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Module I (12 hours): Modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction: Fourier law of heat conduction-Thermal
conductivity of solids, liquids and gases-Factors affecting thermal conductivity- Most general heat
conduction equation in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates One dimensional steady state
conduction with and without heat generation conduction through plane walls, cylinders and spheres-
variable thermal conductivity, conduction shape factor- heat transfer through corners and edges. Critical
radius of insulation.
INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use,
conversion, and exchange of thermal energy and heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is
classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation,
and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing
chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct
characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
SCOPE AND APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER PRINCIPLES IN ENGINEERING
PRACTICE
Heat transfer may be defined as “The transmission of energy from one region to another as a
result of temperature gradient
In heat transfer the driving potential is temperature difference whereas in mass transfer the
driving potential is concentration difference. In mass transfer we concentrate upon mass motion which
result in changes in composition, and are caused by the variations in concentrations of the various
constituent species. This transfer, in literature, is also known as “diffusion”. The study of heat transfer
is carried out for the following purposes,
1.To estimate the rate of flow of energy as heat through the boundary of a system under studies
(both under steady and transient conditions).
2.To determine the temperature field under steady and transient conditions.
In almost every branch of engineering, heat transfer (and mass transfer) problems are
encountered which cannot be solved by thermodynamic reasoning alone but require an analysis based
on heat transfer principles. The areas covered under the discipline of heat transfer are,
1. Design of thermal and nuclear power plants including heat engines, steam generators,
condensers and other heat exchange equipment, catalytic converters, heat shields for space
vehicles, furnaces, electronic equipment etc.
2. Internal combustion engines, Refrigeration and air conditioning units.
3. Design of cooling systems for electric motors, generators and transformers.
4. Heating and cooling of fluids etc. in chemical operations.
5. Construction of dams and structures; minimization of building-heat losses using improved
insulation techniques.
6. Thermal control of space vehicles and Heat treatment of metals.
7. Dispersion of atmospheric pollutants.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
2 When a system changes from one Equilibrium It helps to predict the distribution of temperature
state to another, Thermodynamics helps to and to determine the rate at which energy is
Department of Mechanical Engineering SNMIMT Page | 1
determine the quantity of work and heat transferred across a surface of interest due to
interactions. It describes how much heat is to temperature gradients at the surface, and
be exchanged during a process but does not difference of temperature between different
hint how the same could be achieved surfaces.
To understand the difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer, let us consider the
Cooling of a hot steel bar which is placed in a water bath. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the
final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar-water combination; however, it will not help us to find out
how long it takes to reach this equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a
certain length of time before the equilibrium condition is attained. Heat transfer on the other hand, may
be used to predict the temperatures of both the bar and the water as a function of time. Heat transfer
theory combines thermodynamics and rate equations together (to quantify the rate at which heat transfer
occurs in terms of the degree of non-equilibrium).
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer which is defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another as result
of temperature gradient takes place by the following three modes like (i) Conduction; (ii) Convection;
(iii) Radiation.
Heat transmission, in majority of real situations, occurs as a result of combinations of these modes of
heat transfer. Example: The water in a boiler shell receives its heat from the fire-bed by conducted,
convected and radiated heat from the fire to the shell, conducted heat through the shell and conducted
and convected heat from the inner shell wall, to the water. Heat always flows in the direction of lower
temperature. The above three modes are similar in that a temperature differential must exist and the heat
exchange is in the direction of decreasing temperature; each method, however, has different controlling
laws.
Conduction
“Conduction” is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance, or from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable
displacement of molecules forming the substance. In solids, the heat is conducted by the mechanisms
like, (i) By lattice vibration (the faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body transfer
heat by impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules).(ii) By transport of free electrons (Free
electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of decreasing temperature. For metals, especially good
electrical conductors, the electronic mechanism is responsible for the major portion of the heat flux
except at low temperature).In case of gases, the mechanism of heat conduction is simple. The kinetic
energy of a molecule is a function of temperature. These molecules are in a continuous random motion
exchanging energy and momentum. When a molecule from the high temperature region collides with a
molecule from the low temperature region, it loses energy by collisions. In liquids, the mechanism of
heat is nearer to that of gases. However, the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular
forces come into play.
