective of any other advantages of seasoning.

3)conversion of timber:
The process by which timber is cut and sawn into suitable section is known as conversion of
timber.
Fibre Saturation Point of Timber or wood
In wood there is the moisture present either in the cavities in between the fibers or is chemically
bonded to the fiber cells. This moisture is removed by using the seasoning techniques. There is a
particular moisture content(%) when all the cavity water is removed and after that the wood
starts gaining more strength and starts shrinking, this moisture content is the fiber saturation
point(FSP).
The properties of the timber changes with the moisture content if the moisture content<= FSP
but the properties are not effected by change in the moisture content in the range>FSP. So it is an
important term related to Timber.

FOUNDATION
The selection of the foundation type for a particular site depends on the following considerations:
1. Nature of subsoil.
2. Nature and extent of difficulties
3. Availability of expertise and equipment
 Depending upon their nature and depth, foundations have been categorized as follows:
(i) Open foundations or shallow foundations
(ii) Deep foundations
OPEN FOUNDATIONS/shallow foundation
Shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at shallow depth (upto 1.5m) is able to
support the structural loads. The depth of shallow foundations are generally less than its width.
What are different Types of Shallow Foundations?
The different types of shallow foundation are:
 Strip footing
 Spread or isolated footing
 Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing
 Mat or raft Foundation.

1. Strip Footing:

A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are
so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is
also known as continuous footing.

2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual column. A spread
footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or
haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3. Combined Footing:

A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to each
other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the
property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is
evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4. Strap or Cantilever footing:

A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a
lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is designed
as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes
through the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a combined footing
when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

5. Mat or Raft Foundations:

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the entire
structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or
where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch
each other.Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous
soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns
Types of Deep Foundation
The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:

. Basements
. Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
. Caissons
. Cylinders
. Shaft foundations
. Pile foundations

Basement foundation:
These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or storage space below ground level.
The structural design is governed by their functional requirements rather than from considerations
of the most efficient method of resisting external earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are
constructed in place in open excavations.

Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)

Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-buoyant
substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the desired low intensity.
Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as caissons, they can also be constructed in place in open
excavations.

Caissons foundations:
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the surface and then sunk
as a single unit to their required level.

Cylinders:
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.

Drilled Shaft foundations:

Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by lining constructed in place
and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated load-bearing units.
 Pile foundations:

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving preformed units to
the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to the required depth – the tubes being
filled with concrete before or during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined
boreholes which are then filled with concrete.
Types of pile foundation
Piles can by classified on the basis of following characteristics:
1. Mechanism of Load Transfer
2. Method of Installation
3. Type of Materials
Classification of Piles on the basis of load transfer
Types of piles based on the mechanism of Load Transfer:
End/Point Bearing Piles:
If a bedrock or rock like material is present at a site within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended
to the rock surface. In this case, the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends entirely on the
underlying material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles. In most of these cases the
necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
 Instead of bedrock, if a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil is encountered at a
reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard stratum.

Friction Piles:
In these types of piles, the load on pile is resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance along
the side of the pile (pile shaft). Pure friction piles tend to be quite long, since the load-
carrying. Capacity is a function of the shaft area in contact with the soil. In cohesion less
soils, such as sands of medium to low density, friction piles are often used to increase the
density and thus the shear strength. When no layer of rock or rock like material is present
at a reasonable depth at a site, point/end bearing piles become very long and
uneconomical. For this type of subsoil condition, piles ate driven through the softer
material to specified depth.
Friction and end bearing piles
In the majority of cases, however, the load-carrying capacity is dependent on both end-bearing
and shaft friction.

Classification of Piles according to the Method of Installation of piles

1.Driven or displacement piles

they are usually pre-formed before being driven, jacked, screwed or hammered into ground. This
category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete and piles formed by driving tubes or
shells which are fitted with a driving shoe. The tubes or shells which are filled with concrete
after driving. Also included in this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the driven
piles are withdrawn.

