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Particle Accelerators: The Atom Smashers

Technical Report · February 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4562.2161

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 A Technical report on

PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Specialization in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
By

S. Narasimha Jayanth

Under the Esteemed Supervision of

Mr.P. Sagar Babu

Assistant Professor

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

KESHAV MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
NARAYANAGUDA, HYDERABAD, TELANGANA-500029
2015-2016
 KESHAV MEMORIAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)

NARAYANAGUDA, HYDERABAD, TELANGANA-500029

2015-2016

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Technical Seminar report entitled “Particle

Accelerators” is a benefice record of work carried out by S. Narasimha Jayanth

under my guidance and supervision in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication

Engineering of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.

 INDEX

List of Tables

List of Figure

Abbreviations

Abstract

Chapter 1: Introduction to Particle Physics

Chapter 2: Particle Accelerators: The atom Smashers

Chapter 3: Classification of Particle Accelerators

Chapter 4: Electrostatic Accelerators

Chapter 5: Oscillating Field Oscillators

Chapter 6: Elementary Particles: The hunt begins

Chapter 7: Large Hadron Collider: Higgs boson is hunted

Chapter 8: Conclusion and Future Scope of Particle Accelerators

References
 List of Tables

Table no. Name of the table Page no.

3.1 Details on different types of Cyclotrons 7

3.2 Details of different types of Synchrotrons 8

3.3 Details of High intensity Hadron accelerators 9
3.4 Details of different Electron and low intensity Hadron 10
accelerators
3.5 Details of different Electron-positron colliders 11
3.6 Details of different Hadron colliders 13
3.7 Details of different Electron-proton colliders 14
6.1 Details of particles (Fermions) 26
6.2 Details of antiparticles (Fermions). 26
 List of Figures

Figure no. Name of the figure Page no.

1.1 Standard Model of Elementary Particles 1
1.2 Fundamental structure of an Atom 3
1.3 Scaling in meters 3
2.1 First Particle accelerator by James Chadwick (neutron 6
discovery)
2.2 Cross-sectional view of Particle accelerator 6
2.3 Internal Components of a Particle Accelerator 6
4.1 Cathode ray tubes (early Electrostatic accelerators) 15
4.2 Cockcroft-Walton generator 17
4.3 Van de Graaff Generator 17
5.1 Linear Particle Accelerators 19
5.2 Cyclotron 24
5.3 Electron Collider 24
6.1 Tree diagram of Elementary particles 25
6.2 Standard model of Elementary particles 28
7.1 Large Hadron Collider 31
7.2 L.H.C Operational Map 31
 Nomenclature

Acronym Description
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research
LAL Laboratoire de l'Accélérateur Linéaire
BNL Brooklyn National Laboratory
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
SLAC Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
BINP Budker Institute Of Nuclear Physics
DESY Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron
DORIS Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite
KEK
Kō Enerugī Kasokuki Kenkyū Kikō(The High Energy Accelerator
Research Organization
SIDDHARTA Silicon Drift Detectors for Hadronic Atom Research
by Timing Application
DAΦNE Double Annular Φ Factory for Nice Experiments
LHC Large Hadron Collider
ALICE A Large Ion Collider Experiment
ATLAS A Toroidal LHC Apparatus
CMS Content Management Systems
 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
ABSTRACT:
A Particle Accelerator is a device which
uses electromagnetic fields to propel
charged particles or ions to high speeds and
contain them in well defined paths in the
form of beams. There are two basic classes
of accelerators: electrostatic and oscillating
field accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators
use static electric fields to accelerate
particles, Oscillating field accelerators,
uses radio frequency electromagnetic fields
to accelerate particles, and circumvent the
breakdown problem. Accelerators in various
forms are used in production and preparation
of wide range of electronic devices. They
include processes such as Ion Implantation,
where the high energy beams of electrons
are subjected on semiconductors in order to
dope them with impurity elements so as to
conduct required amounts of electricity to
power up the electronic devices, Ion
Implantation for hardening of surfaces. This
is mainly concentrated on strengthening the
material used for the preparation of
semiconductors. They are also applied in
processes like Electron Beam material
processing, where the kinetic energy of
electrons are converted into heat energy thus
enabling fusion of two materials of very thin
sized foils or layers in electronic devices.
NAME: S NARASIMHA JAYANTH
ROLL NUMBER: 12BD1A0453
These particle accelerators also provide us
with a new developed field of electronics
called the ‘Spintronics’. Unlike conventional
devices that use electrons’ charge to create
power, Spintronic devices use electrons’
spin. The technology is already used in
computer hard drives and many other
applications — and scientists believe it
could eventually be used for quantum
computers, a new generation of machines
that use quantum mechanics to solve
complex problems with extraordinary speed.
Thus these accelerators provide wide range
of possibilities of applications in industrial
and particularly in electronics. Its
application also lies in generation of high
ranges of radio frequencies especially for
microwave electronic devices.
Keywords:
Particle Accelerators, Ion Implantation,
Semiconductors, Electron Beam Material
Processing, Fusion, Spintronics, Quantum
Computers,
References:
1. Jump up^ Livingston, M. S.; Blewett, J.
(1969). Particle Accelerators. New
York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 1-114-44384-0.
2. Jump up^ Witman, Sarah. "Ten things
you might not know about particle
accelerators". Symmetry Magazine. Fermi
National Accelerator Laboratory.
Retrieved 21 April 2014
 Chapter 01
Introduction to Particle physics
Physics is the science, which involves the study of matter and its motion through space and
time along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is one of the main
analyses of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Physics also makes
significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical
breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear
physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed
modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances and modern application
advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization, and advances
in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that
constitute matter (particles with mass) and radiation (massless particles). Although the word
"particle" can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, or even
household dust), "particle physics" usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles
and the irreducibly fundamental force fields necessary to explain them. By our current
understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their
interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along
with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally
investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known"
particle, the Higgs Boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity.

Figure 1.1 Standard Model of Elementary Particles

1.1 Basic Structure of atom:
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of
a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms.
Atoms are very small; typical sizes are around 100 pm (a ten-billionth of a meter, in the short
scale). However, atoms do not have well defined boundaries, and there are different ways to define
their size which give different but close values. Atoms are small enough that classical physics gives
noticeably incorrect results. Through the development of physics, atomic models have
incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior. Every atom is composed
of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or
more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons.
Over 99.94% of the atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the
electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of
protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer
electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is
called an ion.
Electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by
this electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a
different force, the nuclear forces, which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling
the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances the repelling
electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons can be ejected from
the nucleus, leaving behind a different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for
example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the
element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach
to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The
ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed
in nature, and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.
In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and
discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian
Motion". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In
1905 Albert Einstein produced the first mathematical analysis of the motion.
In the Standard model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal
structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary
particle called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric
charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +2/3) and one down quark (with
a charge of −1/3). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts
for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.
The quarks are held together by the strong junctions (or strong force), which is mediated
by gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear
force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the
article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which
are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.

