Engineering Materials

Q1: What are bricks and tiles? Describe

their important characteristics,
classification and manufacturing
process.
Brick and tile, structural clay products, manufactured as standard units, used
in building construction.

Good bricks have following characteristics:

Size and shape – Uniform size, rectangular surfaces, parallel sides, sharp straight
edges.

Color – Uniform deep red or cherry.

Texture and Compactness – Uniform texture, fractured surface should not show
fissures, holes, grits or lumps of lime.

Hardness and Soundness – Not scratch able by finger nail. Produce metallic ringing
sound.

Water absorption – Should not exceed 20% by weight.

Crushing strength – Not less than 10.5 N/mm2.

Brick earth – Free from stones, impurities and organic matter.

Classification of bricks:
Bricks are classified in two main categories.

 Sun Dried Bricks. After molding, these bricks are just dried in sun and no other
processing or treatment is done. Used for temporary and light weight structures.
If exposed to rain or other chemical agents, they readily disintegrate.
 Burnt Bricks. After molding and sun drying, these bricks are burnt in Kiln at very
high temperature for a certain period of time. It results in hard, durable and
permanent bricks. They are much stronger and have higher compressive
strengths. They are further classified in four categories.

Classification of Burnt Bricks

Depending upon the end product obtained from Kiln, burnt bricks are further classified
into four types which are as under.

1. First Class Bricks

2. Second Class Bricks
3. Third Class Bricks
4. Over Burnt Bricks

1. First Class Bricks

 These are well burnt and uniform color.

 Its all faces are uniform, smooth and sharp.
 These are very solid and are free from cracks and flaws.
 This is used for the construction of superior work i.e. heavy foundation and
structures.
How to Identify First Class Bricks?

 If stuck against the same type of brick, good metallic sound is obtained without
any breeding.
 If it is fractured, the interior surface of the brick shows uniform textures.
 They do not absorb more than 15% water w.r.t their dry weight.
 Their minimum crushing speed strength is 10.5N/mm2.
 Very little or no efflorescence signs.

Uses of First Class Bricks

 Civil works of permanent nature.

 Construction of load bearing walls.
 Reinforced brick work.
 Walk-a-ways, pavements and floors.

2. Second Class Bricks

 This kind of bricks are also well burnt but have reasonable smooth surface with
fine hair cracks and mild distortion.
 They are well burnt or slightly over burnt.
 They are rectangular in shape and have well defined edges but not in equal size.

How to Identify First Class Bricks?

 If struck against same type of brick they emit ringing sound, slightly different from
metallic sound produced by first class bricks.
 They have clean surface but with certain small irregularities.
 They are free from cracks but have slight flaws and chips easily visible from
naked eye.
 Even if soaked for 24 hrs it will absorb less than 22% of water.
  They have the minimum crushing strength of 7 N/mm2.

Uses of First Class Bricks

 Masonry construction where faces are to plastered and small irregularities are
not of any importance.
 Load bearing walls of single storey houses.
 As brick ballast in RCC work.

3. Third Class Bricks

 These bricks are under burnt and have some cracks and rough surface.
 They are light colored and are relatively soft.
 They are not in uniform sizes and slightly distorted.
 They do not have well defined sharp edges and corners.

How to identify Third Class Bricks

 When they are stuck with same type of brick it emits dull sound.
 They are likely to show intensive sign of efflorescence.
 In the fractured surface of the bricks they don’t have the proper uniform textures,
it may show pebbles.
 These bricks will have the water absorptions of 20-25%.
 Minimum compressive strength is 3.5 N/mm2.

Uses of Third Class Bricks

 Construction of unimportant structures.

 Low height walls where loads are less
 Construction of sheds, boundary wall and huts with roofs other than RCC.
 Used in areas not exposed to rain.
4. Over-Burnt Bricks

 As their name shows, these are over burnt since remained near fire in Kiln so get
fused and loose their shape.
 Their are not strong enough to be used in civil construction.

How to identify Over Burnt Bricks

 Have bulging surfaces.

 Very dark black or grey like color.
 Their compressive strength is very low.

Uses of Over Burnt Bricks

 Inferior construction
 As aggregate.
 As gravel for flooring.

Manufacturing process:
Modern brick production:-

Basically, the process of brickmaking has not changed since the first fired bricks were
produced some thousands of years ago. The steps used then are used today, but with
refinements. The various phases of manufacture are as follows: securing the clay,
beneficiation, mixing and forming, drying, firing, and cooling.

Securing the clay:

Clays used today are more varied than those used by the first brickmakers. Digging,
mining, and various methods of grinding enable the modern manufacturer to utilize
many raw materials.
Clays used in brickmaking represent a wide range of materials that include varying
percentages of silica and alumina. They may be grouped in three classes: (1) surface
clays found near or on the surface of the Earth, typically in river bottoms; (2) shales,
clays subjected to high geologic pressures and varying in hardness from a slate to a
form of partially decomposed rock; and (3) fireclays, found deeper under the surface
and requiring mining. Fireclays have a more uniform chemical composition than surface
clays or shale.