2. Bored or Replacement piles

They require a hole to be first bored into which the pile is then formed usually of reinforced
concrete. The shaft (bore) may be eased or uncased depending upon type of soil.

Types of Piles based on Materials

Timber piles

 Timber piles are made of-tree trunks.

 Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 - 20m
 Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80 - 240 kN

Disadvantages of using timber piles:

Difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving, vulnerable to decay unless treated with
preservatives (If timber is below permanent Water table it will apparently last forever), if
subjected to alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or
piles above Water table are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other insects unless
treated.
Advantages:
Comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay, easy to
handle, best suited for friction piles in granular material.
Steel piles

 Maximum length practically unlimited, optimum length: 12-50m

 It may be open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually filled with concrete
after driving.
 Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary., dm

Advantages of steel piles:

Easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to penetrate through light obstructions,
best suited for end bearing on rock, reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide
corrosion protection.
Disadvantages:
 Vulnerable to corrosion.
 section may be damaged/deflected by major obstruction

Concrete Piles
 Concrete piles may be precast,cast in place, or of composite construction
 Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement.
1. Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during
picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral
Composite piles
In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of different materials or different
pile types. The upper portion could be eased cast-in-place concrete combined with a lower
portion of timber, steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited application
and arc employed under special conditions.

Pile driving:
The process by which the pile is driven into the ground without excavation or boring. Pile
commonly driven by means of hammer supported by crane or by means of a special device
known as pile driver.
The hammer may be drop hammer, single acting steam hammer, double acting steam
hammer,diesel hammer, vibratory hammer etc.
Load bearing capacity of pile
Laod bearing capacity of pile Qf is define as the maximum load which can be carried by a pile and at
which the pile continues to sink without further increase of load.
Qa is the allowable safe load which the pile can carry safely and it can be determine on the basic as
ultimate bearing divided by factor of safely
Qa= Qf/ F
Qa= allowable load carrying capacity of pile
Qf= ultimate bearing capacity of pile
F= factor safety of load
The load carrying capacity of pile can determine by following method

1.dynamic formula
2.Static formula.

Dynamic formula:
This are used for precast concrete pile.. there are various dynamic formula
1. engineering news formula.
According to engineering new formula allowable load carrying capacity of pile

Qa= (WH)/ F(s+c) …………………………………………………(I)

Where, Qa= allowable load carrying capacity
H= height of fall of hammer
W=wiegth of hammer
S=penetration per blow
F= factor of safety =6
C= empirical constant
For drop hammer C=2.5
For single/ double acting steam hammer C=.25
 Hence for drop hammer, Qa=WH/6(S+2.5)
For steam hammer , Qa=WH/6(S+.25)
2. Hiley’s formula,

Qf= ( ᶯb WH ) /(s+c/2)

Qf= uitimate load bearing capacity of pile

ᶯb= (W+e^2 x P)/(W+P) If W>ep

ᶯb= [(W+e^2 x P)/(W+p) ] - [(w-ep)/(w+p)]^2 if w<ep

Where, w= weight of hammer

P= weight of pile

H =height of fall of hammer

S=penetration per blow

C= constant.

Q) A wooden pile is being driven with a drop hammer weighing 20 KN and having a free fall
height 1m. the penetration in last blow is 5mm.determine load carrying capacity of pile
according to engineering news formula.

Ans : w=20kn

H=1m=100cm

S=5mm=.5cm

C=2.5 for drop hammer

According to engineering news formula

Qa = WH/ 6(S+C)

=(20 X 100)/ 6(.5+2.5) =111.1 KN

Q) a reinforced concrete pile of weight 30kn is driven by a drop hammer of weight 40kn and
having a effective free fall of .8cm. The avg set per blow is 1.4cm.the total elastic compression is
1.8cm. Assuming the coefficient of restitution is .25 and factor of safety is 2. calculate bearing
capacity and ultimate load bearing capacity of pile.