Figure 1.2 Fundamental structure of an Atom Figure 1.3 Scaling in meters

The actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u),
also called Dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of
carbon-12, which is approximately 1.66×10−27 kg. However Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of
hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. The
value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately
equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a
nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 u). However, this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case
of carbon-12 (see below). The heaviest stable atom is lead-208, with a mass of 207.9766521 u. To
scientifically prove the existence of all subatomic components of matter, human kind has been
devising and developing technologies and experimental setups, one such attempt is Particle
Accelerators.
 Chapter 02
Particle Accelerators – The Atom Smashers
A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged
particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined Beams. Large accelerators are best
known for their use in particle physics as colliders (e.g. the LHC at CERN, RHIC at Brookhaven
National Laboratory, and Tevatron at Fermi lab). Other kinds of particle accelerators are used in a
large variety of applications, including particle therapy for ontological purposes, and as synchrotron
light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. There are currently more than 30,000
accelerators in operation around the world. Because colliders can give evidence of the structure of
the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th
century. Despite the fact that most accelerators (but not ion facilities) actually propel subatomic
particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.
Accelerator physics is a branch of applied physics, concerned with designing, building and
operating particle accelerators. As such, it can be circumscribed as the study of motion,
manipulation and observation of relativistic charged particle beams and their interaction with
accelerator structures by electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetism is a branch of physics which
involves the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs
between charged particles. The electromagnetic force usually shows electromagnetic fields, such
as electric fields, magnetic fields, and light. It is also related to other fields:
 Microwave Engineering (for acceleration/deflection structures in the Radio Frequency range).
 Optics with an emphasis on geometrical optics (beam focusing and bending) and Laser
Physics (laser-particle interaction).
 Computer technology with an emphasis on Digital Signal Processing; e.g., for automated
manipulation of the particle beam.
The experiments conducted with particle accelerators are not regarded as part of accelerator
physics, but belong (according to the objectives of the experiments) to, e.g., particle physics,
nuclear physics, condensed matter physics and material physics. The types of experiments done at a
particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the generated Particle beam such
as average energy, particle type, intensity, and dimensions. While it is possible to accelerate
charged particles using electrostatic fields, like in a Cockcroft Walton voltage multiplier, this
method has limits given by electrical breakdown at high voltages. To circumvent this
problem, linear particle accelerator operates using time-varying fields

2.1 Beam Dynamics:

 Due to the high velocity of the particles, and the resulting Lorentz Force for magnetic fields,
adjustments to the beam direction are mainly controlled by magneto static fields that deflect
particles. In most accelerator concepts (excluding compact structures like the cyclotron or betatron),
these are applied by dedicated electromagnets with different properties and functions. An important
step in the development of these types of accelerators was the understanding of strong focusing.
Dipole magnets are used to guide the beam through the structure, while quadrapole magnets are
used for beam focusing, and sextupole magnets are used for correction of dispersion effects. A
particle on the exact design trajectory (or design orbit) of the accelerator only experiences dipole
field components, while particles with transverse position deviation are re-focused to the
design orbit. For preliminary calculations, neglecting all fields components higher than quadrupolar,
an inhomogenic Hill differential Equation:

can be used as an approximation, with a non-constant focusing force , including strong focusing
and weak focusing effects the relative deviation from the design beam impulse the trajectory
curvature radius , and the design path length , thus identifying the system as a parametric
oscillator. Beam parameters for the accelerator can then be calculated using ray transfer Matrix
analysis; e.g., a quadrupolar field is analogous to a lens in geometrical optics, having similar
properties regarding beam focusing (but obeying Earnshaw’s theorem). The general equations of
motion originate from relativistic Hamilton mechanics, in almost all cases using the Paraxial
approximations. Even in the cases of strongly nonlinear magnetic fields, and without the paraxial
approximation, a Lie transform may be used to construct an integrator with a high degree of
accuracy.
2.2 Modeling Codes:
There are many different software packages available for modeling the different aspects of
accelerator physics. One must model the elements that create the electric and magnetic fields, and
then one must model the charged particle evolution within those fields. A popular code for beam
dynamics, designed by CERN is MAD, or Methodical Accelerator design. Engineers will provide
the physicists with expected tolerances for the alignment and manufacture of each component to
allow full physics simulations of the expected behavior of the machine under these conditions. In
many cases it will be found that the performance is degraded to an unacceptable level, requiring
either re-engineering of the components, or the invention of algorithms that allow the machine
performance to be 'tuned' back to the design level.
2.3 Structure of Particle accelerators:

Figure 2.1 First Particle accelerator by James Chadwick (neutron discovery)

Figure 2.2 Cross-sectional view of Particle accelerator

Figure 2.3 Internal Components of a Particle Accelerator

 Chapter 03
Classification of Particle Accelerators
There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and oscillating field
accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use static electric fields to accelerate particles. A small-scale
example of this class is the Cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set. Other examples are
the Cockcroft Walton generator and the Van de Graff generator. The achievable kinetic energy for
particles in these devices is limited by electrical breakdown. Oscillating field accelerators, on the
other hand, use radio frequency electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles, and circumvent the
breakdown problem. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for all modern
accelerator concepts and large-scale facilities. Rolf Wideroe, Gustav Ising, Leo Szilard, Donald
Kerst, and Ernest Lawrence are considered pioneers of this field, conceiving and building the first
operational Linear Particle accelerator the Betatron, and the Cyclotron.
A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle
accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle
physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has
several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for
experiments are listed.
3.1 Cyclotrons:
Table 3.1 Details on different types of Cyclotrons
Years of Accelerated Kinetic Notes and
Accelerator Location Shape
operation Particle Energy discoveries made

University of
9-
California, 1931 Circular H2+ 1.0 MeV Proof of concept
inch cyclotron
Berkeley

University of
11-
California, 1932 Circular Proton 1.2 MeV
inch cyclotron
Berkeley

Oak Ridge Used to separate

Uranium
Calutrons National 1943- "Horseshoe" isotopes for
nuclei
Laboratory the Manhattan project

Used for nuclear

Harvard
95-inch 1949– 160 physics 1949 - ~
Cyclotron Circular Proton
cyclotron 2002 MeV 1961, development of
Laboratory
clinical proton
 therapy until 2002

Used for nuclear and

particle physics,
University of
Isochronous 50-590 proton therapy, and
California, 1950– Circular Various
cyclotron MeV commercial
Berkeley
production of radio
nuclides

3.2 Synchrotrons:
Table 3.2 Details of different types of Synchrotrons

Years Accele
of Shape rated Kinetic Notes and discoveries
Accelerator Location
operat and size particl Energy made
ion e