Surface clays are typically recovered by means of power shovels, bulldozers with
scraper blades, and dragline operations. Shales are recovered by blasting and power
shovels. Fireclays are mined by conventional techniques.

Beneficiation:

Raw clays are often blended to obtain a more uniform consistency. In many cases the
material is ground to reduce large rocks or clumps of clay to usable size and is placed in
storage sheds. As additional material is stored, samples are blended from a cross
section of the storage pile. The material is then transferred to secondary grinders and
screens (if necessary) to secure the optimum particle size for mixing with water. In
certain processes (e.g., soft-mud) the clay is transferred directly to the mixing area,
eliminating all grinding, screening, and blending.

Mixing and forming:

All clays must be mixed with water to form the finished product. The amount of water
added will depend on the nature of the clays and their plasticity. This water is removed
during drying and firing, which causes shrinkage of the units; to compensate for this
shrinkage the molds are made larger than the desired finished products.

Three basic processes are used in the forming and mixing phase. In the stiff-mud
process the clay is mixed with water to render it plastic, after which it is forced through a
die that extrudes a column of clay like the toothpaste squeezed from a tube (see
the Figure). The column gives two dimensions of the unit being manufactured; it is cut to
give the third dimension. All structural clay tile is made by this process, as is a great
percentage of brick.

In the older method of forming bricks, the soft-mud process, much more water is used,
and the mix is placed in wooden molds to form the size unit desired. To keep the clay
from sticking, the molds are lubricated with sand or water; after they are filled, excess
clay is struck from the top of the mold. It is from this process that the terms wood-mold,
sand-struck, or water-struck brick were derived. Clays with very low plasticity are used
in the dry-press process. A minimum of water is added, the material is placed in steel
molds, and pressures up to 1,500 pounds per square inch (10,000 kilopascals) are
applied.
Drying:

After the bricks are formed, they must be dried to remove as much free water as
possible. (They could literally explode if subjected to fire without drying.) Drying, apart
from sun drying, is done in drier kilns with controlled temperature, draft, and humidity.

Firing and cooling:

Bricks are fired and cooled in a kiln, an oven-type chamber capable of producing
temperatures of 870° to 1,100° C (1,600° to more than 2,000° F), depending on the type
of raw material. There are two general types of kilns, periodic and continuous.

The earliest type of kiln, the scove, is merely a pile of dried bricks with tunnels at the
bottom allowing heat from fires to pass through and upward in the pile of bricks. The
walls and top are plastered with a mixture of sand, clay, and water to retain the heat; at
the top the bricks are placed close together and vented for circulation to pull the heat up
through the brick. The clamp kiln is an improvement over the scove kiln in that the
exterior walls are permanent, with openings at the bottom to permit firing of the tunnels.

A further refinement of the scove kiln, round or rectangular in form, is designated as

updraft or downdraft, indicating the direction of heat flow. In these kilns the walls and
crown are permanent, and there are firing ports around the exterior.

In so-called periodic kilns the bricks are placed with sufficient air space to allow the heat
from the fires to reach all surfaces. They are placed directly from the drier, and heat is
gradually increased until the optimum firing temperature is reached. When they are
sufficiently fired, the heat is reduced, and they are allowed to cool gradually before
removal from the kiln.

The periodic kiln was improved in efficiency by placing several kilns in line with
connecting passages. The first chamber is fired first and the excess heat passed to the
next chamber to start heating. Successively, the various chambers are brought to
optimum firing and cooling temperatures, until all bricks have been fired and cooled.
This arrangement is known as the moving fire zone. In the more modern fixed fire zone,
dried bricks are placed on cars carrying as many as 3,000 or more bricks; the cars start
at the cool end of a long tunnel kiln and move slowly forward through gradually
increasing temperatures to the firing zone, pass through it, and emerge through
decreasing heat zones until cooled.

Automation:

Since the development of the tunnel kiln, brickmakers have sought to increase
automation in their plants. Handling of the finished product has been automated to the
point that bricks emerging from the kiln are now automatically stacked in packages of
approximately 500, strapped with metal bands, and stored, shipped, and delivered by
mechanical equipment.
In some plants bricks are taken from the cutter machine, placed in the drier or on drier
cars by mechanical means, placed on kiln cars by mechanical fingers, removed from
the kiln cars mechanically, stacked, strapped, and prepared for shipment without being
touched by hand.

Characteristics of tiles:
1. It should possess uniform color.