Fourier law heat conduction
Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation and states as follows:
“The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area
of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to change of temperature with respect to
the length of the path of the heat flow”. Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation:
dT
Q ∝ A.
dx
Where, Q = Heat flow through a body per unit time (in watts), W,
A = Surface area of heat flow (perpendicular to the direction of flow), m2,
dT = Temperature difference of the faces of block (homogeneous solid) of thickness
‘dx’ through which heat flows, °C or K, and
dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow, m.
6. The net change in the heat content is given by, ∆Qn e t = m′.C.∆T
7. [5] and [6] gives the value of the same ones .equate them and simplify. This will give the value of
the equilibrium equation in that direction for that particular coordinate direction.
8. Find the value of the same for the other directions too.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped (volume element) of sides dx, dy and dz
parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with
location and time as shown in Fig. Let, T = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be
assumed uniform over the entire surface, since area of this face can be made arbitrarily small, and
= Temperature changes or rate of change along − direction.
∂T
Then, d x = Change of temperature through distance dx, and
∂x
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate direction
considered (1) + heat generated within the element (2) = Energy stored in the element (3) .....(1)
Let, Q = Rate of heat flow in a direction, and
Q' = (Q.dτ) = Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time dτ).
1. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the directions considered
Thermal conductivity along X direction = kx, cross-sectional area along X direction = dy × dz,
∂T
change of temperature with respect to the length = , and time period of Heat flow = dτ
∂x
Applying Fourier’s Law, quantity of heat flowing into the element from the left face ABCD
during the time interval dτ in X-direction is given by:
∂T
Heat influx, Q ' x = − k x (d y.d z ) ⋅dτ . . . . (i )
∂x
During the same time interval dτ the heat flowing out of the right face of control volume
(EFGH) will be:
∂
Heat efflux, Q '( x + d x ) = Q ' x + (Q ' x ) d x . . . . (i i )
∂x
Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction, [Subtracting (ii) from (i)
∂ ∂
d Q ' x = Q ' x − Q ' x + (Q ' x ) d x = − (Q ' x ) d x
∂x ∂x
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
d Q 'x = − − k x ( d y.d z ) .dτ d x = ∂ x k x ∂ x d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂x ∂x
Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y and Z directions in time
dτ will be:
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
d Q 'y = ky d x.d y.d z.dτ and d Q 'z = kz d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂y ∂y ∂ z ∂ z
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate direction
considered
Department of Mechanical Engineering SNMIMT Page | 7
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
= kx d x.d y.d z.dτ + ky d x.d y.d z.dτ + kz d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂ z ∂ z
∂ ∂ T ∂ ∂ T ∂ ∂ T
= kx + ky + kz d x.d y.d z.dτ
∂ x ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y ∂ z ∂ z
2. Total heat generated within the element (Qg’),
By using Laplacian ∇ 2 ,
qg 1 ∂T
∇ 2T + = ⋅
k α ∂τ
This Equation, governs the temperature distribution under unsteady heat flow through a material
which is homogeneous and isotropic.
k Thermal conductivity
Where, the quantity known as Thermal diffusivity, α = =
ρ .c Thermal capacity
∂T
[Unsteady state ≠ 0 heat flow with no internal heat generation]
∂τ
(ii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, the conduction then takes place in
∂T
the steady state ie., = 0 and the eqn. reduces to
∂τ
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T qg qg
+ + + =0 or ∇ 2T + =0 [P o i s s o n ' s e q u a t i o n]
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂z2 k k
In the absence of internal heat generation, Eqn. reduces to
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
2
+ 2
+ 2
=0 or ∇ 2T = 0 [L a p l a c e e q u a t i o n]
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2T qg
(iii) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer: + =0
∂ x2 k
∂ 2T
(iv) Steady state, one-dimensional, without internal heat generation: =0
∂ x2
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
(v) Steady state, two dimensional, without internal heat generation: + =0
∂ x2 ∂ y2
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
(vi) Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation: 2
= .
∂x α ∂τ
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATES
While dealing with problems of conduction of heat through systems having cylindrical geometries (e.g.,
rods and pipes) it is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates. Consider an elemental volume having the
coordinates for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig.
The volume of the element= r dφ. d r.d z
Further, let us assume that k (thermal conductivity), ρ (density), c (specific heat) do not alter with
position.