Circular
ring Discovery of V particles,
1953–
Cosmotron BNL (72 Proton 3.3 GeV first artificial production of
1968
meters some mesons
around)

University
Birmingham 1953–
of Proton 1 GeV
Synchrotron 1967
Birmingham

Strange
particle experiments, antipr
Berkeley 1954- "Race
Bevatron Proton 6.2 GeV oton and
Rad Lab ~1970 track"
antineutron discovered,
resonances discovered

Proton
(un
Circular polariz
J/ψ, muon neutrino, CP
Alternating ring ed and
violation in kaons, injects
Gradient BNL 1960- (808 polariz 33 GeV
heavy ions and polarized
Synchrotron meters ed),
protons into RHIC
around) deutero
n,
helium-
 3,
copper,
gold,
uraniu
m

Circular
2007– ring
Diamond Light Harwell Electro
Presen (561.6 3 GeV
Source Campus,UK ns
t meters
around)

Circular
1959– ring
Proton Used to
CERN presen (600 Proton 28 GeV
Synchrotron feed ISR, SPS, LHC
t meters
around)

3.3 Fixed Target accelerators:

More modern accelerators that were also run in fixed target mode; often, they will also have
been run as colliders, or accelerated particles for use in subsequently built colliders.
3.4 High intensity Hadron accelerators (Meson and neutron sources):
Table 3.3 Details of High intensity Hadron accelerators
Notes and
Years of Shape and Accelerated Kinetic
Accelerator Location discoveries
operation size Particle Energy
made

Neutron
Materials
High Current Proton
Research,
Accelerator Los Linear
Proton
Alamos Neutron Los Alamos (800 m)
1972– Radiography,
Science National and Protons 800 MeV
Present High Energy
Center (originally Los Laboratory Circular
Neutron
Alamos Meson Physics (30 m)
Research,
Facility)
Ultra Cold
Neutrons

PSI, HIPA High 0.8 MeV 590 MeV, Highest

PSI, Villigen, 1974–
Intensity 590 MeV CW, Protons 2.4 mA, beam power,
Switzerland present
Proton Accelerator 72 MeV =1.4 MW used for
 Injector 2, meson and
590 MeV neutron
Ring production
cyclotron with
applications
in materials
science

Rutherford
Appleton
H- Linac
Laboratory,
1984– followed
ISIS neutron source Chilton, Protons 800 MeV
present by proton
Oxford shire,
RCS
United
Kingdom

3.5 Electron and low intensity Hadron accelerators:

Table 3.4 Details of different Electron and low intensity hadron accelerators
Years
Acceler
Acceler of Shape Kinetic
Location ated Experiments
ator opera and size Energy
particle
tion

Antiprot
on 1980-
CERN
Accumu 1996
lator

Antiprot
on 1986- Antipro
CERN
collecto 1996 tons
r

Antiprot Protons
2000–
on Storage and ATHENA, ATRAP, ASACUS
CERN presen 26 GeV
Deceler ring antiprot A, ACE, ALPHA, AEGIS
t
ator ons

Low
Energy 1982- Antipro
CERN PS210
Antiprot 1996 tons
on Ring
 Harvard
Cambri
University 236 ft
dge
and 1962- diameter Electro
Electron 6 GeV
MIT, Cam 1974 synchrot ns
Acceler
bridge ron
ator
,MA

3.6 Electron-positron colliders:

Table 3.5 Details of different Electron-positron colliders
Years Shape Elect Posit
Acceler of and ron ron Notable
Location Experiments
ator operati circumf energ energ Discoveries
on erence y y

Touschek effect
Frascati,
1961– Circular, 250 250 (1963); first e+e-
Ad A Italy; Orsay,
1964 3 meters MeV MeV interactions
France
recorded (1964)

Princeto
Two-
n- Stanford, 1962– 300 300
ring, 12 e−e− interactions
Stanfor California 1967 MeV MeV
m
d (e−e−)

INP,
Two- e−e− scattering;
VEP-1 Novosibirsk, 1964– 130 130
− −
ring, QED radioactive
(e e ) Soviet 1968 MeV MeV
2.70 m effects confirmed
Union

Multi hadron
INP, Novosi production
1965– Circular, 700 700
VEPP-2 birsk, Soviet OLYA, CMD (1966), e+e−→φ
1974 11.5 m MeV MeV
Union (1966), e+e−→γγ
(1971)

Vector meson
studies; then
LAL, Orsay, 1965– Circular, 550 550 ρ0, K+K-,φ3C, μ+μ-,
ACO ACO was used as
France 1975 22 m MeV MeV M2N and DM1
synchrotron light
source until 1988

1972- Mark I, Mark Discovery of

SPEAR SLAC
1990(?) II, Mark III Charmonium
 states

e+e− cross
sections,
VEPP- BINP, Novo 1974– Circular, 700 700
ND, SND, CMD-2 radioactive
2M sibirsk 2000 17.88 m MeV MeV
decays of ρ, ω,
and φ mesons

1974– Circular, 5 5 ARGUS, Crystal Oscillation in

DORIS DESY
1993 300m GeV GeV Ball, DASP,PLUTO neutral B mesons

JADE, MARK- Discovery of

1978– Circular, 20 20
PETRA DESY J, CELLO,PLUTO, the gluon in three
1986 2 km GeV GeV
TASSO jet events

First observation
of B decay,
CUSB, CHESS, CL
Cornell 1979– Circular, 6 6 charmless and
CESR EO,CLEO-2, CLEO-
University 2002 768m GeV GeV "radioactive
2.5, CLEO-3
penguin" B
decays

1980-
PEP SLAC Mark II
1990(?)

Addition
1988- to 45 45 First linear
SLC SLAC SLD, Mark II
1998(?) SLAC GeV GeV collider
Linac

Only 3 light (m ≤
mZ/2) weakly
interacting neutri
1989– Circular, 104 104 Aleph, Delphi, Opal, nos exist,
LEP CERN
2000 27 km GeV GeV L3 implying only
three generations
of quarks and
leptons

1989– Circular, 2.2 2.2 Beijing Spectrometer

BEPC China
2004 240m GeV GeV (I and II)

VEPP- BINP, Novo Circular, 6.0 6.0 Precise

1994- KEDR
4M sibirsk 366m GeV GeV measurement of
 psi-meson
masses, two-
photon physics

Discovery of CP
1998– Circular, 9 3.1
PEP-II SLAC BaBar violation in B
2008 2.2 km GeV GeV
meson system

Discovery of CP
1999– Circular, 8.0 3.5
KEKB KEK Belle violation in B
2009 3 km GeV GeV
meson system

DAΦN Frascati, Circular, 0.7 0.7 Crab-waist

1999- KLOE
E Italy 98m GeV GeV collisions (2007)

