CONNECTIONS 233

not only the physical weld size but also the type of weld consumable to be used, especially
when E48XX/W50X or higher-grade weld consumables have been assumed in the design.
Fillet welds produced by submerged arc welding will have a deep penetration into the
root area, which is beneficial because a larger throat thickness is obtained; thus, for the same
leg length, deep-penetration fillet welds will carry larger forces per unit length than manual
welds. In order to increase the economy of welding, this type of deep penetration weld
should be specified by the throat thickness rather than leg length, and the effective throat
thickness calculated as a sum of 71% of the leg length plus 85% of the depth of penetration
(Clause 9.7.3.4 of AS 4100). For this to occur, procedural tests are required to demonstrate
that the specified weld dimensions have been achieved in the welding workshop.

8.6.3 Compound welds

A compound weld is considered to be a hybrid of a fillet and butt weld—i.e. by
definition in AS 1101.3, the former weld type is superimposed onto the latter.
The design throat thickness (DTT) of a compound weld depends on whether there is
a complete penetration butt weld (CPBW) or an incomplete penetration butt weld
(IPBW) present. That is for a compound weld with:
• CPBW—the DTT is the size of the butt weld without reinforcement, and for;
• IPBW—the DTT is the shortest distance from the root of the IPBW to the face of the
fillet weld.
Figure 9.7.5.2 of AS 4100 explains the compound weld configuration and the evaluation
of the DTT.

8.7 Structural design of simple welds

8.7.1 Butt welds

8.7.1.1 General
Butt welds can be regarded as being integral to the parent metal, with the limiting stresses
applicable to the parent metal also applying to the welds. As noted in Section 8.6.1, butt
welds can be broadly split into two groups—complete penetration butt welds and
incomplete penetration butt welds. This is not only due to the depth of weld fusion
through the parent metal thickness but also in the methods used to assess their respective
design capacities.
8.7.1.2 Complete penetration butt welds (CPBW)
Clause 9.7.2.7(a) of AS 4100 notes that the design capacity of a CPBW is equal to the
nominal capacity of the weakest part being joined multiplied by a capacity reduction
factor, φ, which is commensurate with the weld quality. From Table 3.4 of AS 4100,
φ = 0.9 for CPBW with SP quality and φ = 0.6 for CPBW with GP quality. This
applies to CBPW subject to transverse and shear loads.
Based on the above, for two similar plates joined by a CPBW with SP quality (φ = 0.9)
welded to AS/NZS 1554.1 or AS/NZS 1554.5, the AS 4100 definition notes that the
234 S T E E L D E S I G N E R S ’ H A N D B O O K

weld is as strong as the joined plate elements and no further calculation is required (if the
plates have been already sized for the design loads). If the lower quality GP category is
used instead of the SP category for this connection type (i.e. with φ = 0.6), the CPBW
will have a lower design capacity than each of the two similar connected plates by a factor
of (0.6/0.9=) 0.667.
8.7.1.3 Incomplete penetration butt welds (IPBW)
As the weld fusion in a IPBW does not cover the full depth of the joint, Clause 9.7.2.7(b)
of AS 4100 states that IPBW are to be designed as fillet welds (see Section 8.7.2). The
design throat thickness for IPBW are noted in Clause 9.7.2.3(b) of AS 4100, Section
8.6.1 of this Handbook and shown typically in Figure 8.13(g) and (h). The capacity
reduction factor, φ, for IPBW is also the same as that for fillet welds.

8.7.2 Fillet welds

Stress distribution in a fillet weld is extremely complex, and certain simplifying
assumptions are necessary to facilitate the design. The usual assumptions are:
(a) The failure plane intersects the root of the fillet and has an inclination such that it is
at right angles to the hypotenuse of the theoretical weld shape of a 90-degree isosceles
triangle (with the corner at the 90-degree angle being regarded as the weld root). See
Figure 8.15(b).
(b) The stresses (normal and shear) on this failure plane are uniformly distributed.
The above assumptions become quite realistic at the ultimate limit state of the weld as
plastic deformations take place. In general, the resultant forces acting on the failure plane
may be composed of:
• shear force parallel to the weld longitudinal axis
• shear force perpendicular to the weld longitudinal axis and in the theoretical failure
plane (Figure 8.15(b))
• normal force (compressive or tensile) to the theoretical plane (Figure 8.15(b)).
Clause 9.7.3.10 of AS 4100 provides a method for evaluating the design capacity of
single fillet welds. The method is based on the premise that the capacity of a fillet weld
is determined by the nominal shear capacity across the weld throat/failure plane (Figure
8.15(b)) such that:
vw = nominal capacity of a fillet weld per unit length
= 0.6fuw t t k r
where
fuw = nominal tensile strength of the weld metal
tt = design throat thickness (see Figure 8.15(b), for equal leg fillet
welds, tt is equal to tw /Ï2w where tw = the fillet weld leg length)
kr = reduction factor to account for welded lap connection length (lw)
= 1.0 for lw < 1.7 m
= 1.10 – 0.06lw for 1.7 , lw < 8.0 m
= 0.62 for lw . 8.0 m
 CONNECTIONS 235