2. It should be sound, hard and durable.

3. It should be regular in shape and size.

4. It should fit in properly when fix on particular place,

5. It should be free from cracks, bends and warps.

6. It should give an even and compact structure when seen on its broken surface.

Classification of tiles:

1. Class 1 – No Foot Traffic: Ceramic tile for interior residential and commercial

wall applications only. Class 1 tile is also sometimes used for bathroom floors.
2. Class 2 – Light Traffic: Ceramic tile for interior residential and commercial wall
applications and for residential bathroom floor applications. Some use Class 2 tiles
for small utility room floors, but for the longest and most durable use, it is best to use
Class 3 or 4.
3. Class 3 – Light to Moderate Traffic: Ceramic tile for residential floor,
countertop and wall applications. Most common residential floor tile. The glazing on
these tiles is most often very durable, and the strength of the tiles can handle the
stress of most traffic areas.
4. Class 4 – Moderate to Heavy Traffic: Ceramic tile suggested for residential and
commercial heavy traffic areas such as in offices or stores.
5. Class 5+ – Heavy to Extra-Heavy Traffic: Class 5+ is good for exterior areas,
shopping centers, airports, hotel lobbies and public walkways .

Manufacturing of tiles:
The Production Process of Ceramic Tiles:

The production of tiles is a complex and longstanding process

composed of a series of technological procedures:
• raw material preparation
• shaping
• drying raw tiles
• glazing
• burning
• sorting
• storage of ready product 
 

Q2: What are ceramics and

glass? How glass is classified
in ceramics? Describe the
material and process required
 in the glass fabrication with
some light on glass types.

A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid material

comprising metal, nonmetal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent
bonds. The crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-
crystalline, and often completely amorphous (e.g. Glasses).

Glass is a non-crystalline solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological,

and decorative usage in things like window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. Scientifically, the
term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non-
crystalline (that is, amorphous) structure at the atomic scale and that exhibits a glass
transition when heated towards the liquid state.

Glass Fabrication Materials:

The types of materials that are most commonly used in glass fabrication applications
include fused silica and borosilicate. Fused silica is made by melting very pure silica
sand. The purity of fused silica makes it ideal for use in highly precise optic applications
such as lab equipment and lenses for the ultraviolet spectrum. Fused silica also has a
very high melting point, which makes it perfect for use in semiconductor production.
Types of glass
Annealed glass

Annealed glass is the basic flat glass product that is the first result of the float process.
It is common glass that tends to break into large, jagged shards. It is used in some end
products and often in double-glazed windows. It is also the starting material used to
produce more advanced products through further processing such as laminating,
toughening, coating, etc. 

Toughened glass

Toughened glass is treated to be far more resistant to breakage than simple annealed
glass and to break in a more predictable way when it does break, thus providing a major
safety advantage in almost all of its applications.

Toughened glass is made from annealed glass treated with a thermal tempering
process. A sheet of annealed glass is heated to above its "annealing point" of 600°C; its
surfaces are then rapidly cooled while the inner portion of the glass remains hotter. The
different cooling rates between the surface and the inside of the glass produces
different physical properties, resulting in compressive stresses in the surface balanced
by tensile stresses in the body of the glass.

These counteracting stresses give toughened glass its increased mechanical resistance
to breakage, and are also, when it does break, what cause it to produce small, regular,
typically square fragments rather than long, dangerous shards that are far more likely to
lead to injuries. Toughened glass also has an increased resistance to breakage as a
result of stresses caused by different temperatures within a pane.

Toughened glass has extremely broad applications in products for both buildings and,
automobiles and transport, as well as in other areas. Car windshields and windows,
glass portions of building facades, glass sliding doors and partitions in houses and
offices, glass furniture such as table tops, and many other products typically use
toughened glass. Products made from toughened glass often also incorporate other
technologies, especially in the building and automotive and transport sectors.

Laminated glass

Laminated glass is made of two or more layers of glass with one or more "interlayers" of
polymeric material bonded between the glass layers.

Laminated glass is produced using one of two methods:

 1. Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass is produced using heat and pressure to
sandwich a thin layer of PVB between layers of glass. On occasion, other
polymers such as Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) or Polyurethane (PU) are used. This
is the most common method.
2. For special applications, Cast in Place (CIP) laminated glass is made by pouring
a resin into the space between two sheets of glass that are held parallel and very
close to each other.

Laminated glass offers many advantages. Safety and security are the best known of
these, so rather than shattering on impact, laminated glass is held together by the
interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard associated with shattered glass fragments, as
well as, to some degree, the security risks associated with easy penetration. But the
interlayer also provides a way to apply several other technologies and benefits, such as
coloring, sound dampening, resistance to fire, ultraviolet filtering and other technologies
that can be embedded in or with the interlayer.

Laminated glass is used extensively in building and housing products and in

the automotive and transport industries. Most building facades and most car
windscreens, for example, are made with laminated glass, usually with other
technologies also incorporated.

Coated

Surface coatings can be applied to glass to modify its appearance and give it many of
the advanced characteristics and functions available in today's flat glass products, such
as low maintenance, special reflection/transmission/absorption properties, scratch
resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.

Coatings are usually applied by controlled exposure of the glass surface to vapors,
which bind to the glass forming a permanent coating. The coating process can be
applied while the glass is still in the float line with the glass still warm, producing what is
known as "hard-coated" glass.