Cornell 2002– Circular, 6 6

CESR-c CHESS, CLEO-c
University 2008 768m GeV GeV

VEPP- BINP, Novo Circular, 1.0 1.0 Round beams

2006- SND, CMD-3
2000 sibirsk 24.4m GeV GeV (2007)

Circular, 3.7 3.7 Beijing Spectrometer

BEPC II China 2008-
240m GeV GeV III

3.7 Hadron colliders:

Table 3.6 Details of different Hadron colliders
Years of
Shape Particles Beam
Accelerator Location operatio Experiments
and size collided energy
n

Super
Circular ring Proton/
Proton 1981– 270-315
CERN (6.9 km Antiproto UA1, UA2
Synchrotron/Spp 1984 GeV
around) n
S

Circular ring Proton/

Tevatron 1992– 900
Fermi lab (6.3 km Antiproto CDF, D0
Run I 1995 GeV
around) n

Circular ring Proton/

Tevatron 2001– 980
Fermi lab (6.3 km Antiproto CDF, D0
Run II 2011 GeV
around) n

Relativistic Brookhave 2001– Hexagonal Polarized 100-255

PHENIX, STAR
Heavy Ion n National present rings Proton/ GeV
Collider (RHIC) Laboratory (3.8 km Proton
polarized proton , New circumference
mode York )

Circular rings
Large Hadron 6.5 TeV ALICE, ATLAS, CMS
2008– (27 km Proton/
Collider (LHC) CERN (design: , LHC b, LHC f, T
present circumference Proton
proton mode 7 TeV) OTEM
)

Circular rings 2.76 Te

Large Hadron 82+
2008– (27 km 208Pb - V
Collider (LHC) CERN 82+
ALICE, ATLAS, CMS
present circumference 208Pb per
ion mode
) nucleon

3.8 Electron-proton colliders:

Table 3.7 Details of different Electron-proton colliders
Years of Shape Electron Proton
Accelerator Location Experiments
operation and size energy energy

Circular ring
1992– 27.5 920 H1, ZEUS, HERMES
HERA DESY (6336 meters
2007 GeV GeV experiment, HERA-B
around)
 Chapter 04
Electrostatic Accelerators
An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of particle accelerators,
where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential. The static
high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in oscillating field particle
accelerators. Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier.
These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to
the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these
machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more
common. Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.
Although these machines accelerate atomic nuclei, the scope of application is not limited to
the nuclear sciences of nuclear physics, nuclear astrophysics and nuclear chemistry. Indeed, those
applications are outweighed by other uses of nuclear beams. Of the approximately 26,000
accelerators worldwide, ~44% are for radiotherapy, ~41% for ion implantation, ~9% for industrial
processing and research, ~4% for biomedical and other low-energy research (less than 1% are
higher energy machines). These accelerators are being used for nuclear medicine in medical
physics, sample analysis using techniques such as PIXE in the material sciences, depth profiling
in solid state physics, and to a lesser extent secondary ion mass spectrometry in geologic and
Cosmo chemical works, and even neutron beams can be made from the charged particles emerging
from these accelerators to perform neutron crystallography in condensed matter physics.
The principles used in electrostatic nuclear accelerators could be used to accelerate any
charged particles, but particle physics operates at much higher energy regimes than these machines
can achieve, and there are various better methods suited for making electron beams, so these
accelerators are used for accelerating nuclei.

Figure 4.1 Cathode ray tubes (early Electrostatic accelerators)

4.1 Cockcroft-Walton generator:
The CW is a voltage multiplier that converts AC or pulsing DC electrical power from a
low voltage level to a higher DC voltage level. It is made up of a voltage multiplier ladder network
of capacitors and diodes to generate high voltages. Unlike transformers, this method eliminates the
requirement for the heavy core and the bulk of insulation/potting required. Using
only capacitors and diodes, these voltage multipliers can step up relatively low voltages to
extremely high values, while at the same time being far lighter and cheaper than transformers.
To understand the circuit operation, see the diagram of the two-stage version at right. Assume the
circuit is powered by an alternating voltage Vi with a peak value of Vp. After the input voltage is
turned on
 When the input voltage Vi reaches its negative peak −Vp, current flows through diode D1 to
charge capacitor C1 to a voltage of Vp.
 When Vi reverses polarity and reaches its positive peak +Vp, it adds to the capacitor's voltage to
produce a voltage of 2Vp on C1s right hand plate. Since D1 is reverse-biased, current flows
from C1 through diode D2, charging capacitor C2 to a voltage of 2Vp.
 When Vi reverses polarity again, current from C2 flows through diode D3, charging
capacitor C3 also to a voltage of 2Vp.
 When Vi reverses polarity again, current from C3 flows through diode D4, charging
capacitor C4 also to a voltage of 2Vp.
With each change in input polarity, current flows up the "stack" of capacitors through the
diodes, until they are all charged. All the capacitors are charged to a voltage of 2Vp, except for C1,
which is charged to Vp. The key to the voltage multiplication is that, while the capacitors are
charged in parallel, they are connected to the load in series. Since C2 and C4 are in series between
the output and ground, the total output voltage (under no-load conditions) is Vo = 4Vp.
This circuit can be extended to any number of stages. The output voltage is twice the peak input
voltage multiplied by the number of stages N

or equivalently the peak-to-peak input voltage swing Vpp times the number of stages. The number of
stages is equal to the number of capacitors in series between the output and ground.
One way to look at the circuit is that it functions as a charge "pump", pumping electric
charge in one direction, up the stack of capacitors. The CW circuits, along with other similar
capacitor circuits, are often called charge pumps. For substantial loads, the charge on the capacitors
is partially depleted, and the output voltage drops according to the output current divided by the
capacitance.
4.2 Van de Graaff generator:
A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator which uses a moving belt to
accumulate electric charge on a hollow metal globe on the top of an insulated column, creating very
high electric potentials. It produces very high voltage direct current (DC) electricity at low current
levels. It was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929.[1] The potential
difference achieved in modern Van de Graaff generators can reach 5 megavolts. A tabletop version
can produce on the order of 100,000 volts and can store enough energy to produce a visible spark.
Small Van de Graaff machines are produced for entertainment, and in physics education to
teach electrostatics; larger ones are displayed in science museums.
The Van de Graaff generator was developed as a particle accelerator in physics research, its
high potential is used to accelerate subatomic particles to high speeds in an evacuated tube. It was
the most powerful type of accelerator in the 1930s until the cyclotron was developed. Today it is
still used as an accelerator to generate energetic particle and x-ray beams in fields such as nuclear
medicine. In order to double the voltage, two generators are often used together, one generating
positive and the other negative potential; this is called a Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator. For
example, the Brookhaven National Laboratory Tandem Van de Graaff achieves about 30 million
volts of potential difference.
The voltage produced by an open-air Van de Graaff machine is limited by arcing and corona
discharge to about 5 megavolts. Most modern industrial machines are enclosed in a pressurized tank
of insulating gas; these can achieve potentials up to about 25 megavolts.