∂ ∂ ∂T
=− (Qr' ) d r = − − k (r dφ .d z ) ⋅ dτ dr
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂ ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ T
= k (d r.dφ .d z.dτ ) r ⋅ = k ( d r .d φ .d z .dτ ) r ⋅ 2 +
∂ r ∂ r ∂r ∂ r
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) 2 + ⋅
∂r r ∂r
Heat flow in tangential direction (r − z p l a n e) :
Cross-sectional area along tangential direction = d r × d z
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
r .∂ φ
∂T
Heat influx, Qφ' = − k (d r.d z ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i i i )
r.∂ φ
∂ ∂ ∂T
=− (Qφ' )r.dφ = − − k (d r.d z ) r.∂ φ ⋅ dτ r.dφ
r.∂ φ r.∂ φ
∂ 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.dφ .d z.dτ ) ⋅ = k ( d r .r d φ .d z.dτ ) ⋅
∂φ r ∂φ r2 ∂φ2
Heat flow in axial direction (r − φ p l a n e) :
Cross-sectional area along axial direction = r.dφ × d r
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
∂z
∂T
Heat influx, Qz' = −k (r.dφ .d r ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (v )
∂z
∂
Heat efflux, Q(' z + d z ) = Qz' + (Qz' )d z . . . . (v i )
∂z
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in axial direction,
∂ ∂ ∂T
=− (Qz' )d z = − − k (r.dφ .d r ) ⋅ dτ d z
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )
∂z2
Net heat accumulated within the element
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) 2 + ⋅ + k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) 2 ⋅ 2
∂r r ∂r r ∂φ
∂ 2T
+ k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ )
∂z2
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dφ .d z.dτ ) 2 + ⋅ + ⋅ +
∂ r r ∂ r r 2 ∂ φ 2 ∂ z 2
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂T
Dividing both sides by d r.r dφ.d z , k 2 + ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2 + qg = ρ.c ⋅
∂ r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂ z ∂τ
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q g ρ c ∂T 1 ∂T
Or, 2+ ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 2 + 2+ = ⋅ = ⋅
∂ r r ∂r r ∂φ ∂ z k k ∂τ α ∂τ
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates. In case there are no heat
sources present and the heat flow is steady and one-dimensional, then equation reduces to
∂ 2T1 ∂T 1 d ∂T
+ ⋅ =0 Or, ⋅ r⋅ =0
∂r 2
r ∂r r d r ∂ r
1 d ∂T ∂T
Since ≠ 0 , therefore, r⋅ or r ⋅ ∂ r = 0
r d r ∂ r
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN SPHERICAL CO-ORDINATES
Consider an elemental
volume having the coordinates
(r, φ ,θ ) , for three dimensional
heat conduction analysis, as shown
in Fig.
The volume of the element =
d r.r dθ .r s i nθ dφ
Let, qg= Heat generation
(uniform) per unit volume per unit
time.
Further let us assume that k
(thermal conductivity), ρ (density),
c (specific heat) do not alter with Fig. 1.3 Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis –
. Spherical co-ordinates
position.
1. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions:
Thermal conductivity = k and Time period of Heat flow = dτ
Heat flow through r − θ p l a n e; φ − direction:
Cross-sectional area along φ − direction = d r × r dθ
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
∂T
Heat influx, Qφ' = − k (d r.r dθ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i )
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
∂
Heat efflux, Q('φ + dφ ) = Qφ' + (Qφ' )r.s i n θ .dφ . . . . (i i )
r.s i n θ .∂ φ
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in φ − direction,
1 ∂ 1 ∂T
=− ⋅ − k (d r.r dθ ) ⋅ ⋅ dτ r.s i n θ .dφ
r.s i n θ ∂ φ r.s i n θ ∂ φ
1 ∂ 2T
= k (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) ⋅
r 2 .s i n 2 θ ∂ φ 2
Heat flow through r − φ p l a n e; θ − direction:
Cross-sectional area along θ − direction = d r × r s i n θ .dφ
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
r∂ θ
∂T
Heat influx, Qθ' = −k (d r.r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (i i i)
r∂ θ
∂
Heat efflux, Q('θ + dθ ) = Qθ' + (Qθ' )r dθ . . . . (i v)
r∂ θ
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in θ − direction,
∂ ∂ ∂T
d Qθ' = − (Qθ' )r dθ = − − k (d r.r s i n θ .dφ ) r ∂ θ ⋅ dτ r dθ
r∂ θ r∂ θ
k d r.r dθ .r dφ .dτ ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
= ⋅ s i nθ ⋅ = k ( d r.r dθ .r s i n θ dφ .dτ ) 2 ⋅ s i n θ ⋅ ∂ θ
r r ∂θ ∂θ r s i nθ ∂ θ
Heat flow through θ − φ p l a n e; r − direction:
Cross-sectional area along r − direction = r dθ × r s i n θ .dφ
∂T
Change of temperature with respect to the length =
∂r
∂T
Heat influx, Qr' = −k (r dθ ⋅ r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ . . . . (v)
∂r
∂
Heat efflux, Q(' r + d r ) = Qr' + (Qr' )d r . . . . (v i )
∂r
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in r − direction,
∂ ∂ ∂T
=− (Qr' )d r = − − k (r dθ ⋅ r s i n θ .dφ ) ⋅ dτ d r
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ 2 ∂T
= k (d r.dθ ⋅ s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) ⋅ r ⋅ = k (d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ ) 2 ⋅ r ⋅ ∂ r
∂r ∂r r ∂r
(1) Net heat accumulated within the element
1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ 2 ∂T
= k .d r.r dθ .r s i n θ .dφ .dτ 2 2
⋅ 2
+ 2 ⋅ s i nθ ⋅ + 2 ⋅ ∂r r ⋅ ∂r
r .s i n θ ∂ φ r s i nθ ∂ θ ∂θ r
Newton’s law of cooling: The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular
nature) between a surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling (Refer Fig.).
Newton's Law of Cooling states that “the rate of change of the temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between its own temperature and the ambient temperature” (i.e. the
temperature of its surroundings)
Q = h A(Tw − T∞ )
Where, Q = The rate of convective heat transfer
A = Area exposed to heat transfer
Tw = Wall temperature or surface temperature
T∞ = Fluid temperature
h = Co-efficient of convective heat transfer
The units of h are,
Q W
h= ⇒ 2o o r W / m 2oC o r W / m 2K
A(Tw − T∞ ) m C
Fig. 1.5 Convective heat transfer
The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘h' (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) may
be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid and
unit area of surface in unit time.” The value of ‘h’ depends on the factors like, (i) Thermodynamic and
transport properties (e.g. viscosity, density, specific heat etc.). (ii) Nature of fluid flow. (iii) Geometry
of the surface. (iv) Prevailing thermal conditions. Since ‘h’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult
to frame a single equation to satisfy all the variations, however, by dimensional Equivalent circuit
analysis an equation for the purpose can be obtained.
Tw − T∞ 1
Convective heat transfer, Q = , and Convective thermal resistance [(Rth) conv]
(1 h A) hA
HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION
Radiation” is the transfer of heat through space or matter by means other than conduction or
convection. Radiation heat is thought of as electromagnetic waves or quanta (as convenient) an
emanation of the same nature as light and radio waves. All bodies radiate heat', so a transfer of heat by
radiation occurs because hot body emits more heat than it receives and a cold body receives more heat
than it emits. Radiant energy (being electromagnetic radiation) requires no medium for propagation and
ie. Eb ∝ T 4 or Eb = σ T 4
Heat transfer due to radiation, Qrad = Fσ A(T14 − T24 ) or Qrad = FA( Eb1 − Eb 2 )
where, F = A factor (shape factor) depending on geometry and surface properties,
σ = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2K4
A = Are, m2
T1, T2 = Temperatures, Kelvin (K)
T1 − T2
The equation can also be rewritten as: Q=
1/ [ Fσ A(T1 + T2 )(T12 + T22 )]
∂T
= C1 and T = C1x + C 2
∂x
Where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants. The values of these constants may be calculated
from the known boundary conditions as, at x = 0 then T = T1 and x = L then T = T2.Substituting the
values in the eqn.
T1 = 0 + C 2 and T2 = C1L + C 2
The eqn. indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is independent of
thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall can be found by using Fourier’s equation as
follows:
dT dT
Q = −kA (Where, = Temperature gradient)
dx dx
dT d T2 − T1 T −T
But, = x + T1 = 2 1
dx dx L L
(T2 − T1 ) kA(T1 − T2 )
∴ Q = −kA =
L L
(T1 − T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
The equation can be written as; Q= =
L / kA ( Rth ) cond
Where, (Rth)cond = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Fig (b) shows the equivalent thermal
circuit for heat flow through the plane wall.
Let us now find out the condition when instead of space, weight is the main criterion for
selection of the insulation of a plane wall.