Alternatively, in the "off-line" or "vacuum" coating process, the vapor is applied to the
cold glass surface in a vacuum vessel.

Mirrored glass

To produce mirrored glass, a metal coating is applied to one side of the glass. The
coating is generally made of silver, aluminum, gold or chrome. For simple mirrored
glass, a fully reflective metal coating is applied and then sealed with a protective layer.
To produce "one-way" mirrors, a much thinner metal coating is used, with no additional
sealing or otherwise opaque layer.
Mirrored glass is gaining a more prominent place in architecture, for important functional
reasons as well as for the aesthetic effect.

Patterned

Patterned glass is flat glass whose surfaces display a regular pattern. The most
common method for producing patterned glass is to pass heated glass (usually just after
it exits the furnace where it is made) between rollers whose surfaces contain the
negative relief of the desired pattern(s).

Patterned glass is mostly used in internal decoration and internal architecture. Today, it
is typically used for functional reasons, where light but not transparency is desired, and
the patterns are accordingly subtle. However, it has also at times been fashionable as a
design feature in itself, in such cases often displaying more prominent patterns.

Extra clear glass

Extra clear glass is not the result of processing of annealed glass, but instead a specific
type of melted glass. Extra clear glass differs from other types of glass by its basic raw
material composition. In particular, this glass is made with a very low iron content in
order to minimize its sun reflection properties. It therefore lets as much light as possible
through the glass. It is most particularly of use for solar energy applications where it is
important that the glass cover lets light through to reach the thermal tubes or
photovoltaic cells. Anti-reflective properties can be further increased by applying a
special coating on the low-iron glass. It can also be used in windows or facades as it
offers excellent clarity, which allows occupants to appreciate true colors and to enjoy
unimpaired views.

Q3: what is difference among Tar,

bitumen and asphalt? Describe their
properties and uses in construction
industry.
 Bitumen is the heavy end (i.e. higher molecular weight) residue from the fractionation
of crude oil. When you have extracted such things as fuels, fuel oils, lubricating oils and
waxes from the crude oil, what is left is a thick sticky black liquid, consistency anything
from "treacle" up to a firm glassy amorphous sold. That is bitumen. 
Tar is similar, but is not extracted from crude oil; it is extracted from coal. It is a black
mixture of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety of organic
materials through destructive distillation.

Asphalt is a mixture of bitumen and aggregates (inorganic heavy fillers, sands, grit,
stones) of various kinds used for construction of road surfaces .

Properties of Tar:
Its properties depend upon raw material used in manufacturing and method of
distillation and properties of residual matter.
1. It hardens much quicker than asphalt.
2. It is more adhesive than asphalt.
3. It possesses toxicity to a high degree.

Uses of Tar:
Tar was used as seal for roofing shingles and tar paper and to seal the hulls of ships
and boats. For millennia, wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today,
sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have reduced the demand
for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historical
shingle-roofed churches, as well as painting exterior walls of log buildings. Tar is also a
general disinfectant. Pine tar oil, or wood tar oil, is a pure natural product used for the
surface treatment of wooden shingle roofs, boats, buckets, and tubs and in the
medicine, soap, and rubber industries. Pine tar has good penetration on the rough
wood. An old wood tar oil recipe for the treatment of wood is one-third each genuine
wood tar, balsam turpentine, and boiled or raw linseed oil or Chinese Tung oil.
In Finland, wood tar was once considered a panacea reputed to heal “even those cut in
twain through their midriff”. A Finnish proverb states that “if sauna, vodka and tar won’t
help, the disease is fatal.” Wood tar is used in traditional Finnish medicine because of
its microbicide properties.
Wood tar is also available diluted as tar water, which has numerous uses:

 As a flavoring for candies (e.g., Terva Leijona) and alcohol (Terva Viina)

 As a spice for food, like meat
 As a scent for saunas. Tar water is mixed into water, which is turned into steam
in the sauna
 As an anti-dandruff agent in shampoo
 As a component of cosmetics
Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint has a translucent
brownish hue and can be used to saturate and tone wood and protect it from weather.
Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colors and
preserving the wood texture.

Properties of asphalt:
1. It is sticky and binds strongly as cement.
2. It is usually solid or semi-solid in state.
3. It is black brownish in color.
4. It is water-proof.
5. It is durable and retain its properties for several years.
6. It is elastic.
7. It becomes plastic and workable when heated.
8. It possesses binding properties when softened by heat.

Uses of Asphalt:
Although asphalt is mainly used for paving roads, it can also be used for various other
purposes. The versatility of asphalt makes it such a widely used material. Among
others, it can be found in the following sectors:

 Transportation (e.g. roads, railway beds or airport runways, taxiways, etc.)