Figure 4.2 Cockcroft-Walton generator Figure 4.3 Van de Graaff Generator

 Chapter 05
Oscillating Field Accelerators – Linear Particle Accelerators
A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to Linac) is a type of particle accelerator that
greatly increases the kinetic energy of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged
particles to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beam line; this method of particle
acceleration was invented by Leo Szilard. It was patented in 1928 by Rolf Wideroe, who also built
the first operational device at the RWTH Aachen University in 1928, influenced by a publication
of Gustav Ising. Linac have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for
medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators,
and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and
positrons) for particle physics. The design of a Linac depends on the type of particle that is being
accelerated: electrons, protons or ions. Linacs range in size from a cathode ray tube (which is a type
of linac) to the 3.2-kilometre-long (2.0 mi) Linac at the SLAC National Accelerator
Laboratory in Menlo Park, California.
A linear particle accelerator consists of the following elements:
 The particle source. The design of the source depends on the particle that is being
moved. Electrons are generated by a cold cathode, a hot cathode, a photocathode, or radio
frequency (RF) ion sources. Protons are generated in an ion source, which can have many
different designs. If heavier particles are to be accelerated, (e.g., uranium ions), a
specialized ion source is needed.
 A high voltage source for the initial injection of particles.
 A hollow pipe vacuum chamber. The length will vary with the application. If the device is used
for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters
long. If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may be about ten meters long. If the
device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several
thousand meters long.
 Within the chamber, electrically isolated cylindrical electrodes are placed, whose length varies
with the distance along the pipe. The length of each electrode is determined by the frequency
and power of the driving power source and the nature of the particle to be accelerated, with
shorter segments near the source and longer segments near the target. The mass of the particle
has a large effect on the length of the cylindrical electrodes;
 For example an electron is considerably lighter than a proton and so will generally require a
much smaller section of cylindrical electrodes as it accelerates very quickly. Likewise, because
its mass is so small, electrons have much less kinetic energy than protons at the same speed.
Because of the possibility of electron emissions from highly charged surfaces, the voltages used
 in the accelerator have an upper limit, so this can't be as simple as just increasing voltage to
match increased mass.
 One or more sources of radio frequency energy, used to energize the cylindrical electrodes. A
very high power accelerator will use one source for each electrode. The sources must operate at
precise power, frequency and phase appropriate to the particle type to be accelerated to obtain
maximum device power.
As the particle bunch passes through the tube it is unaffected (the tube acts as a Faraday cage),
while the frequency of the driving signal and the spacing of the gaps between electrodes are
designed so that the maximum voltage differential appears as the particle crosses the gap. This
accelerates the particle, imparting energy to it in the form of increased velocity. At speeds near the
speed of light, the incremental velocity increase will be small, with the energy appearing as an
increase in the mass of the particles. In portions of the accelerator where this occurs, the tubular
electrode lengths will be almost constant. Additional magnetic or electrostatic lens elements may be
included to ensure that the beam remains in the center of the pipe and its electrodes.

Figure 5.1 Linear Particle Accelerators

Linacs of appropriate design are capable of accelerating heavy ions to energies exceeding
those available in ring-type accelerators, which are limited by the strength of the magnetic fields
required to maintain the ions on a curved path. High power Linacs are also being developed for
production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will
lose energy through synchrotron radiation; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to
electrons in a synchrotron of given size.
5.1 Cyclotron:
A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam using a high
frequency alternating voltage which is applied between two hollow "D"-shaped sheet metal
electrodes called "Dees" inside a vacuum chamber.[12] The Dees are placed face to face with a
narrow gap between them, creating a cylindrical space within them for the particles to move. The
particles are injected into the center of this space. The Dees are located between the poles of a large
electromagnet which applies a static magnetic field B perpendicular to the electrode plane. The
magnetic field causes the particles path to bend in a circle due to the Lorentz force perpendicular to
their direction of motion.
If the particles' speed were constant, they would travel in a circular path within the dees
under the influence of the magnetic field. However a radio frequency (RF) alternating voltage of
several thousand volts is applied between the Dees. The frequency is set so that the particles make
one circuit during a single cycle of the voltage. To achieve this, the frequency must match the
particle's cyclotron resonance frequency:

Where B is the magnetic field strength, q is the electric charge of the particle, and m is
the relativistic mass of the charged particle. Each time after the particles pass to the other dee
electrode the polarity of the RF voltage reverses. Therefore each time the particles cross the gap
from one Dee electrode to the other, the electric field is in the correct direction to accelerate them.
The particles' increasing speed due to these pushes causes them to move in a larger radius circle
with each rotation, so the particles move in a spiral path outward from the center to the rim of the
Dees. When they reach the rim the particles exit the Dees through a small gap between them, and
hit a target located at the exit point at the rim of the chamber, or leave the cyclotron through an
evacuated beam tube to hit a remote target. Various materials may be used for the target, and
the nuclear reactions due to the collisions will create secondary particles which may be guided
outside of the cyclotron and into instruments for analysis.
5.2 Particle Energy equations:
Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the
particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but the diameter of the accelerating chamber,
the Dees. Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the speed of light,
non relativistic speeds. For non relativistic particles, the centripetal force required to keep them
in their curved path is -
 Where m is the particle’s mass, its velocity, and r is the radius of the path. This force is
provided by the Lorentz force of the magnetic field

Where is the particle's charge. The particles reach their maximum energy at the periphery
of the Dees, where the radius of their path is the radius of the Dees. Equating these two
forces -

So the output energy of the particles is -

Therefore, the limit to the cyclotron's output energy for a given type of particle is the
strength of the magnetic field , which is limited to about 2 T for ferromagnetic electromagnets, and
the radius of the Dees , which is determined by the diameter of the magnet's pole pieces. So very
large magnets were constructed for cyclotrons, culminating in Lawrence's 1946 synchrocyclotron,
which had pole pieces 4.67 m (184 in) in diameter.
In the non relativistic approximation, the frequency does not depend upon the radius of the
particle's orbit, since the particle's mass is constant. As the beam spirals out, its frequency does not
decrease, and it must continue to accelerate, as it is travelling a greater distance in the same time
period. In contrast to this approximation, as particles approach the speed of light, their relativistic
mass increases, requiring either modifications to the frequency, leading to the synchrocyclotron, or
modifications to the magnetic field during the acceleration, which leads to the isochronous
cyclotron. The relativistic mass can be rewritten as -

,
Where is the particle rest mass,

Is the relative velocity, and

Is the Lorentz factor.

