Lecture five:

(( Manufacturing ))
Powder Metallurgy (PM):
It is a metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metallic powders
and using them to make serviceable objects.
 PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or
reducing the need for subsequent machining.
 Although parts as large as 22 kg (50 lb) can be produced, most PM components
are less than 2.2 kg (5 lb).A collection of typical PM parts is shown in. [fig. (1)].

Fig. (1): A collection of powder metallurgy parts.

 Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be shaped by
PM, Initially, it was used to replace castings for metals which were difficult to
melt because of high melting point.
 Tungsten filaments for lamp bulbs are made by PM.
 PM process wastes are very little material ~ 97% of starting powders are
converted to product.
 PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce porous metal
parts.
 Examples: filters, oil - impregnated bearings and gears.
Limitations and Disadvantages:
 High tooling and equipment costs.
 Metallic powders are expensive.
 Problems in storing and handling metal powders.
 Degradation over time.
 Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not readily flow laterally
in the die during pressing.
 Variations in density throughout part may be a problem, especially for complex
geometries.
Usual PM production sequence:
 Blending and mixing (Rotating drums, blade and screw mixers) [see fig. (2)].
 Pressing - powders are compressed into desired shape to produce green compact.
Accomplished in press using punch-and-die tooling designed for the part.

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Lecture five:

 Sintering – green compacts are heated to bond the particles into a hard, rigid
mass. Performed at temperatures below the melting point of the metal.

Fig. (2): Powder metallurgy production sequence.

PM Work Materials:
 Metals are alloys of iron, steel, and aluminum.
 Other PM metals include copper, nickel, and refractory metals such as
molybdenum and tungsten.
 Metallic carbides such as tungsten carbide are often included within the scope of
powder metallurgy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDER:
The performance of metal powders during processing and the properties of powder
metallurgy are dependent upon the characteristics of the metal powders that are used.
Following are the important characteristics of metal powders.
(a) Particle shape (b) Particle size
(c) Particle size distribution (d) Flow rate
(e) Compressibility (f) Apparent density (g) Purity
(a) Particle Shape: The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder
manufacture. The shape may be special nodular, irregular, angular, and dendritic. The
particle shape influences the flow characteristics of powders.
(b) Particle Size: The particle size influences the control of porosity,
compressibility and amount of shrinkage. It is determined by passing the powder
through standard sieves or by microscopic measurement.
(c) Particle Size Distribution: It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount
of powder passing through 100, 200 etc., mesh sieves. Particle size distribution influences
the packing of powder and its behaviour during molding and sintering.
(d) Flow Rate: It is the ability of powder to flow readily and confirm to the mold
cavity. It determines the rate of production and economy.
(e) Compressibility: It is defined as volume of initial powder (powder loosely filled
in cavity) to the volume of compact part. It depends on particle size and shape.
(f) Apparent Density: It depends on particle size and is defined as the ratio of
volume to weight of loosely filled mixture.
(g) Purity: Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities
reduces the life of dies and effect sintering process.
Measuring Particle Size:
 Most common method uses screens of different mesh sizes [see fig. (3) below].
 Mesh count - refers to the number of openings per linear inch of screen.
 A mesh count of 200 means there are 200 openings per linear inch'
 Higher mesh count = smaller particle size.

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Lecture five:

Fig. (3): Screen mesh for sorting particle sizes.

Interparticle Friction and Powder Flow:
 Friction between particles affects ability of a powder to flow and pack tightly.
 A common test of interparticle friction is the angle of repose, which is the angle
formed by a pile of powders as they are poured from a narrow funnel.

 Easier flow of particles correlates with lower interparticle friction.

 Lubricants are often added to powders to reduce interparticle friction and
facilitate flow during pressing.
 Smaller particle sizes generally show greater friction.

 Spherical shapes have the lowest interparticle friction. As shape deviates from
spherical, friction between particles tends to increase
Particle Density Measures:
 True density - density of the true volume of the material.
 The density of the material if the powders were melted into a solid mass.
 Bulk density - density of the powders in the loose state after pouring.
 The bulk density is less than the true density, because of pores between particles,
bulk density is less than true density
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
 Typical values for loose powders range between 0.5 and 0.7.
How can we increase the bulk density?

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Lecture five:
• If powders of various sizes are present, smaller powders will fit into spaces
between larger ones, thus higher packing factor.