L
Thermal resistance of the wall, ( Rth ) cond = ....(i)
kA
dT
Q = −kA Can be written as:
dx
dT
Q = −k 0 (1 + β T ) ⋅ A ⋅
dx
Q
Or, ⋅ dx = −k 0 (1 + β T )dT
A
Q L T2
Or,
A ∫0 dx = −k 0
∫T
1
(1 + β T )dT
T
Q.L β 2
Or, = −k0 T + T 2
A 2 T
1
Q.L β
Or, = −k 0 (T2 − T1 ) + (T22 − T12 )
A 2
Q.L β
Or, = k0 (T1 − T2 ) + (T1 − T2 )(T1 + T2 )
A 2
β
= k 0 (T1 − T2 ) 1 + (T1 + T2 )
2
T1 + T2
= k 0 (T1 − T2 ) 1 + β Tm Where, Tm =
2
A(T1 − T2 )
∴ Q = k 0 (1 + β Tm ) ⋅
L
From eqn. T is replaced by Tm, then k m = k 0 (1 + β Tm )
T − T
∴ Q = km A 1 2
L
Where, km is known as mean thermal conductivity of the wall material. Further, if t is the
temperature of the surface at a distance x from the left surface (Fig.), then eqn. becomes,
β Q.x β
−1 + 1 − 4 × − T1 + T12
2 k0 A 2
By solving the above quadratic equation, T =
β
2×
2
1/2
1 2 Q.x
1 β
Or, T =− + 2 − − T1 − T12
β β β k0 A 2
1/2
1 1 2 2Q.x
= − + 2 − T1 + T12 −
β β β β k0 A
1/2
1 1
2
2Q.x
Hence, T = − + T1 + −
β β β k0 A
In most of the practical applications where the variation of temperature is small, the average
value of k for the given temperature range is commonly used as given in the eqn. If the variation of k
with temperature is not linear and then,
A ∫0 dx = ∫T
1
k 0 f (T )dT
A T2
Or , Q=
L
− ∫T
1
k0 f (T )dT
T −T
But, Q = km A 1 2
L
1 T2
Equating these equns., k m = ∫
(T1 − T2 ) T1
k 0 f (T )dT
A(T1 − T4 )
Or , Q=
L A LB LC
+ +
k A k B kC
In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances,
the electrical analogy may be used. A typical problem and its analogous electric circuit are shown in
Fig. 1.10.
∆Toverall
Q=
∑ Rth
THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE
In a composite (multi-layer) wall, the calculations of
heat flow are made on the assumptions: (i) the contact between
the adjacent layers is perfect, (ii) At the interface there is no
fall of temperature, and (iii) At the interface the temperature is
continuous, although there is discontinuity in temperature
gradient. In real systems, however, due to surface roughness
and void spaces (usually filled with air) the contact surfaces
touch only at discrete locations. Thus there is not a single plane
of contact, which means that the area available for the flow of Fig. 1.11 Temperature drops at interface
heat at the interface will be small compared to geo metric face
area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large resistance to heat flow at the interface
occurs. This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance and it causes temperature drop between
two materials at the interface as shown in Fig. 1.11 The contact resistances are given by,
T2 − T3 T4 − T5
( Rth − AB ) cont = and ( Rth− BC ) cont =
Q/ A Q/ A
THE OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
While dealing with the problems of fluid to fluid heat
transfer across a metal boundary, it is usual to adopt an overall heat
transfer coefficient U which gives the heat transmitted per unit area
per unit time per degree temperature difference between the bulk
fluids on each side of the metal. Refer to Fig. Let, L = Thickness of
the metal wall, k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, T1=
Temperature of the surface-1, T2 = Temperature of the surface-2, Ta=
Temperature of the hot fluid, Tb = Temperature of the cold fluid, ha =
Heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to metal surface, and hb =
Heat transfer coefficient from metal surface to cold fluid. (The
suffices a and b stand for hot fluid and cold fluid respectively.)The
equations of heat flow through the fluid and the metal surface are
given by, Fig 1.12 Overall heat transfer-Plane wall
Q = ha A (Ta − T1 ) (i)
Q = k. A
(T1 − T2 ) (ii)
L
Q = hb A (T2 − Tb ) (iii )
1 L 1
By rearranging (iv), (v) and (vi), Ta − Tb = Q + +
ha . A k . A hb . A
A(Ta − Tb )
Or, Q=
1 L 1
+ +
ha k hb
I
If the overall heat transfer coefficient, U =
1 L 1
+ +
ha k hb
Then, Q = UA(Ta − Tb )
It may be noticed from the above equation that if the individual coefficients differ greatly in
magnitude only a change in the least will have any significant effect on the rate of heat transfer.
CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS CYLINDERS
Case I. Uniform thermal conductivity:
Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant thermal conductivity and insulated
at both ends. Let, r1, r2 = Inner and outer radii; T1, T2 = Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and k
= Constant thermal conductivity within the given temperature range. The general heat conduction
equation in cylindrical coordinates is given by,
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q g 1 ∂ T
2+ ⋅ + ⋅ + + = ⋅
∂ r r ∂ r r 2 ∂ φ 2 ∂ z 2 k α ∂ τ
T2 = C l n (r2 ) + C1 (i i i )
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
Eqn (i) – (ii), C = − , substituting value of C in eqn (ii), C1 = T1 + 1 2 l n (r1 )
l n (r2 r1 ) l n (r2 r1 )
Substituting the values of these constants in eqn (i)
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
T = T1 + l n (r1 ) − 1 2 l n (r )
l n (r2 r1 ) l n (r2 r1 )
The above equation is the expression for temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder.
1
Or, T − T1 =
l n (r2 r1 )
[(T1 − T2 ) l n (r1) − (T1 − T2 ) l n (r )] ,
(T − T1 ) l n (r2 r1 ) = (T1 − T2 ) l n (r1 ) − (T1 − T2 ) l n (r )
r2 dr T2
Q∫ = −k 0 .2π L ∫ (1 + β T ) dT
r1 r T1
T
r2 T2
2
Q [ ln(r )] r1
= − k 0 .2π L T + β ⋅
2
T1
β
Q ln(r2 r1 ) = −k 0 .2π L (T2 − T1 ) + ⋅ (T22 − T12 )
2
β
= −k 0 .2π L (T2 − T1 ) + ⋅ (T2 + T1 )(T2 − T1 )
2
β
= k 0 .2π L 1 + ⋅ (T1 + T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
2
β
k 0 .2π L 1 + ⋅ (T1 + T2 ) (T1 − T2 )
∴ Q= 2
ln(r2 r1 )
β
k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T ) (T1 − T )
Integrating between r,- r1 and T-T1, Q= 2
ln(r r1 )
β β
k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T2 ) (T1 − T2 ) k 0 .2π L 1 + (T1 + T ) (T1 − T )
Equating the both equations, 2 = 2
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r r1 )
12
1 1ln(r r1 )
Then after solution and simplification, T = − ± (1 + β T1 ) 2 −
β β ln(r2 r1 )
{
(1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T2 ) 2
}
Since, T = T2, where r = r2, therefore, only the +ve sign in the above expression can be used
12
1 ln(r r1 ) 1
Hence, simplification, T = (1 + β T1 ) 2 −
β ln(r2 r1 )
{
(1 + β T1 ) 2 − (1 + β T2 ) 2
} −
β
Q
Q = h1 2π r1L. (T1 - T2 ) or (T1 - T2 ) = (i )
h1 2π r1L
(T2 - T3 ) Q r
Q = 2π k a L.
r
or (T2 - T3 ) = ln 2 (i i )
ln 2 2π k a L. r1
r1
1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
(T1 - T6 ) = Q + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π kb L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L
Q=
(T1 - T6 )
1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
+ ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L
∆T 1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
But, Q = , W h e r e , Rt h = + ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
Rt h h1 2π r1L 2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3 h2 2π r4 L
Total thermal resistance is the sum of individual resistances. If inside and outside heat transfer
coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as,
Q=
(T1 - T6 )
1 r 1 r 1 r
ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4
2π k a L r1 2π k b L r2 2π k c L r3
CONDUCTION THROUGH HOMOGENEOUS SPHERES
Consider a hollow sphere made of material having constant thermal
conductivity. Let ri and ro= Inner and outer radii, Ti and To =
Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and k = Constant thermal
conductivity of the material with the given temperature range.