The relativistic cyclotron frequency and angular frequency can be rewritten as -

and
The angular velocity is given as -
 ,
Where, would be the cyclotron frequency in classical approximation.
would be the cyclotron angular frequency in classical approximation.
The gyro radius for a particle moving in a static magnetic field is then given by

Because where v would be the (linear) velocity.

5.3 Synchrocyclotron:
A synchrocyclotron is a cyclotron in which the frequency of the driving RF electric field is varied to
compensate for relativistic effects as the particles' velocity begins to approach the speed of light.
This is in contrast to the classical cyclotron, where the frequency was held constant, thus leading to
the synchrocyclotron operation frequency being

Where is the classical cyclotron frequency and again is the relative velocity of the
particle beam. The rest mass of an electron is 511 keV/c2, so the frequency correction is 1% for a
magnetic vacuum tube with a 5.11 keV/c2 direct current accelerating voltage. The proton mass is
nearly two thousand times the electron mass, so the 1% correction energy is about 9 MeV, which is
sufficient to induce nuclear reactions.
5.4 Isochronous cyclotron:
An alternative to the synchrocyclotron is the isochronous cyclotron, which has a magnetic field that
increases with radius, rather than with time. Isochronous cyclotrons are capable of producing much
greater beam current than synchrocyclotrons, but require azimuthal variations in the field strength to
provide a strong focusing effect and keep the particles captured in their spiral trajectory. For this
reason, an isochronous cyclotron is also called an "AVF (azimuthal varying field) cyclotron”. This
solution for focusing the particle beam was proposed by L. H. Thomas in 1938. Recalling the
relativistic gyro radius

And the relativistic cyclotron frequency

, one can choose to be proportional to the Lorentz factor,

. This results in the relation
which again only depends on the velocity , like in the non-relativistic case. Also, the cyclotron
frequency is constant in this case.
The transverse de-focusing effect of this radial field gradient is compensated by ridges on
the magnet faces which vary the field azimuthally as well. This allows particles to be accelerated
continuously, on every period of the radio frequency (RF), rather than in bursts as in most other
accelerator types. This principle that alternating field gradients have a net focusing effect is
called strong focusing. It was obscurely known theoretically long before it was put into
practice. Examples of isochronous cyclotrons abound; in fact almost all modern cyclotrons use
azimuthally-varying fields. The TRIUMF cyclotron mentioned below is the largest with an outer
orbit radius of 7.9 meters, extracting protons at up to 510 MeV, which is 3/4 of the speed of light.
The PSI cyclotron reaches higher energy but is smaller because of using a higher magnetic field.
The cyclotron was an improvement over the linear accelerators (Linacs) that were available
when it was invented, being more cost- and space-effective due to the iterated interaction of the
particles with the accelerating field. In the 1920s, it was not possible to generate the high power,
high-frequency radio waves which are used in modern Linacs (generated by klystrons). As such,
impractically long Linac structures were required for higher-energy particles. The compactness of
the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing
building. Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both money and power.
Furthermore, cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous stream of particles at the target, so the
average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively high. M. Stanley Livingston
and Ernest O. Lawrence (right) in front of Lawrence's 69 cm (27 in) cyclotron at the Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory. The curving metal frame is the magnet's core; the large cylindrical boxes
contain the coils of wire that generate the magnetic field. The vacuum chamber containing the
"Dee" electrodes is in the center between the magnet's poles.
The spiral path of the cyclotron beam can only "sync up" with klystron-type (constant
frequency) voltage sources if the accelerated particles are approximately obeying Newton's Laws of
Motion. If the particles become fast enough that relativistic effects become important, the beam
becomes out of phase with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional
acceleration. The classical cyclotron is therefore only capable of accelerating particles up to a few
percent of the speed of light. To accommodate increased mass the magnetic field may be modified
by appropriately shaping the pole pieces as in the isochronous cyclotrons, operating in a pulsed
mode and changing the frequency applied to the Dees as in the synchrocyclotrons, either of which is
limited by the diminishing cost effectiveness of making larger machines.
5.5 Electron colliders:
The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) was one of the largest particle accelerators ever
constructed. It was built at CERN, a multi-national centre for research in nuclear and particle
physics near Geneva, Switzerland. LEP collided electrons with positrons at energies that reached
209 GeV. It was a circular collider with a circumference of 27 kilometers built in a tunnel roughly
100 m underground and passing through Switzerland and France. LEP was used from 1989 until
2000. Around 2001 it was dismantled to make way for the LHC, which re-used the LEP tunnel. To
date, LEP is the most powerful accelerator of leptons ever built.
The shape of the collider is also important. High energy physics colliders collect particles
into bunches, and then collide the bunches together. However, only a very tiny fraction of particles
in each bunch actually collide. In circular colliders, these bunch travel around a roughly circular
shape in opposite directions and therefore can be collided over and over. This enables a high rate of
collisions and facilitates collection of a large amount of data, which is important for precision
measurements or for observing very rare decays. However, the energy of the bunches is limited due
to losses from synchrotron radiation. In linear colliders, particles move in a straight line and
therefore do not suffer from synchrotron radiation, but bunches cannot be re-used and it is therefore
more challenging to collect large amounts of data.

Figure 5.2 Cyclotron Figure 5.3 Electron Collider

The high density of the output makes the Linac particularly attractive for use in loading
storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass
output also makes the device practical for the production of antimatter particles, which are generally
difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be
stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.
 Chapter 06
Elementary Particles: The hunt begins
In Particle physics, an elementary particle is a particle whose substructure is unknown, thus
it is unknown whether it is composed of other particles. Known elementary particles include the
fundamental fermions (quarks, leptons, antiquarks, and antileptons), which generally are "matter
particles" and "antimatter particles", as well as the fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and Higgs
boson), which generally are "force particles" that mediate interactions among fermions. A particle
containing two or more elementary particles is a composite particle.
Everyday matter is composed of atoms, once presumed to be matter's elementary particles—
atom meaning "indivisible" in Greek—although the atom's existence remained controversial until
about 1910, as some leading physicists regarded molecules as mathematical illusions, and matter as
ultimately composed of energy. Soon, subatomic constituents of the atom were identified. As the
1930s opened, the electron and the proton had been observed, along with the photon, the particle
of electromagnetic radiation. At that time, the recent advent of quantum mechanics was radically
altering the conception of particles, as a single particle could seemingly span a field as would a
wave, a paradox still eluding satisfactory explanation. Via quantum theory, protons
and neutrons were found to contain quarks (up quarks and down quarks) now considered
elementary particles. And within a molecule, the electron's three degrees of
freedom (charge, spin, orbital) can separate via. the wave function into
three quasiparticles (Holon, spinon, orbiton). Yet a free electron—which, not orbiting an atomic
nucleus, lacks orbital motion—appears unsplittable and remains regarded as an elementary particle.

