BRICKS AND CERAMICS

BRICKS
I. INTRODUCTION

 oldest building material continues to be a most popular and leading

construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle
and work with

 used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings
and other load bearing structures

 is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with

one hand

 made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement

concrete

 standard brick (modular brick): 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.

when placed in masonry: 20 × 10 × 10 cm

 the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9" × 2” X 3”, also
known as field bricks

 Weight: 3.0 kg.

 An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep. The size of frog should be 10 x 4 x 1

cm. Used to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are
laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and
extruded bricks.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

A. On Field Practice
B. On Basis of Use
C. On the Basis of Finish
D.On the Basis of Manufacture
E. On the Basis of Burning
F. On the Basis of Types
A. On Field Practice
 Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth
class based on their physical and mechanical properties.
First Class Bricks
o thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour
o surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and
straight edges and square corners
o should be free from flaws, cracks and stones
o should have uniform texture
o No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a
finger nail.
o fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime
o A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck
against each other.
o Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in
cold water for 24 hours.

o The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
This limit varies with different Government organizations around the
country.

Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face
work in masonry structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

B. On the Basis of Use

o Facing Bricks - are made primarily with a view to have good

appearance, either of colour or texture or both. These are durable
under severe exposure and are used in fronts of building walls for which
a pleasing appearance is desired.

o Engineering Bricks - are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded,

hard and conform to defined limits of absorption and strength. These are
used for all load bearing structures.

C. On the Basis of Finish

o Sand-faced Brick - has textured surface manufactured by sprinkling

sand on the inner surfaces of the mould.

o Rustic Brick - has mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern.

D. On the Basis of Manufacture

 o Hand-made - bricks are hand moulded.

o Machine-made - known as wire-cut bricks—bricks cut from clay

extruded in a column and cut off into brick sizes by wires; pressed-
bricks—when bricks are manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay
and pressed into moulds; moulded bricks—when bricks are moulded by
machines imitating hand mixing.

E. On the Basis of Burning

o Pale Bricks - are underburnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the
kiln.

o Body Bricks - are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the
kiln.

o Arch Bricks - are overburnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from
inner portion of the kiln.

F. On the Basis of Types

o Solid - Small holes not exceeding 25 per cent of the volume of the brick
are permitted; alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the
total volume are permitted.

o Perforated - Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume
of the brick.

o Hollow - The total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25
per cent of the volume of the brick.

o Cellular - Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume.

Note: Small holes are less than 20 mm or less than 500 mm2 in cross
section˙

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICKS

 The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in

crushing, regularity in size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing
appearance when exposed to view.
o Size and Shape - uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges
o Colour - uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of uniformity in
chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick
 o Texture and Compactness - surfaces should not be too smooth to
cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have precompact and uniform
texture. A fractured surface should not show fissures, holes grits or
lumps of lime.
o Hardness and Soundness - The brick should be so hard that when
scratched by a finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks
are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.
o Water Absorption - should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry
weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
o Crushing Strength - should not be less than 10 N/mm2.
o Brick Earth - should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter,
saltpetre, etc.
IV. PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH

Operations Involved in Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

Unsoiling

 The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be

free of gravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and
kankar particles, organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of
the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is
removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.

Digging

 After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives such
as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread
over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then
manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and
subsequent processing. The digging operation should be done before
rains.

Weathering

 Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth
and the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil
is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases
where such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done
to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from
different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get
oxidized.

Blending
  The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in
suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount
of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding.
The mass is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the
soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and workability, but
the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not
create a problem in moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content
may affect the size and shape of the finished brick.

Tempering

 Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the

mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet
clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking). It should
preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of
about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure
homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For
manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the
operation is called pugging.
 Pug mill consists of a conical iron tube as shown in Fig. 2.3. The mill is
sunk 60 cm into the earth. A vertical shaft, with a number of horizontal
arms fitted with knives, is provided at the centre of the tube. This
central shaft is rotated with the help of bullocks yoked at the end of
long arms. However, steam, diesel or electric power may be used for
this purpose.
 Blended earth along with required water, is fed into the pug mill from
the top. The knives cut through the clay and break all the clods or
lump-clays when the shaft rotates. The thoroughly pugged clay is then
taken out from opening provided in the side near the bottom. The yield
from a pug mill is about 1500 bricks.
Moulding
 It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared
brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines.
 The process of moulding of bricks may be the soft-mud (hand
moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry-press process
(moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at
higher pressures). Fire-brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing,
floor and wall tiles are made by dry-press method. However, the stiff-
mud process is used for making all the structural clay products.

Drying
 Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The
artificial driers are of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel
drier. In the former, heat is applied by a furnance placed at one end of
the drier or by exhaust steam from the engine used to furnish power
 and is used for fire bricks, clay pipes and terracotta. Tunnel driers are
heated by fuels underneath, by steam pipes, or by hot air from cooling
kilns.
 They are more economical than floor driers. In artificial driers,
temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies from one to three
days. In developing countries, bricks are normally dried in natural
open-air driers (Fig. 2.8). They are stacked on raised ground and are
protected from bad weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0 m
is left in the adjacent layers of the stacks so as to allow free
movement for the workers.
Burning
 The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages.
 Dehydration (400Œ650°C): This is also known as water smoking
stage. During dehydration,(1) the water which has been retained in
the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay loses its
plasticity, (2) some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt, (3) a portion
of sulphur is distilled from pyrites. (4) hydrous minerals like ferric
hydroxide are dehydrated, and (5) the carbonate minerals are more or
less decarbonated. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of
the bricks. On the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or
sulphur is present in large amount in the coal, too slow heating of clay
produces a scum on the surface of the bricks.
 Oxidation Period (650Œ900°C): During the oxidation period, (1)
remainder of carbon is eliminated and, (2) the ferrous iron is oxidized
to the ferric form. The removal of sulphur is completed only after the
carbon has been eliminated. Sulphur on account of its affinity for
oxygen, also holds back the oxidation of iron
 Vitrification - To convert the mass into glass like substance — the
temperature ranges from 900–1100°C for low melting clay and 1000–
1250°C for high melting clay. Great care is required in cooling the
bricks below the cherry red heat in order to avoid checking and
cracking.