 Recreation (playgrounds, bicycle paths, running tracks, tennis courts…)
 Agriculture (barn floors, greenhouse floors…)
 Industrial (ports, landfill caps, work sites…)
 Building construction (floorings…)
 Industrial application 

Properties of bitumen:
1. It is solid or semi-solid, black and sticky.
2. It melts of soften on application of heat.
3. Its specific gravity is 1.09.
4. It is completely soluble in carbon disulphide.
5. It is binder in all types of asphalt.
6. It has lower permittivity and high insulation resistance.

Uses of bitumen:
Following are the uses of bitumen

1. It is used as a damp-proof course in walls and underbasemets and in lining

tanks, swimming pools etc.
2. Since it forms good expansion joints therefore, it is used for filling up the joints in
leaky roofs.
3. It is being expensively used as a road making material.
4. It is used for making heat insulating material.
5. It is also employed in the manufacture of roofing felt.

Q4: Elaborate the difference between

paints and varnishes. What are different
types of paints, their properties and
common uses?
PAINT

Paint is a liquid or liquefiable composition which after application to a substrate in a thin

layer is converted to a dense and thick solid film. It is most commonly used to protect,
color or provide texture to objects.
VARNISH

Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. It is a

transparent, hard, protective finish or film principally used in wood finishing. Its finishes are
usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of
"flatting" agents.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAINTS AND VARNISHES:

Varnish has little or no color, is transparent, and has no added pigment, as opposed to
paints, which contain pigment and generally range from opaque to translucent.
Varnishes are also applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for gloss
and protection.
After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly, as
soon as the solvent has fully evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent
through certain curing processes, primarily because of chemical reaction between oils
and oxygen from the air or between components of the varnish.

Types of paints:
OIL PAINT

Contains pigments usually suspended in linseed oil, a drier, and mineral spirits or other
type of thinner. The linseed oil serves as the binder for the pigments, the drier controls
drying time, the thinner controls the flowing qualities of the paint. As the thinner
evaporates, the mixture of pigments and oil gradually dries to an elastic skin as the oil
absorbs oxygen from the air or "cures". The curing action bonds a tough paint film to the
applied surface. Oil paints are used inside and outside and are regarded as the
traditional house paint.

VARNISH

Consists of a solution of resins in a drying oil. Varnish contains little or no pigment. It dri
es and hardens by evaporation of the volatile solvents, oxidation of the oil, or both.  
Varnish is recommended for both outdoor and indoor applications where a hard, glossy 
finish that is impervious to moisture is desired. For a satin finish, the gloss varnish surfa
ce can be rubbed down with steel wool, or a "satin" varnish can be used. As a floor finis
h, varnish provides a hard, durable film that will not greatly alter the tone of the wood.  

ENAMEL

Enamel is a varnish with pigments added. Enamel has the same basic durability and
toughness of a good varnish. It produces an easy to-clean surface, and in the proper
formulation, can be used for interior and exterior applications. For the highest quality
interior work, an undercoat is required.

LATEX PAINT

Consists of a dispersion of fine particles of synthetic resin and pigment in water. Latex p
aints are quick‐drying, low in odor and thinned with water. They permit the repainting an
d decorating of a room within a day. Because latex paints set quickly, tools, equipment 
and spattered areas should be cleaned promptly with warm, soapy water.   No special
primer is required for interior applications except over bare metal or wood, or over highly
alkaline surfaces. Spot-priming with shellac should be avoided because shiny spots will
bleed through the latex film. Exterior latex house paint can be applied directly to old
painted surfaces. On new wood, it should be applied over a primer. For other surfaces,
follow specific label directions.

WATER-REDUCIBLE PAINTS

This term has come into wider use in the paint business within the past few years. Thes
e products are also called "water‐base" or”water‐borne" paints. They include the well‐
known latex products, as well as products based on new synthetic polymers. While both 
groups employ water as the reducing agent, the chemistry of each is different.  
For example, most latex coatings dry by solvent evaporation or coalescence. The new s
ynthetic polymeric paints dry by a combination of solvent evaporation and chemical cros
s‐ linking.   Chemical cross‐
linking frequently requires the blending of two materials (these products are called "two‐
component" coatings) and a "digestion" time before the coating can be applied. The ble
nding of specific materials results in chemical cross‐linking and outstanding performanc
e features, such as mar resistance, scratch resistance, washability and stain resistance. 
  ALKYDS

Alkyd finishes are produced in four sheens: flat, semi‐gloss, low‐luster and high‐gloss. F
lat finishes have a velvety texture and are used to produce a rich, softly reflective surfac
e. Alkyd flats can often be applied to painted walls and ceilings, metal, fully cured plaste
r, wallboard and woodwork without a priming. When required, the primer should be of a 
similar material. For high alkaline surfaces, an alkali‐resistant primer should be used.  
Semi‐gloss or low‐luster types add just enough sheen to woodwork and trim for contrast 
with flat‐finished wall surfaces. Each offers great resistance to wear and washing. Low‐
luster enamels are preferred in such areas as kitchens, bathrooms, nurseries and schoo
lrooms.   Alkyd high‐
gloss enamels are often used for even greater serviceability and wash ability.  