Figure 6.1 Tree diagram of Elementary particles

6.1 Fundamental Fermions:
The 12 fundamental fermionic flavors are divided into three generations of four particles
each. Six of the particles are quarks. The remaining six are leptons.
Table 6.1 Details of particles (Fermions)
Particle Generations

Leptons

First generation Second generation Third generation

Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol

electron e− muon μ− tau τ−

ν ν ν
electron neutrino muon neutrino tau neutrino
e μ τ

Quarks

First generation Second generation Third generation

up quark u charm quark c top quark t

down quark d strange quark s bottom quark b

6.2 Fermions - Antiparticles:

There are also 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles that correspond to these 12 particles.
For example, the antielectron (positron) e+ is the electron's antiparticle and has an electric charge of
+1
Table 6.2 Details of antiparticles (Fermions).
Particle Generations

Antileptons

First generation Second generation Third generation

Name Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol

positron e+ antimuon μ+ antitau τ+

ν ν ν
electron antineutrino muon antineutrino tau antineutrino
e μ τ

Antiquarks

First generation Second generation Third generation

up antiquark u charm antiquark c top antiquark t

down antiquark d strange antiquark s bottom antiquark b

6.3 Fundamental bosons:
In the Standard Model, vector (spin-1) bosons (gluons, photons, and the W and Z bosons)
mediate forces, whereas the Higgs boson (spin-0) is responsible for the intrinsic mass of particles.
Bosons differ from fermions in the fact that multiple bosons can occupy the same quantum state
(Pauli Exclusion Principle). Also, bosons can be either elementary, like photons, or a combination,
like mesons. The spin of bosons is integers instead of half integers.
6.4 Gluons:
Gluons mediate the strong interaction, which join quarks and thereby form hadrons, which
are either baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark). Protons and neutrons are
baryons, joined by gluons to form the atomic nucleus. Like quarks, gluons exhibit color and
anticolour—unrelated to the concept of visual color—sometimes in combinations, altogether eight
variations of gluons.
6.5 Electroweak bosons:
There are three weak gauge bosons: W+, W−, and Z0; these mediate the weak interaction.
The W bosons are known for their mediation in nuclear decay. The W− converts a neutron into a
proton then decay into an electron and electron antineutrino pair. The Z0 does not convert charge
but rather changes momentum and is the only mechanism for elastically scattering neutrinos. The
weak gauge bosons were discovered due to momentum change in electrons from neutrino-Z
exchange. The massless photon mediates the electromagnetic interaction. These four gauge bosons
form the electroweak interaction among elementary particles.
6.6 Higgs boson:
Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday
energies, the two forces are theorized to unify as a single electroweak force at high energies. This
prediction was clearly confirmed by measurements of cross-sections for high-energy electron-
proton scattering at the HERA collider at DESY. The difference at low energies is a consequence of
the high masses of the W and Z bosons, which in turn are a consequence of the Higgs mechanism.
Through the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs selects a special direction in
electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons)
and one to remain massless (the photon). On 4 July 2012, after many years of experimentally
searching for evidence of its existence, the Higgs boson was announced to have been observed at
CERN's Large Hadron Collider.
Peter Higgs who first posited the existence of the Higgs boson was present at the
announcement. The Higgs boson is believed to have a mass of approximately 125
GeV. The statistical significance of this discovery was reported as 5-sigma, which implies a
certainty of roughly 99.99994%. In particle physics, this is the level of significance required to
officially label experimental observations as a discovery. Research into the properties of the newly
discovered particle continues.
6.7 Graviton:
The graviton is hypothesized to mediate gravitation, but remains undiscovered and yet is
sometimes included in tables of elementary particles. Its spin would be two—thus a boson—and it
would lack charge or mass. Besides mediating an extremely feeble force, the graviton would have
its own antiparticle and rapidly annihilate, rendering its detection extremely difficult even if it
exists.

Figure 6.2 Standard model of Elementary particles

6.8 Need for Particle Accelerators:
In order to detect these particles, we require high accurate experimental setups. These
particles exist in isolation only for about a matter of milli-nano seconds i.e. 10 to the power of (-12).
The largest particle accelerator constructed to detect is ‘The Large Hadron Collider’.
 Chapter 07
Large Hadron Collider- Higgs Boson is hunted.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle
collider, the largest, most complex experimental facility ever built, and the largest single machine in
the world. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998
and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, as
well as hundreds of universities and laboratories. It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometers (17 mi) in
circumference, as deep as 175 meters (574 ft) beneath the France near Geneva, Switzerland. Its first
research run took place from 30 March 2010 to 13 February 2013 at an initial energy of 3.5 tera
electron volts (TeV) per beam (7 TeV total), almost 4 times more than the previous world record for
a collider, rising to 4 TeV per beam (8 TeV total) from 2012. On 13 February 2013 the LHC's first
run officially ended, and it was shut down for planned upgrades. 'Test' collisions restarted in the
upgraded collider on 5 April 2015, reaching 6.5 TeV per beam on 20 May 2015 (13 TeV total, the
current world record for particle collisions). Its second research run commenced on schedule, on 3
June 2015.
The LHC's aim is to allow physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle
physics, high-energy physics and in particular, to further test the properties of the Higgs boson and
the large family of new particles predicted by super symmetric theories, and other unsolved
questions of physics, advancing human understanding of physical laws. It contains seven detectors,
each designed for certain kinds of research. The proton-proton collision is the primary operation
method, but the LHC has also collided protons with lead nuclei for two months in 2013 and used
lead–lead collisions for about one month each in 2010, 2011, and 2013 for other investigations. The
LHC's computing grid was (and currently is) a world record holder. Data from collisions was
anticipated to be produced at an unprecedented rate for the time, of tens of petabytes per year, a
major challenge at the time, to be analysed by a grid-based computer network infrastructure
connecting 140 computing centers in 35 countries – by 2012 the Worldwide LHC Computing
Grid was also the world's largest distributed computing, comprising over 170 computing facilities in
a worldwide network across 36 countries.
Physicists hope that the LHC will help answer some of the fundamental open questions in
physics, concerning the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among the elementary
objects, the deep structure of space and time, and in particular the interrelation between Quantum
Mechanics and general relativity, where current theories and knowledge are unclear or break down
altogether.
7.1 Issues possibly to be explored by LHC collisions include:
 Are the masses of elementary particles actually generated by the Higgs
mechanism via electroweak symmetry breaking? It is expected that the collider will either
demonstrate or rule out the existence of the elusive Higgs boson, thereby allowing physicists to
consider whether the Standard Model or its Higgsless alternatives are more likely to be correct.
 Is super symmetry, an extension of the Standard Model and Poincare symmetry, realized in
nature, implying that all known particles have super symmetric partners?
 Are there extra dimensions, as predicted by various models based on string theory, and can we
detect them?
 What is the nature of the dark matter that appears to account for 27% of the mass-energy of
the universe?
7.2 Other open questions that may be explored using high energy particle
collisions:
 It is already known that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are different
manifestations of a single force called the electroweak force. The LHC may clarify whether the
electroweak force and the strong nuclear force are similarly just different manifestations of one
universal unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories.
 Why is the fourth fundamental force (gravity) so many orders of magnitude weaker than the
other three fundamental forces? See also Hierarchy problem.
 Are there additional sources of quark flavor mixing, beyond those already present within
the Standard Model?
 Why are there apparent violations of the symmetry between matter and antimatter? See also CP
violation.
 What are the nature and properties of quark–gluon plasma, thought to have existed in the early
universe and in certain compact and strange astronomical objects today? This will be
investigated by heavy ion collisions, mainly in ALICE, but also in CMS and ATLAS. Findings
published in 2012 confirmed the phenomenon of jet quenching in heavy-ion collisions, and was
first observed in 2010.
7.3 Design and Operation:
When running at full design energy of 7 TeV per beam, once or twice a day, as the protons
are accelerated from 450 GeV to 7 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets will be
increased from 0.54 to8.3 teslas (T). The protons will each have an energy of 7 TeV, giving a total
collision energy of 14 TeV. At this energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 7,460 and
move at about 0.999999991 c, or about 2.7 meters per second (6 mph) slower than the speed of
light (c). It will take less than 90 microseconds (μs) for a proton to travel once around the main
ring – a speed of about 11,000 revolutions per second. Rather than continuous beams, the protons
will be bunched together, into up to 2,808 bunches, with 115 billion protons in each bunch so that
interactions between the two beams will take place at discrete intervals,
mainly25 nanoseconds (ns) apart, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz. However it will be
operated with fewer bunches when it is first commissioned, giving it a bunch crossing interval of 75
ns. The design luminosity of the LHC is 1034 cm−2s−1.
7.4 Finding Higgs Boson:
On 4 July 2012, both the CMS and ATLAS teams announced the discovery of a boson in the
mass region around 125–126 GeV, with a statistical significance at the level of 5 sigma. This meets
the formal level required to announce a new particle which is consistent with the Higgs boson, but
scientists were cautious as to whether it is formally identified as actually being the Higgs boson,
pending further analysis.