The basic equilibrium equation is given by
1 ∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ 2T q 1 ∂ T
r +
2 s i n θ + + =
r2 ∂r ∂r r s i nθ ∂ θ ∂ θ r 2 s i n 2 θ ∂ φ 2 k α ∂ τ
∂ 2 ∂T
r
∂ r ∂ r =0
dT C1
Integrating twice the eqn (i) twice, r 2 = C1 ⇒ dT = dr
dr r2
Department of Mechanical Engineering SNMIMT Page | 26
1
T = C1 − + C 2 . . . . (i i )
r
The boundary conditions are, a t r = ri t h e n T = Ti a n d r = ro t h e n T = To . Applying
boundary conditions to the eqn: (ii)
1 1
Ti = C1 − + C 2 and To = C1 − + C2
ri ro
C1 C1
Thus the equation (ii) reduces to the form Ti − To = − −
ri ro
(Ti − To ) ri.ro 1 (T − T ) r r
Then, C1 = , and C2 = Ti + i o i. o
( ri − ro ) ri ( ri − ro )
(Ti − To ) ri.ro 1 1 (T − T ) r r (T − T ) r r 1 1
Now, T= − + Ti + i o i. o = Ti + i o i. o −
( ri − ro ) r ri ( ri − ro ) ( ri − ro ) ri r
T − Ti 1 1 1 1
and = − −
Ti − To ri r ro ri
From the eqn. it is evident that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction
through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
Determination of conduction heat transfer rate, Q
dT d Ti − To 1 1
Q = −k A ⇒ Q = − k . 4π r 2 Ti + −
dr d r (1/ ro − 1 / ri ) ri r
Ti − To 1 (T − T ) 1
Q = − k . 4π r 2 . × − − 2 = − k . 4π r 2 . i o × 2
(1 / ro − 1 / ri ) r ri − ro r
ri .ro
(Ti − To )ri .ro (Ti − To )ri .ro
Q = − 4π .k . = 4π .k .
ri − ro ro − ri
(Ti − To )
Q=
( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro
Where the term ( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro is the thermal resistance (Rth) for heat conduction through a
hollow sphere.
CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE SPHERES
Consider a composite sphere with three layers as shown.
r3
There is convection at the beginning and at the end and also
conduction on each layer of the wall. It can be seen that same r4
h1
amount of heat is flowing through all the sections. T1
T2
Let, T1= The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside h2 T4 T3 r1
the cylinder, T6= The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric T5 r2
T6 ka
air), ka= Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A, kb= Thermal
Q kb
conductivity of the outside layer B, T2, T3, T4, T5= Temperatures at kc
the interface, r1, r2, r3, r4 are the radii from inside to outside. Same
amount of heat is flowing through all the sections. Fig. 1.17
(T2 − T3 ) Q
Q = 4π k a .r2 r1 = (T2 − T3 ) = ( r2 − r1 ) (i i )
r2 − r1 4π k a r2 r1
(T3 − T4 ) Q
Q = 4π kb .r2 r3 = (T3 − T4 ) = ( r3 − r2 ) (i i i )
r3 − r2 4π k b r2 r3
(T4 − T5 ) Q
Q = 4π k c .r3r4 = (T4 − T5 ) = ( r4 − r3 ) (i v)
r4 − r3 4π k c r3r4
Q
Q = h2 4π r42 . (T5 − T6 ) = (T5 − T6 ) = (v )
h2 4π r42
Adding the above equations (i) + (ii) + (iii) + (iv) + (v)
(T1 − T2 ) + (T2 − T3 ) + (T3 − T4 ) + (T4 − T5 ) + (T5 − T6 )
Q Q Q Q Q
= + ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 ) +
h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42
1 1 1 1 1
( 1 6)
T − T = Q + ( 2 1)
r − r + ( 3 2)
r − r + ( 4 3)
r − r +
h 1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42
Q=
(T1 − T6 )
1 1 1 1 1
+ ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r − r ) + ( r − r ) +
h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π kb r2 r3 3 2 4π k c r3r4 4 3 h2 4π r42
∆T
But, Q=
Rt h
1 1 1 1 1
Thus, Rt h = + ( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 ) +
h1 4π r12 4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4 h2 4π r42
Total thermal resistance is the sum of individual resistances.If inside and outside heat transfer
coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be written as,
Q=
(T1 − T6 )
1 1 1
( r2 − r1 ) + ( r3 − r2 ) + ( r4 − r3 )
4π k a r2 r1 4π k b r2 r3 4π k c r3r4
CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness is known as ‘Insulation’.
Insulation serves the following two purposes:
1. It presents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings.
2. It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system.
Applications:
1. Boilers and steam pipes;
2. Air-conditioning systems;
.