EPOXY

A two-part formulation which is thoroughly mixed just before use. Epoxy finishes are
extremely hard and durable and excellent for demanding applications. They can be
used for protecting materials such as steel, aluminum and fiber glass. The paint film
dries to a brilliant gloss. The tile-like finish is smooth, easy to clean and lasts for years
under the most severe conditions.

POLYESTER-EPOXY

Two‐component materials that are usually mixed prior to application. Polyester‐epoxy c
ombines the physical toughness, adhesion and chemical resistance of an epoxy with th
e color retention and permanent clarity of polyester. The film is stain resistant and moist
ure resistant.   Polyester‐epoxy is available in gloss and semi‐
gloss sheens, and can be applied to any firm interior surface. Pot life is a full working
day.

ACRYLIC-EPOXY

Two‐component coatings developed by Pittsburgh Paints include Pitt‐Glaze Water Base 
Coatings. Chemically, acrylic‐epoxy coatings 
provide the resistance to staining, yellowing and scuffing of acrylic resins, combined wit
h the toughness, acid and alkali resistance of 
epoxies. Their performance characteristics are almost equal to those of polyester‐epoxy 
solvent based products and their stainresistance is superior.   Acrylic‐
epoxy coatings are available in gloss and semi‐gloss finishes ‐ in both clear and pigmen
ted formulations. Colorant can be 
added to the pigmented products to achieve hundreds of colors.  
Though priced higher than conventional enamels, acrylic‐epoxy coatings offer superior 
washability, non‐yellowing characteristics,  and generally 3‐
5 times longer life, which makes them an outstanding value for interior walls continuousl
y subjected to hard‐use  conditions. 

POLYAMIDE-EPOXY

Tough, two‐component finish with outstanding hardness, abrasion resistance, alkali and 
acid resistance, and adhesion when dry. 
Excellent as a concrete floor finish where heavy traffic wears through an alkyd finish in a 
short time.   For exterior applications, polyamide‐
epoxy will chalk and lose gloss on prolonged exposure; however, film integrity is not lost
. 

URETHANE-MODIFIED ALKYDS

One-component finishing material for outstanding abrasion resistance on wood floors,

furniture, paneling, cabinets, etc. Good resistance to normal household materials such
as alcohol, water, grease, etc. It may yellow to some degree with age.

ACRYLIC-URETHANE COATINGS

Recommended for areas that demand superior chemical and stain resistance, plus color 
and gloss retention. They are suitable for both interior and exterior application on proper
ly primed steel, aluminum and masonry which are subjected to high acids and 
alkalinity.  
These products are designed to be used in commercial and industrial applications but n
ot in homes.   Acrylic‐
urethane coatings have high performance properties including excellent resistance to sa
lt, steam, grease, oils, many coolants, solvents and general maintenance type machiner
y fluids. They also have excellent film properties and resistance to scratching, marring a
nd chipping. The tile‐like gloss and semi‐gloss finishes provide superior corrosion and a
brasion resistance, while maintaining excellent gloss and color retention on exterior exp
osures for long periods of time.  
The color and gloss retention, and chemical resistance of acrylic‐urethane coatings will 
exceed those of conventional highperformance coatings. They also dry to the touch fast
er than any other heavy duty topcoat in the trade sales line. 

ALUMINUM PAINT

An all
purpose aluminum paint formulated with varnish as the vehicle for aluminum flake pigm
ent. As the paint dries, the aluminum flakes float to the surface, providing a reflective co
ating. Highly resistant to weathering. Also suitable for interior use on wood, metal or ma
sonry.  
When formulated with an asphalt base, aluminum paint offers maximum adhesion and 
water resistance at low cost when applied to asphalt composition. 

SHELLAC

A long‐standing favorite for finishing wood floors, trim and furniture. Shellac is thinned w
ith alcohol and should be applied in dry, warm air to avoid clouding. It dries dust‐free in 
15‐20 minutes.   Shellac can be used as a pre‐
staining wash coat to obtain an even stain tone on porous or soft wood such as pine. It 
can also be used to change the tone of an already shellacked surface by tinting it with al
cohol‐soluble aniline dye.   Instead of re‐
staining, pigmented shellac, also called shellac enamel, is often used as a sealant over 
stained finishes for a uniform, freshly painted surface.  
Uses of paints:
Paints are exhaustively used every day. Few of them are listed here 

1) It helps to protect the metal from corrosion 

2) Art work 
3) It is used as a "reflective coating" for traffic system 
4) It is also uses as "water insulation for roofs and ceilings" 
5) Used as thermal insulation to reduce the energy consumption of cooling appliances
in houses 
6) Used as "Noise protection Insulation" 
7) As a "Fire resistant coatings" 
8) Research are in progress to use paint for generating electricity from heat energy.

Q5: what is the difference between an

admixture and additive? Describe in
detail their types and uses.
Admixture: Organic or inorganic material added in small quantities to modify the
properties of the mortar in the fresh/hardened state.