Figure 7.1 Large hadron collider Figure 7.2 L.H.C Operational Map
Thus large hadron collider has evidently proved that matter is not what it seems to be made
of. There are more surprises nature is hiding, than we have ever estimated it would.
7.5 Safety Measures:
The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears that the particle collisions might
produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic black holes or the
creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets. Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews
examined these concerns and concluded that the experiments at the LHC present no danger and that
there is no reason for concern, a conclusion expressly endorsed by the American Physical Society.
The reports also noted that the physical conditions and collision events which exist in the LHC and
similar experiments occur naturally and routinely in the universe without hazardous
consequences, including ultra-high-energy cosmic rays observed to impact Earth with energies far
higher than those in any man-made collider.
 Chapter 08
Conclusion and Future Scope of Particle Accelerators
Although experimental evidence overwhelmingly confirms the predictions derived from
the Standard Model, some of its parameters were added arbitrarily, not determined by a particular
explanation, which remain mysteries, for instance the hierarchy problem.
8.1 Practical Applications of Particle accelerators:
 Ion implantation:
Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material are
accelerated in an electrical field and impacted into a solid.
 Doping:
The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of
ion implantation. Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created
from a gas source, so that the purity of the source can be very high. These gases tend to be
very hazardous. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom can create a charge
carrier in the semiconductor after annealing. A hole can be created for a p-type dopant, and
an electron for an n-type dopant. This modifies the conductivity of the semiconductor in its
vicinity. The technique is used, for example, for adjusting the threshold of a MOSFET.
 Silicon on insulator:
One prominent method for preparing silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates from
conventional silicon substrates is the SIMOX (separation by implantation of oxygen)
process, wherein a buried high dose oxygen implant is converted to silicon oxide by a high
temperature annealing process.
 Mesotaxy:
Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase
underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to epitaxy, which is the growth of the
matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high
enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the
temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The
crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the
exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different. For example, after the
implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in
which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.
8.2 Future Scope - Theoretical Predictions:
Theories beyond the Standard Model attempt to resolve these shortcomings. The future
holds infinite number of probabilities of predicting much more sophisticated and advanced theories
than one’s existing. Some of the important and crucial ideas and possible theories are discussed in a
brief manner below.
8.3 Grand unification:
One extension of the Standard Model attempts to combine the electroweak interaction with
the strong interaction into a single 'grand unified theory' (GUT). Such a force would be
spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism. The most dramatic
prediction of grand unification is the existence of X and Y bosons, which cause proton decay.
However, the non-observation of proton decay at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory rules
out the simplest GUTs, including SU (5) and SO (10).
8.4 Super Symmetry:
Super symmetry extends the Standard Model by adding another class of symmetries to
the Lagrangian. These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones. Such symmetry
predicts the existence of super symmetric particles, abbreviated as sparticles, which include
the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos, and charginos. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a
super partner whose spin differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. Due to the breaking of super
symmetry, the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that
existing particle colliders would not be powerful enough to produce them.
8.5 String theory:
String theory is a model of physics where all "particles" that make up matter are composed
of strings (measuring at the Planck length) that exist in an 11-dimensional (according to M-theory,
the leading version) universe. These strings vibrate at different frequencies that determine mass,
electric charge, color charge, and spin. A string can be open (a line) or closed in a loop (a one-
dimensional sphere, like a circle). As a string moves through space it sweeps out something called
a world sheet. String theory predicts 1- to 10-branes (a 1-brane being a string and a 10-brane being
a 10-dimensional object) that prevent tears in the "fabric" of space using the uncertainty
principle (E.g., the electron orbiting a hydrogen atom has the probability, albeit small, that it could
be anywhere else in the universe at any given moment).
String theory proposes that our universe is merely a 4-brane, inside which exist the 3 space
dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe. The remaining 6 theoretical dimensions both
are very tiny and curled up (and too small to be macroscopically accessible) or simply do not/cannot
exist in our universe (because they exist in a grander scheme called the "multiverse" outside our
known universe).
 Some predictions of the string theory include existence of extremely massive counterparts of
ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string and existence of a
massless spin-2 particle behaving like the graviton.

8.6 Conclusion:
Thus particle accelerators are one of the most advanced and sophisticated electronic devices
helping mankind to reveal the deeper secrets of nature and thus providing a scientific evidence for
all the findings in the field of not only Particle physics but also in having its application in
manufacturing and development of modern electronic devices its has gained higher momentum in
its important role play than any of the electronic gadgets ever built by mankind.
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