Given : w=40 kn p=30kn H=.8m= 80cm s=1.4cm e=.25 F=2

According to hiley’s formula

 W=40kn e x p =.25 x 30 =7.5 hence, w> e x p

Hence hiley’s formula Qf= ( ᶯb WH ) /(s+c/2)

ᶯb= (W+e^2 x P)/(W+P) If W>ep

=[40+30(.25^2)] /(40+30) =.597

Qf= ( ᶯb WH ) /(s+c/2)

=(.597 x 40 x 80 ) / (1.4+1.8/2) =830kN

Qa= Qf/F = 830/2 = 415KN

Causes of failure of foundations

There are following different cause for which foundation fails.
1. Unequal settlement of the sub-soil.
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
3. Horizontal movement of the soil adjoining the structure.
4. Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundation.
5. Lateral pressure tending to over-turn the structure.
6. Action of atmosphere.
7. Lateral escape of the soil below the foundation.

MESONARY

Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or dressed and then finished for
building purposes, is called "Stone" and the art of building the structure with stones as
constructional units is called "Stone Masonry".
(1) Rubble Masonry
(2) Ashlar Masonry
1)Rubble Masonry
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stones are laid is called
"Rubble masonry".
In this masonry, the joints of mortar are not of uniform thickness.
Types of Rubble Masonry
(a) Random Rubble masonry
(i) Uncoursed random rubble Masonry
(ii) Built to courses random rubble Masonry
(b) Squared Rubble
(i) Uncoursed squared rubble Masonry
(ii) Built to courses squared rubble Masonry
(iii) Regular coursed squared rubble Masonry
(c) Dry rubble masonry

Random Rubble Masonry

The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones are used is called
"Random Rubble Masonry".The strength of this masonry depends upon the bond between the
stones.The bond should be strong in both transversely and longitudinally.
Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry

The random rubble masonry, in which all the stones are laid without forming courses, is known
as "Uncoursed Random Rubble masonry".This masonry is the cheapest and roughest type of
masonry.The stones to be used in this masonry are of different sizes and shapes.Larger stones are
used at corners and at jambs to increase their strength.In general, stones are laid with their longer
axis roughly horizontal and along the length of the wall.The only shaping of stones that is
executed is the removal of inconvenient corners or projections with a hammer.This type of
masonry is used for constructing walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings

(ii) BUILT TO COURSES RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY

In this type of masonry, the work is roughly leveled up to form courses, varying from 12 to 18 in
thick.In each course, headers of one course height are placed at certain intervals.This type of
masonry is used to construct residential buildings, godowns, boundary walls, etc

(b) SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY

The Rubble masonry in which the face stones are roughly squared by hammer dressing or chisel
dressing, before their actual laying is called "Squared Rubble masonry".
There are three Types of squared rubble masonry:
(i) UNCOURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY

In this type of squared rubble masonry, the stones are roughly squared and built without
continuous horizontal courses .It is used for ordinary buildings in hilly areas, where a good
variety of stones are easily and cheaply available.
(ii) BUILT TO COURSES SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY

The stones are roughly squared and laid in courses to bond in with the larger quoin stones.

(iii) REGULAR COURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY

This type of masonry is built in courses of varying height but the stones in any one course are of
the same depth. It is mostly used in public buildings, hospitals, schools,lable. markets, modern
residential buildings and in hilly areas, where a good quality of stone is easily and cheaply
available.

(c) DRY RUBBLE MASONRY

The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is known as " Dry Rubble
Masonry".It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not
more than 18 ft.In case, the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in Squared rubble
masonry, in mortar at 9 ft interval.
(2) ASHLAR MASONRY

The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar, is known as
"Ashlar Masonry".In this masonry all the joints are regular, thin, and of uniform thickness.This
type of masonry is costly in construction as involves heavy cost of dressing of stones.This
masonry is used for heavy structures, arches, architectural buildings, high piers, abutments of
bridges, etc.Types of Ashlar Masonry
(a) ASHLER FINE / COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY

In this type of masonry stone blocks of same height are used in each course. Every stone is fine
tooled on all sides.Thickness of Mortar joint is less than 1/16 in and is uniform through out.