Additive: A finely divided inorganic material that may be added to mortar in order to
improve or achieve special properties.

Additives are added to cement during manufacturing to get new property for
cement while admixtures are added to mix during mixing to get new property to
the fresh concrete.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADDITIVES AND ADMIXTURES:

Additives are added to cement during manufacturing to get a new property for cement,
while admixtures are added while mixing to get a new property for the fresh concrete.
Admixtures are one of the oldest known additions to the cement. They are added to
mortars, screeds and renders to enhance their properties. The concept of admixtures is
as old as the Romans and Greeks. Romans used animal fat, blood and milk to enhance
the quality of their mortar mix, whilst the Chinese added black molasses. Even then
people had the concept that the addition of other material such as those mentioned
above increased the properties of mortar mix.
Admixtures are both organic and inorganic material while additives are purely inorganic
in nature. Some people are also of the opinion that additives are solid materials while
admixtures are liquid in nature.
TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND THEIR
USES:
• AIR ENTRAINING ADMIXTURE
Air-entraining admixtures are used to purposefully introduce air bubbles into the
concrete mix. Air entrainment dramatically increases the durability of concrete exposed
to continuous cycles of freezing and thawing. Air-entrained admixture prevents surface
scaling, increases the workability of the concrete mix and the phenomena of
segregation and bleeding is greatly reduced. Air entrained admixtures are used in areas
where there are stresses due to water in extreme freezing temperatures.

• WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURE

Water-reducing admixtures are used to decrease the requirement of water, reduce the
water-cement ratio or increase the slump. Due to the decrease in the water-cement
ratio, we can see an increased level of strength attainment. The strength of a concrete
with water reducing admixture is 10-25 percent greater after 28 days in comparison to a
concrete without this particular admixture. Water reducers if not carefully used can be
responsible for dry shrinkage. The either increase, decrease or have no effect on
bleeding. This depends on the chemical composition of the admixture. Water reducers
are used to make bridge decks, low-slump concrete overlays and patching concrete.

• MID RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURE

These reducers are used with a slump of 125 to 200mm unlike the normal reducers
which are responsible for a slump of 100 to 125mm. Mid-range reducers are used to
reduce stickiness and increase pumpability, finishability and placeability of freshly mixed
concrete containing silica fumes and other concrete supplementary materials.

• HIGH RANGE WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURE

This type of water reducers are used to enhance the same qualities that normal
reducers are capable of doing except that these do it much more efficiently. They not
only reduce the water-cement ratio but also produce a high strength concrete. The
ultimate strength that can be achieved is above 70 MPa, there is an increase in early
strength gain and a reduced chloride ion penetration. High range reducers provide a
more workable concrete. A significant loss in water results in little or no bleeding.
Concrete with these admixtures tend to have larger entrained air voids and larger void
spacing.
• PLASTICISERS
Plasticizers are often called super plasticizers. They are basically high range water
reducers which satisfy the ASTM C 1017 classification. These admixtures are added to
concrete with a low-to-normal slump to produce a high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing
concrete is a highly fluid but workable concrete that can be placed without the use of
compaction. It maintains its properties without being excessively bleeding or
segregating. Their basic use is in the buildings where high strength concrete is needed.

• RETARDING ADMIXTURE
These admixtures are used to delay the setting time of concrete. High temperatures are
often responsible for an increased difficulty in the pouring and placing of concrete.
Retarders do not reduce the initial temperature of concrete but increase bleeding and
bleeding capacity. They increase the workability of the mix. These admixtures are used
in the making of pavements which gives them enough time to finish the surface. They
are useful for complex pavement placement or grouting, special architectural surface
finish and preventing the formation of cold joint formation in successive lifts.

• HYDRATION CONTROL ADMIXTURE

These admixtures basically consist of two sub types. The first part, the stabilizer,
finishes off or stops all hydration processes and the second part, the activator,
reinstates the hydration to its normal level. The stabilizer can stop hydration for upto 72
hours and the activator can be added on site.

• ACCELERATING ADMIXTURE
An accelerating admixture is added to increase the rate of hydration process and to
shorten the time period for the gain in strength. Calcium chloride is the most commonly
added accelerant. It is added in a solution form and should not be more than 2 percent
by mass of cement. The excessive use of calcium chloride leads to dry shrinkage,
corrosion and discoloration. Now chloride free accelerants are being used, although
they are not as efficient as calcium chloride was. These are used to increase the
properties of concrete in cold weathers, where the formwork has to be removed early
and in emergency repair work.

• CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors are used where there is an increased interaction of the concrete
with chloride ions. Places such as marine bridges and parking structures are where
these inhibitors should be used.

• SHRINKAGE REDUCING ADMIXTURES

Shrinkage reducing admixtures are used in the construction of bridge decks, important
concrete slabs and buildings where cracks are curling must be minimized for strength or
aesthetic reasons. They have negligible effects on slump or air loss but can delay the
setting time.