• Packing can be increased by vibrating the powders, causing them to settle more
tightly
• Pressure applied during compaction greatly increases packing of powders
through rearrangement and deformation of particles
Porosity:
It is the ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the powder to the bulk volume.
 In principle:
Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0
 The issue is complicated by possible existence of closed pores in some of the
particles
Chemistry and Surface Films:
 Metallic powders are classified as either
1. Elemental - consisting of a pure metal:
A pure metal in particulate form:
 Applications where high purity is important
 Common elemental powders (Iron, Aluminum and Copper)
 Elemental powders can be mixed with other metal powders to produce
alloys that are difficult to formulate by conventional methods
 Example: tool steels
2. Pre-alloyed - each particle is an alloy:
Each particle is an alloy comprised of the desired chemical composition:
 Common pre-alloyed powders (Stainless steels, certain copper alloys and
high speed steel.
 Possible surface films include oxides, silica, adsorbed organic materials, and
moisture
 As a general rule, these films must be removed prior to shape processing
Production of Metallic Powders:
Many mechanical and chemical methods are used to produce powders for specific
applications.
 Any metal can be made into powder form.
 In addition, mechanical methods are occasionally used to reduce powder sizes.
The most principal methods by which metallic powders are commercially produced
1. Gas Atomization Method:
It is the method frequently used for metals having low melting points, such as [tin, lead,
zinc, cadmium and aluminum].

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Lecture five:
 A liquid metal is forced through a small orifice, and a stream of compressed air
causes the metal to disintegrate and solidify into finely divided particles [see fig. (4)
below].

Fig. (4): Gas atomization method.

 Atomized products are generally in the form of sphere – shaped particles as shown
in figure ( 5 ) below.
 A wide range of particle – size may be obtained by varying the temperature of the
metal, pressure of atomizing gas, rate of flow of metal through the orifice and the
design of the orifice and nozzle [see fig. (6) below] for other methods of metallic
powder production.

Figure ( 5 ): The particles size by atomization method.

Fig. (6): (a) Other Gas atomization method (b) Water atomization method (c) Centrifugal
atomization by rotating disc method.
2. Machining:
In this method first chips are produced by filing, turning and subsequently ground by
crushing and milling [Figure (7 a)]. The powders produced by this method are coarse in
size and irregular in shape.

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Lecture five:
3. Crushing and Milling:
These methods are used for brittle materials. Jaw crushers, stamping mills, ball mills
are used to breakdown the metals by crushing and impact. [Figure (7 b)].

Fig. (7): (a) Crushing & Milling (b) Ball or Rod Milling.
4. Chemical (Reduction of oxides):
It is a chemical reaction by which metallic compounds are reduced to elemental metal
powders.
 The common process involves liberation of metals from their oxides by use of
reduction agents such as hydrogen (H2) or carbon monoxide (CO) at an elevated
temperature (below the melting point) in a controlled furnace.
 The reduction agent is made to combine with oxygen in the compound to free the
metallic element.
 This method is used to produce powders of [ iron, tungsten and copper ].
 The particles produced by oxide reduction are spongelike in structure and are
ideal for molding [figure ( 8 ) below].

Figure ( 8 ): The particles size by Reduction of oxides method.

5. Electrolytic deposition:
An electrolytic cell is constructed in which the source of desired metal is the anode. The
anode is slowly dissolved under an applied voltage transported through the electrolyte,
and deposited on the cathode.
 The deposit is removed, washed and dried to yield a metallic powder of very high
purity. The cost of manufacturing is high.
 The technique is used for producing powders of [beryllium, copper, iron, silver
tantalum and titanium].
 The deposit may be a soft spongy substance which is subsequently ground to
powder.

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Lecture five:

 The shape of electrolytic powder is generally dendritic as shown in figure ( 9 ).

Figure ( 9 ): the particles size by Electrolyte deposition method.

Particle Shapes & Size in PM:
Particle shape is important in influencing the packing and flow characteristics of
powders. Spherical – shaped particles have excellent sintering qualities and result in
uniform characteristics of the products [see fig. (10) for some powder particle shapes].

Figure ( 10 ): Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in powder metallurgy.

Particle – size distribution is important in the packing of the powder. In general, a finer
powder is preferred over a coarser powder since finer have smaller pore size and larger
contact areas which results in better properties after sintering.
Conventional Press and Sintering:
After metallic powders have been produced, the conventional PM sequence consists of:
1. Blending and mixing of powders
2. Compaction - pressing into desired shape
3. Sintering - heating to temperature below melting point to cause solid-state
bonding of particles and strengthening of part
 In addition, secondary operations are sometimes performed to improve
dimensional accuracy, increase density, and for other reasons.
1. Blending and Mixing of Powders:
For successful results in compaction and sintering, the starting powders must be
homogenized (powders should be blended and mixed).