The typical nominal tensile strengths, fuw , used by the Australian/NZ steel construction
industry are 410 MPa (i.e. E41XX/W40X) and 480 MPa (E48XX/W50X). The design
throat thickness of a equal-leg fillet weld is taken as Ï2w times the leg length (see
Figure 8.15(b)).
The reduction factor, kr , accounts for non-uniform shear flows that occur for long
lengths of longitudinal welds in lap connections. Note this weld length must be greater
than 1.7 m for the reduction factor to “kick-in”—hence kr = 1.0 is generally used. The
fillet weld is considered adequate if:
v* < φvw
where, from Table 8.12, φ is either 0.8 (for SP quality welds) or 0.6 (for GP quality welds)
or 0.7 (for SP category longitudinal welds to RHS with t , 3mm) and v* is the design force
per unit length of weld. Note that, unlike other design Standards, this “force” is taken as
the vector resultant of all the forces acting on the fillet weld and, hence, it is independent
of direction of force. Values of φvw for typical fillet weld sizes are listed in Table 8.11.
As noted in Section 8.7.1.3, the design capacity of an incomplete penetration butt
weld is determined in the same manner as for fillet welds. In this instance, vw is calculated
with kr = 1.0 and tt can be evaluated by Clause 9.7.2.3(b) of AS 4100.
The minimum leg size of a fillet weld is governed by the thickness of the thinnest plate
joined. The limitation is due to the difficulties in obtaining a sound weld if the plate
thickness is much larger than the weld size.
It is not uncommon in the fabrication shop to set the plates slightly apart so as to
obtain a small gap, which helps with control of weld shrinkage stresses. Gaps can also
occur because of poor fit-up. When this occurs, the fillet leg size must be increased by
the gap width, otherwise the effective throat thickness will be reduced.

Table 8.11 Design capacities of equal-leg fillet welds (in kN per 1 mm weld length)

Leg size SP welds GP welds Note

tw (mm) E41 E48 E41 E48

3 0.417 0.489 0.313 0.367 E

4 0.557 0.652 0.417 0.489 E
5 0.696 0.815 0.522 0.611 E
6 0.835 0.978 0.626 0.733 P
8 1.11 1.30 0.835 0.978 P
10 1.39 1.63 1.04 1.22 S
12 1.67 1.96 1.25 1.47 S

Notes: 1. E = economy size for welds carrying relatively small forces; P = preferred sizes, single-pass
welds; S = special sizes for transmission of large forces where multi-pass welding is unavoidable.
2. E41 refers to E41XX/W40X (with fuw = 410 MPa) and E48 refers to E48XX/W50X (with fuw = 480 MPa)
welding consumables.
3. For SP longitudinal fillet welds to RHS with t , 3 mm, multiply the listed SP design capacities by 0.875
(= 0.7/0.8) which is due to the differing capacity reduction factor for this type of parent material weld.

8.7.3 Compound welds

As noted in Clause 9.7.5.3 of AS 4100, the strength limit state design of compound
welds shall satisfy the strength requirements of a butt weld (Section 8.7.1).
236 S T E E L D E S I G N E R S ’ H A N D B O O K

8.8 Analysis of weld groups

8.8.1 General
Analysis of weld groups is greatly simplified when the following assumptions are made:
(a) The welds are regarded as homogeneous, isotropic and elastic elements.
(b) The parts connected by welding are assumed to be rigid, but this assumption should
not be made if there is doubt about the rigidity of adjoining plates.
(c) The effects of residual stresses, stress concentration and triaxial stress conditions are
neglected on the assumption that the ultimate strength of weld groups is not
significantly affected by these parameters.

Table 8.12 Capacity reduction factors, φ, for welds

Weld category
Type of weld SP GP

Complete-penetration butt welds 0.90 0.60

Longitudinal fillet welds in RHS tubes (t , 3.0 mm) 0.70 NA
Other fillet welds, incomplete-penetration butt welds and weld groups 0.80 0.60

Note: NA stands for not applicable.

8.8.2 Weld groups subject to in-plane actions

The following assumptions are made.
V *y Vy*
ex
(a)
(b)

V *x Vx*
M o* ey M z*

= weld group
centroid

Figure 8.16 Weld group loaded by in-plane actions: (a) Geometry and resolved actions about
centroid, and; (b) initial in-plane actions.