(b) RANDOM COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY

This type of Ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed Ashlar masonry but the courses are of
varying thickness, depending upon the character of the building.
(c) ROUGH TOOLED ASHLAR MASONRY

In this type Ashlar masonry, the sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels.
Thickness of joints does not exceed ¼ in.

(d) QUARRY FACED ASHLAR MASONRY

 This type of Ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled Ashlar masonry but there is chisel-drafted
margin left rough on the face.
(e) CHAMFERED ASHLAR MASONRY

It is similar to Quarry faced except that the edges are given a slope of 45 degree for a depth of 1
in. or more.
(f) ASHLAR FACING

In order to reduce the cost and to give the appearance of Ashlar facing to the wall it is usual
practice to construct walls with facing of Ashlar and backing of Rubble or brick masonry. Such
walls are also called “Compound or Composite masonry walls”.If the backing is of Rubble
masonry, It is called “Rubble Ashlar" and if the backing is of brick work the masonry is termed
as “Brick Ashlar”

Brick Masonry

Definitions of terms brick masonry

1. Course: A course is a horizontal layer of bricks or stones.
2. Bed: it is the surface of stone perpendicular to the line of pressure. It indicates the lower surface
of bricks or stones in each course.
3. Back: the inner surface of a wall which is not exposed is called the back. The material forming
the back is known as backing.
4. Face: The exterior of wall exposed to weather is known as face. The material used in the face of
the wall is known as facing.
5. Joint: It is the junction of two or more bricks or stones. If the joint is parallel to the bed of bricks
or stones in a course then it is termed as bed joint. The joint which are perpendicular to the bed
joints are termed as vertical joints or side joints or simply joints.
6. Header: it is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right angles to the face of the
work.. in case of stone masonry header is sometimes known as through stone. The course of brick
work in which all the bricks are laid as headers is known as header course.
7. Stretcher: it is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel to the face of the work.
The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers is known as stretcher course.
8. Spalls: these are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in stone masonry.
9. Quoins: these are the stones used for the corners of walls of a structure.
10. Bat: it is the portion of brick cut across the width.
11. Closer: it is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner that its one long face
remains uncut.
12. Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.
13. King Closer: these are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the triangular piece
between the center of one end and the center of one side.
14. Bevelled Closer: it is that portion of a brick in which the whole length of the brick is beveled
for maintaining half width at one end and full width art the other.
15. Frog: it is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object of
forming a key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of the brick also.
 Bonds in brick masonry

Types of bonds in brick masonry wall construction are classified based on laying and bonding style
of bricks in walls. The bonds in brick masonry is developed by the mortar filling between layers of
bricks and in grooves when bricks are laid adjacent to each other and in layers in walls. Mostly used
material for bonds in brick masonry is cement mortar. Lime mortar and mud mortar are also used.

Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry Wall Construction :

The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:
 . Stretcher bond
. Header bond
. English bond and
. Flemish bond
Other Types of bonds are:
1. Facing bond
2. Dutch bond
3. English cross bond
4. Brick on edge bond
5. Raking bond
6. Zigzag bond
7. Garden wall bond

1. Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the figure below. Stretcher bond,
is created when bricks are laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the
courses of bricks below and above.Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating pattern. But
the limitation of stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective bonding with adjacent bricks in full
width thick brick walls. They are suitably used only for one-half brick thick walls such as for the
construction half brick thick partition wall.Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable
enough to stand alone in case of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting structure
such as brick masonry columns at regular intervals.

Stretcher bonds are commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed structures as the outer
facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity walls. Other common applications of such
walls are the boundary walls, gardens etc.

2. Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header bond is also
known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are placed as headers on the
faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the construction of walls of half brick thickness
whereas header bond is used for the construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures
18cm. In header bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To achieve this, three
quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.
 Fig-2: Header Bond

3. English Bond
English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of header above it, i.e.
it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers. Headers are laid centered on the stretchers
in course below and each alternate row is vertically aligned.To break the continuity of vertical joints,
quoin closer is used in the beginning and end of a wall after first header. A quoin close is a brick cut
lengthwise into two halves and used at corners in brick walls.

Fig-4: English Bond

4. Flemish Bond
Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and stretchers in a
single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in the middle of the stretcher in
the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course are centered on the stretcher of course
below. Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts with header at the corner.The thickness of
Flemish bond is minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of using Flemish bond is that
construction of Flemish bond is difficult and requires greater skill to lay it properly . Flemish bonds
have better appearance but are weaker than English bonds for load bearing wall construction. Thus,
if the pointing has to be done for brick masonry walls, then Flemish bond may be used for better
aesthetic view. If the walls have to be plastered, then it is better to use English bond.
 (Fig-5: Flemish Bond)

1. Facing Bond

This bonds are used when bricks of different thickness are used.in this bond , a header course
is provided after several stretcher course.this types of bond is not structurally good and load
distribution is not uniform.

2. Dutch Bond

This is another form of English bond. In this bond the corners of the wall are
strengthened.special form of this bond is as follows 1.alternative course of header and
stretcher are provided as English bond.2.in every alternative stretcher course,a header is
placed next to the three quarter brick bat at the quoin.

3. English Cross Bond:

This the modification of english bond to improve the appearance of the wall.this bond give
good appearance and more strength.the special feature of this bond are 1. alternative course
of header and stretcher are provided. 2.queen closer are place next to the quoin header.

4. raking bond

This bond is used in thick wall. In this type of bond ,the bonding bricks are kept at inclination
to the the direction of the wall.due to this the longitudinal stability of thick wall increases.
 5. this the similar to the Ranking Bond except bricks are laid in zigzag fashion.

DOORS AND WINDOWS

TYPES OF WINDOWS

Depending upon the manner of fixing, materials used for construction, nature of the operational
movements of shutters , etc., the common varieties of windows used in the building can be
grouped as follows:

1. Casement windows
2. Sliding windows
3. Metal windows
CASEMENT WINDOWS:

These are the windows, the shutters of which open like doors. The construction of a
casement window is similar to the door construction.
SLIDING WINDOWS:
These windows are similar to the sliding doors and the shutters moves on the roller bearings,
either horizontally or vertically. Such windows are provided in trains, buses, bank counter,
shops etc.

METAL WINDOWS:

These are now a days widely used, especially for public building. The metal used in construction
may be mild steel, bronze, or other alloys. The metal frame may be fixed direct to the wall or it
may be fixed on a wooden frame.

ROOF AND FLOOR

DEFINITION OF FLOORS:
Floors are horizontal elements of building structures which divide building into
different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation with in the
restricted space, one above the other and also provide support to the occupants,
furniture and equipments of a building.
FLOOR FINISHES: A floor finish is a liquid which is applied to a resilient tile
floor and dries to a hard, durable and smooth film. This film is about the
thickness of waxed paper and is expected to protect and extend the life of the
floor while providing an attractive appearance and slip resistant surface.
MATERIAL USED FOR FLOOR FINISH
A large group of finishing materials consists of facing materials, which are produced in the form
of sheets, slabs, and tiles
The most important finishing materials are discussed below.
A traditional finishing material is natural stone, which is durable and has an attractive
appearance. Facing products are produced from granite, syenite, gabbro, limestone, marble, and
quartzite. Natural stone finishing materials are used for exterior and interior facings on walls and
for floor coverings, mainly in public buildings and structures, such as theaters, hotels, and
subway stations. Natural stone materials are also used in the form of decorative chips to finish
the surfaces of concrete and reinforced-concrete parts and units.