 Blending - powders of same

chemistry but possibly different
particle sizes are mixed.
 Different particle sizes are
often blended to reduce
porosity.
Blending of different size

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Lecture five:
 Mixing - powders of different chemistries are combined.
Proper blending and mixing of the powders are essential for uniformity of the finished
product. Desired particle – size distribution is obtained by blending in advance the
different types of powders used.
 Alloying powders and lubricants agents are added to the blended powders during
mixing to give a desired amount of porosity.
 The time of mixing may vary from a few minutes to several days depending on
experience and the results desired.
 Lubricants are added to the blending of powders before mixing. The function of
lubricant is to minimize the wear, to reduce friction.
2. Compaction:
The most important operation in powder metallurgy is Compacting. It is the application
of high pressure to the powders to form them into the required shape.
 The main purpose of compacting is converting loose powder into a green compact
of accurate shape and size.
Pressing: Conventional compaction method is pressing (Die compacting), in which
opposing punches squeeze the powders contained in a die at normal or elevated (To) to
considerable pressure [figure ( 11 )].
 The workpart after pressing is called a green compact, the word green
meaning not yet fully processed.
 The green strength of the part when pressed is adequate for handling but it
is relatively brittle.

Figure ( 11 ): Pressing in PM.

Steps in pressing are:
(1) Filling die cavity with adequate powder by automatic feeder.
(2) Initial pressing by movement of the upper and lower Punches toward each
other.
(3) Final positions of upper and lower punches during pressing. The pressures
commonly employed range from ( 19 – 50 tons / in2 ).
(4) Part ejection, pushing green compact away to another sequence application.
Increasing compacting pressure increases Green density [see fig. (12)] and Green
strength because more particle movement and deformation will greater.

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Lecture five:

Figure ( 12 ): (a) Effect of pressure during compacting (1) initial loose powder after filling (2)
repacking (3) deformation of particles (b) density of the powder as a function of pressure. The
sequence here corresponds to steps 1, 2 and 3 in figure (11).
The capacity of a press for PM production is generally given in tons or kN or MN. The
required force for pressing depends on the projected area of the PM part (area in the
horizontal plane for a vertical press) multiplied by the pressure needed to compact the
given metal powders. Reducing this to equation form
𝑭 = 𝑨𝒑 . 𝑷𝒄
Where:
F = required force, N ; Ap = projected area of the part, (mm2); and
Pc = compaction pressure required for the given powder material, (MPa).
Compaction pressures typically range from (70 MPa) for aluminum powders to (700
MPa) for iron and steel powders.
3. Sintering:
After pressing, the green compact lacks strength and hardness; it is easily crumbled
(break into fragments) under low stresses.
Sintering is a heat treatment operation performed on the compact to bond its metallic
particles by atomic forces, thereby increasing strength and hardness.
 The treatment is usually carried out at temperatures between (0.7 and 0.9) of the
metal’s melting point (absolute scale).
 The terms solid-state sintering or solid-phase sintering are sometimes used for
this conventional sintering because the metal remains un-melted at these
treatment temperatures.
Because PM applications usually involve medium-to-high production, most sintering
furnaces are designed with mechanized flow-through capability for the workparts.
The heat treatment consists of three steps, accomplished in three chambers in these
continuous furnaces [see fig. (13) below]:
(1) Preheat, in which lubricants and binders are burned off;
(2) Sinter; and
(3) Cool down
It is an operation in which the green compact are subjected to heat, usually in an inert
gas (atmosphere) at (To) below the melting point of the solid metal.
 The formation of undesirable surface ( oxide ), must be avoided. This can be
accomplished by the use of a controlled protective atmosphere ( H2, inert gas ).
It is an operation in which the green compact are subjected to heat, usually in an inert
gas (atmosphere) at (To) below the melting point of the solid metal.
 The formation of undesirable surface ( oxide ), must be avoided. This can be
accomplished by the use of a controlled protective atmosphere ( H2, inert gas ).