The plate elements being joined by fillet welds behave rigidly in the plane of the weld
group. Design actions (Vx*, Vy*, Mz* ) applied away from the centroid of the weld group
(Figure 8.16(b)) may be treated as being applied at the centroid plus moments
(Figure 8.16(a)) with forces Vx*,Vy* and resolved moment (using the sign convention in
Figure 8.16):
M o* = Σ(Vx*ey + Vy*ex ) − M z*
The procedure for the analysis and design of weld groups subject to in-plane loadings
is similar to that encountered for bolt groups loaded under the same conditions. The
method follows the detailed proofs and outcomes from Hogan & Thomas [1994]. The
 CONNECTIONS 237

resultant force per unit length, v*res, at the most critically loaded part of the weld group
subject to in-plane forces and eccentric moment is:
*
vres = Ïw
[(vx* )2 w
+ (vy* )2w]
where forces in the welds, per unit length, are:
Vx* Mo* ys
vx* = }} − }}
lw Iwp
V * M *x
vy* = }}y + }o}s
lw Iw p
where xs and ys are the for the weld segment farthest from the centroid of the weld group,
l w the total length of the weld in the weld group, and the polar second moment of area
of the weld group is:
Iwp = Σ(xs2ds + ys2ds)
xs and ys are the coordinates of a weld segment, and ds is its length, thus:
lw = Σds

8.8.3 Weld groups subject to out-of-plane actions

The analysis for out-of-plane actions on a weld group uses the same assumptions as
adopted for in-plane actions. The results for rigid plate elements are similar to those of
the in-plane actions. Should the transverse plate element be flexible, it will be necessary
to neglect forces in welds in the flexible parts of the transverse plate element.
Allowing for coordinate axis changes from those in in-plane actions, the out-of-plane
actions about the weld group centroid are the forces, Vy* and Vz* (see Figure 8.17), and
the resolved moment:
Mo* = Σ(Vy*ez + Vz*ey ) − Mx*
In many situations, Vz*, ey and Mx* are taken as zero. Generally, the resultant force per
unit length, v*res , at the most critically loaded part of the weld group subject to out-of-
plane forces and eccentric moment is:
v*res = Ïw
(v*y )2 1w
(v*z )2
where forces in the welds, per unit length, are:
Vy*
v*y = }}
lw
V * M *y
v*z = }}z + }o}s
lw Iwx
where ys is for the weld segment farthest from the centroid of the weld group, lw the total
length of the weld in the weld group and the second moment of area about the x-axis of
the weld group is:
Iwx = Σys2ds
238 S T E E L D E S I G N E R S ’ H A N D B O O K

ys is the coordinate of a weld segment, and ds is its length, thus:

lw = Σds

Vy*
ez

V z*
M x*

5 weld group centroid

Figure 8.17 Weld group with out-of-plane actions.

Vz*
N*w

M*o d2 1 d1

N*w
M*o 5N*w 3 d2 V*z

Figure 8.18 Alternative procedure for weld group loaded out-of-plane

A simpler alternative method to is break the weld group up into sub-groups based on the
most significant form of loading seen by the sub-group. A case in point is where the weld
group follows the perimeter of an I-section. The welds around the flanges are assumed to
resist the full bending moment and the welds about the web resist the total shear force
(see Figure 8.18). It is assumed that the fillet welds are ductile enough to allow some
redistribution of internal forces. The method is executed as such:
Nw* = flange forces (separated by a distance d2 between flange
centroids)
Mo*
= }}
d2
The flange fillet welds then each resist the out-of-plane force Nw* which is assumed to be
uniformly distributed, i.e.
Nw* < φvvf lwf
where
φvvf = design capacity of flange fillet welds per unit weld length
(Section 8.7.2 and Table 8.11)
lwf = perimeter length of each flange fillet weld
The web fillet weld sub-group is assessed in the same manner by:
Vz* < φvvw lww
 CONNECTIONS 239

where
φvvw = design capacity of web fillet welds per unit weld length (Section
8.7.2 and Table 8.11)
lww = perimeter length of web fillet welds
= 2d1
Light truss webs are often composed of angles, being either single or double members.
The balanced detailing of connections is important and, ideally, should be done so that
the centroid of the connection is somewhat coincident with the centroidal line of the
connected member (see Figure 8.19). However, as noted in Section 7.5.4, much research
has been done to indicate that balanced connections are not required for statically (and
quasi-statically) loaded structures as there is no significant decrease of connection
capacity for small eccentricities. However, balanced connections are considered to be
good detailing practice for connections in dynamically loaded applications subject to
fatigue design.

Balanced Unbalanced

Figure 8.19 Balanced connections: Truss diagonal to chord connection

8.8.4 Combined in-plane & out-of-plane actions

Occasionally, welded connections are subjected to triaxial loadings. The general method
described in Sections 8.8.2 and 8.8.3 can readily be adapted to deal with simultaneous
application of in-plane and out-of-plane forces (see also Hogan & Thomas [1994]).

8.9 Design of connections as a whole

8.9.1 Design and detailing

8.9.1.1 General
Designing a connection as a whole means designing the part of the member being
connected, the corresponding part of the other member or support, intermediate
components as plates/gussets/brackets and the fasteners transferring the forces. Often
other members connect to the same node, and so they have to be integrated into the
node. The art of detailing connections and nodes is to use the simplicity and directness
of force transfer. The tendency to excessive stiffening should be resisted in the interest of
economy. Using slightly thicker material can produce an adequately strong connection at
a lower cost.