V. DIFFERENT FORMS OF BRICKS

CERAMICS

I. INTRODUCTION

 refer to polycrystalline materials and products formed by baking natural

clays and mineral admixtures at a high temperature and also by sintering
oxides of various metals and inorganic substances having high melting
point.

 The word is of Greek origin and derives its name from Keromos meaning
potter’s earth or clay.

 The term ceramic is applied to a wide range of silicates, metallic oxides

and their combinations. Carbon, boron, silicon, certain carbides, silicates,
refractory hydrides and sulphides are also considered to be ceramics. As a
building material, ceramics, may include brick, stone, concrete, glass,
abrasives, porcelain, high temperature refractories, etc. Clay is the most
common example of ceramic materials. Magnesium oxide can withstand
high temperatures (1650–2500°) without melting and is used extensively
as a refractory.
 are usually hard and brittle and are in the form of amorphous (non-
crystalline) or glassy solids. The bond in these materials is mixed ionic
and covalent and while these can be made in single crystal forms, their
more common structure is glassy
II. CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS

A. Refractories
 These materials are capable of withstanding high temperature in
different industrial processes. In addition to the thermal endurance, a
refractory should be able to resist the chemical action of the material
being heated (molten metal slag in the case of metallurgical furnaces
and the gases generated in the furnace) and withstand the mechanical
load. They have high dimensional and chemical stability and do not lose
their physical shape and chemical composition.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF REFRACTORIES

1.1 On the Basis of Chemical Behavior

1.1.1 Acid refractories combine readily with bases. Their chief

constituent is silica: quartz, sand, ganister and silica bricks.

1.1.2 Basic refractories consist mainly of basic oxides: magnesite

and dolomite.

1.1.3. Neutral refractories consist of materials which do not combine

with either basic or acidic oxides: silicon carbide, chromite and
carbon.

1.2 On the Basis of Use

1.2.1 Siliceous Refractories containing not less than 93 per cent

SiO2 are used for roof, metallurgical furnaces and glass tanks.
This is an acid refractory made from hard, dense quartzite and
sand stone.

1.2.2. Alumo-Silicate Refractories may be semi-acid type containing

silica (over 65 per cent), chamotte with 30–45 % alumina are
used in brickwork, lining of furnances; alumina (less than 35 per
cent) or high-alumina variety with more than 45 per cent
alumina are used in glass industry for furnace brickwork.
Aluminosilicate items are used to line cupolas, coke ovens etc.

1.2.3. Magnesian Refractories consist chiefly of MgO (80–85%) and

their refractoriness may be as high as 2000° C. In is an
important basic refractory. It finds application in extractive
metallurgy.

1.2.4. Chromous Refractories are obtained from chromous iron ore

blended with magnesia and alumina. Their refractoriness is
 1800–2000° C and they withstand attack by iron ore slags. They
are used in steel making furnaces.

1.2.5. Carbonaceous Refractories are manufactured from graphite

or coke. These have refractoriness above 1700° C and are
resistant to attack by molten slags.

2. PROPERTIES OF REFRACTORIES

 Refractories are capable of withstanding high temperatures,

thermal shocks and rough usage. The expansion and contraction of
these materials is minimum. They are chemically inactive at high
temperatures and are resistant to the fluxing action of slags and
corrosive action of gases. Refractories are good thermal insulators
and have low electrical conductivity.

III. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC PHASES

A. Tensile Strength Theoretically the tensile strength of ceramics is

very high but in practice it is quite low. Tensile failures of ceramics are
attributed to the stress concentrations at the pores and micro-cracks at
grain corners. The modulus of elasticity ranges from 7 × 104 to 42 × 104
N/mm2. Glass fibres tensile strength of the order of 700 N/mm2 .
B. Compressive Strength The compressive strength is high and it is
usual to use ceramics like clay, cement and glass products in
compression.
C. Shear Strength Ceramics have very high shear strength with
resistance to failing in a brittle manner.
D. Transverse Strength is difficult to ascertain and ceramics are not
used in the places where such strength is the criteria.
I. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC PHASES
 Thermal capacity, conductivity and resistance to shocks need to be
considered while using a ceramic. The specific heat of fire-clay bricks is
0.250 at 1000° C and 0.297 at 1400° C, whereas for carbon bricks it is
about 0.812 at 200° C and 0.412 at 1000° C. The specific heat for
refractories to be used in regenerator chambers should be more. The heat
in ceramics is conducted by phonon conductivity and by the interaction of
lattice vibration. The ceramic materials do not have enough free electrons
to bring out electronic thermal conductivity. At high temperatures,
conduction takes place by transfer of radiant energy. The thermal
conductivity of refractories should be minimum for linings and maximum
for crucibles and retorts.
II. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC PHASES
 Ceramic materials have no free electrons so they have low electrical
conductivity. However, at high temperatures the ionic diffusion is
accelerated. For example glass is an electrical insulator, but in the glass
melting furnace, its conductivity becomes quite high. Clay displays a very
high dielectric constant—a property of material related to its behavior
when located within an electric field between two electrodes—under static
conditions. However, for alternating current, the dielectric constant in clay
arises from ion and electron movement.