• COLOURING ADMIXTURES
Natural and synthetic materials are used to colour concrete for aesthetic and safety
reasons.
For example red is used where electrical lines are present to warn people in the nearby
area of the prevailing danger.

• BONDING ADMIXTURES AND BONDING AGENTS

They are added to Portland cement to increase the bond between old and new
concrete. They are usually water mixtures of organic material like polyvinyl chloride,
polyvinyl acetate and rubber.

TYPES OF ADDITIVES AND THEIR USES:

 POZZOLANS
Pozzolans are one of the most commonly used additive. It is organic in nature
and is replacing cement. It works by combining with lime in the cement to provide
additional strength while reducing expansion and permeability of hardened
concrete. The strength gain in the curing grout is slower and the exothermic
reaction is less pronounced.

 SLAG
 Slag is a by-product of the smelting process of iron ore. Slag takes part in the
reaction between cement and water. Its low hydraulic activity is ideal to delay
initial use. It is helpful in controlling the setting time of ultra-fine cement.

 FLY ASH
It is an inexpensive filler with pozzolanic characteristics. This reacts with the free
lime after the hydraulic reaction between cement and water has taken place. Fly-
ash reduces segregation slightly and enhances the water repellant
characteristics of grout. It also provides resistance against pressure filtration.

 SILICA FUMES
The small particles of silica fume act as ball bearings and keep the large cement
particles together. Thus, enhancing the permeability of grout. Silica
fumes can also be used to reduce the permeability and increase the durability of
grout. It also provides resistance against pressure filtration and makes the grout
more stable.

 Bentonite is one of the most common additives used in cement-based

suspension grouts. It enhances resistance to pressure filtration, reduces bleed,
enhances stability and penetrability, and increases the cohesion and viscosity of
the grout.

Q6: Describe in detail the adhesives,

their types and uses. How the surface of
different are prepared for application of
the adhesives?
An adhesive is any substance applied to the surfaces of materials that binds them
together and resists separation.

Types:
Adhesives can be classified into three main types given below. There are of course
several products that are combinations of these three types but essentially all adhesives
can be grouped into these categories.

Chemical reactive types basically an adhesive of this type is supplied in a low

molecular weight form and after application a polymerisation reaction is allowed to take
place.

Thermoplastic type basically the adhesives in this class are thermoplastic in nature
which means they are heated to a sufficient temperature where they will flow and wet
the substrates and then set and develop the bulk strength on cooling. The ideal Hot Melt
adhesive is a solid up to a temperature of 80o C (as a minimum) but will then melt
sharply to give a low viscosity fluid that is easily applied and capable of wetting the
adhered followed by rapid setting upon X-Polymers-H-Adhesives-8 cooling. They
normally contain a base high molecular weight polymer together with testifying resins
and viscosity depressants.

Evaporation or diffusion types In adhesives of this class the adhesive polymers is

essentially in its final form however, wetting of the adhered is achieved by dissolving or
dispersing the polymers in a suitable solvent.

Uses of adhesives:
1. Adhesive for bonding structures or racks.
2. Adhesive for bonding the front, side and rear window glass.
3. Adhesive for bonding body roof structure.
4. Adhesive for bonding side panels of the structure.
5. Adhesive for bonding the floor.
6. Adhesive for bonding the cabins of the vehicles.
7. Adhesives for bonding different elements of the equipment.

Surface preparation:
For effective bonding, the adhesive must intimately wet the surface of each substrate
being joined together. In addition, a chemical bond must form between the surface of
the adhesive and the substrate. To satisfy these conditions, the surface of the substrate
must be clean, reasonably smooth, and chemically receptive to the chosen adhesive.
Surface preparation is the process whereby the adhered surface is cleaned and/or
chemically treated to promote better adhesion. To a large extent, surface preparation
determines how well and for how long a bond will hold. In fact, if the chosen adhesive
can withstand the service conditions to which the bond will be subjected, life and service
expectancy of that bond will be directly proportional to the degree of surface
preparation. It is no exaggeration to say that, so critical is surface preparation, that the
finest adhesive will produce a poor bond unless the adhered surface has been properly
prepared. Surface preparation promotes adhesion by making it possible for the
adhesive to wet the actual surface of the substrate, rather than its apparent surface. In
many cases, what appears to be the surface is, in reality, a layer of grease, dirt, oil, or
some other contaminant? The way to clean such surfaces for adequate wettability will
depend on the type of contaminant and whether the adhered is metal, wood, or some
non-metal material.

References
 http://www.ecogrout.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/1.-Additives-and-Admixtures.pdf
 http://www.civilengineeringterms.com/plain-reinforced-concrete-ii/admixtures-in-concrete/
 http://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/Admixture/Admixtures
Main.htm
 http://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-admixtures-types-and-uses/409/
 http://www.theconcreteproducer.com/concrete-materials-and-admixtures/admixture-or-
additive-.aspx
 http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/PCA_manual/Chap06.pdf