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Lecture five:

Fig. (13): Sintering Cycle & Furnace (a) Typical heat treatment cycle in sintering; and (b)
schematic cross section of a continuous sintering furnace.
 Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size reduction. Sintering
involves mass transport to create the necks and transform them into grain boundaries.
 Sintering is a process of bonding solid bodies by atomic forces. Sintering forces
tend to decrease with increasing temperature.
 The terms solid-state sintering or solid-phase sintering are sometimes used for
this conventional sintering because the metal remains un-melted.
 In case of mixed powders of different melting temperature, the sintering
temperature will usually be above the melting point of one of the minor
constituent.
 Obstructions to Sintering such as (Incomplete surface contact, Presence of surface
film and Lack of plasticity) are all decrease rapidly with increasing temperature.
Sintering Sequence:
Bonding involve ( 4 ) stages as illustrated in [fig ( 14 ) below]:

Fig. (14): Sintering on a microscopic scale.

1. Diffusion of atoms where there is intimate contact between adjacent particles
leading to the development of grain boundaries [fig. 14- 1].
2. The contact points grow into ( Necks ).
3. The pores between particles are reduced in size.

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Lecture five:
4. The grain boundaries are developed between particles in place of the necked
regions.
The important factors governing sintering are temperature, time and atmosphere. The
sintering temperature and time of sintering for different metal powders are given below:

Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques:

Powder Rolling:
Powders can be compressed in a rolling mill operation to form metal strip stock. The
process is usually set upto run continuously or semi-continuously, as shown in [Figure
(15)]. The metallic powders are compacted between rolls into a green strip that is fed
directly into a sintering furnace. It is then cold rolled and re-sintered.

Figure ( 15 ): Powder rolling: (1) powders are fed through compaction rolls to form a green
strip; (2) sintering; (3) cold rolling; and (4) resintering.
Hot pressing:
The setup in hot pressing is very similar to conventional PM pressing, except that heat is
applied during compaction, so that the compacting and sintering of the powder takes
place at the same time in a die.
 The resulting product is generally dense, strong, hard, and dimensionally
accurate.
 Despite these advantages, the process presents certain technical problems that
limit its adoption.
Principal among these are:
(1) Selecting a suitable mold material that can withstand the high sintering
temperatures.
(2) Longer production cycle required to accomplish sintering.
(3) Heating and maintaining atmospheric control in the process.
Hot pressing, its application is limited and can be used for compacting (Fe and Brass
powders) at much lower pressure than conventional pressing and sintering operations.

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Lecture five:

Secondary Operations:
PM secondary operations include densification, sizing, impregnation, infiltration, heat
treatment, and finishing.
1) Densification and Sizing:
A number of secondary operations are performed to increase density, improve accuracy,
or accomplish additional shaping of the sintered part.
Repressing is a pressing operation in which the part is squeezed in a closed die to
increase density and improve physical properties.
Sizing is the pressing of a sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy. Coining
is a press working operation on a sintered part to press details into its surface.
Some PM parts require machining after sintering.
Machining is rarely done to size the part, but rather to create geometric features
that cannot be achieved by pressing, such as internal and external threads, side holes,
and other details.
Impregnation: Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of powder
metallurgy technology. It can be exploited to create special products by filling the
available pore space with oils or polymers.
The most common products of this process are oil-impregnated bearings, gears, and
similar machinery components. The treatment is accomplished by immersing the
sintered parts in a bath of hot oil, or impregnated with various types of polymer resins
that seep into the pore spaces in liquid form and then solidify.
Infiltration is an operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled with a
molten metal. The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of the PM part.
The process involves heating the filler metal in contact with the sintered component so
that capillary action draws the filler into the pores. The resulting structure is relatively
nonporous, and the infiltrated part has a more uniform density, as well as improved
toughness and strength.
An application of the process is copper infiltration of iron PM parts.
PM Products:
Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, cutting tools, and various machinery parts are PM
products.
Gears & bearing are ideal for PM because the geometry is uniform & there is a need for
porosity in the part to serve as a reservoir for lubricant (Self-Lubricating Bearing).
 These bearings soak up considerable quantity of oil. Hence during service, these
bearings produce a constant supply of lubricant to the surface due to capillary
action.
 These are used where lubricating is not possible.
Advantage of PM:
 Parts can be made to near net shape or net shape.
 The greatest advantage of this process is the control of the composition of the
product.
 This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non-metallic powders to give
products of special characteristics.
 Porous parts can be produced that could not be made by any other way.
 Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.
 Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be
obtained for particular applications.
 High production rates.

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