Critical thickness of insulation of cylinders
Consider a solid cylinder of radius ri, insulated with an
insulation of thickness (ro – ri) as shown in Fig. Let L= length of the
cylinder, Ti = surface temperature inside the cylinder, To= surface
temperature outside the cylinder, h = heat transfer coefficient at the
outer surface of the insulation, and k = thermal conductivity of
insulating material.Here there will be conduction and then
convection outside. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of
the solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by
Rt h 1 r 1 1 ro 1
ln o + ln +
2π k L ri h 2π ro L k ri h ro
1 r 1
W h e r e, Rt h = ln o +
2π k L ri h 2π ro L
−1
1 1 r 1
Q = ∆T l n o +
2π L k ri ro h
l n ( ro ri ) 1
It is evident that as rO increases, the factor increases but the factor decreases. Thus
k h ro
l n ( ro ri ) 1
Q becomes maximum when the denominator + becomes minimum. The required
k h ro
condition is that,
dQ
Maximum heat transfer occurs at =0
d ro
1 1 r 1
−1
d
∆T . o
l n + = 0 (ro b e i n g t h e o n l y v a r i a b l e)
d ro
2π L k ri ro h
1 1 1 1 1 1 k
. + − =0 and − =0 ⇒ ro =
k ro h ro2 k h. ro h
The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance and consequently maximum
heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called the’ critical
radius' (rc). The critical radius rC is dependent on the thermal quantities k and h and is independent of ri,
(i.e. cylinder radius).This is the value of the critical radius of insulation for cylinders.
Critical thickness of insulation of spheres
Consider a hollow solid sphere of radius r, insulated
with an insulation of thickness (ro – ri) as shown in Fig. Let Ti =
surface temperature inside the sphere, To = surface temperature
outside the sphere, h = heat transfer coefficient at the outer
surface of the insulation, and k = thermal conductivity of
insulating material.
Here there will be conduction and then convection
outside. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the
solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by,
(Ti − To )
Q=
(
( ro − ri ) 4π k.ri .ro + 1 4π ro 2 h
) Fig. 1.20
1 ( ro − ri ) 1
Rt h = + 2
4π k ro ri ro h
−1
1 ( ro − ri ) 1
Q = ∆T . + 2
4π k ro ri ro h
−2
1 1 1 1 2
− + 2 ×
k r 2 r 3h
− − = 0
k ri k ro r h
o o o
2
1 1 1 1 2
− 1 − + 2 ≠ 0 and − 3 = 0
k ri k ro r h
o k ro
2
ro h
1 2 2k
2
= 3
⇒ 2k = ro h ⇒ ro =
k ro ro h h
2k
Where, ro = rc = , is the value of the critical radius of insulation for spheres.
h
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION
In many practical cases there will be situations where there will be heat generation taking place
in the body. In a real situation this heat along with the conducted heat will be flowing in any direction
under consideration. Some of the main places where heat sources are present are,
(1) Electric heater, (2) Fuel rods – nuclear reactor, (3) Resistance heating, (4) Chemical and
Combustion processes, (5) Drying and setting of concrete etc.
There are different types of cases that may arise due to the difference in the different parameters
associated. They are
1. Plane wall with internal heat generation, 2. Cylinder with internal heat generation, 3. Sphere
with internal heat generation
Where q = heat generated per unit volume per unit time in the element.
The total energy balance equation for the elemental area can be written as
Qx + Qg = Qx+ d x
dT dT d 2T
−k A + q. A.d x = −k A − kA 2 dx
dx dx dx
d 2T d 2T q.
q. A. = −k A 2
and 2
+ =0
dx dx k
This is the general differential equation for this case. Integrating this expression twic
dT q.
= − x + C1
dx k
q x2
T =− × + C1 x + C 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i )
k 2
Case I. Both the surfaces have the same temperature
Considering that the surfaces have the same temperature, then boundary conditions are,
At x = 0 t h e n , T = T1 = Tw
At x = L t h e n , T = T2 = Tw
Applying boundary conditions,
qL
C1 = , a n d C2 = Tw
2k
Supplying this value in (i) we get
q x2 q L x
T =− + + Tw
2k 2k
qx
T= ( L − x ) + Tw ……………….. (ii)
2k
In order to determine the location of the maximum temperature, differentiating the eqn. w.r.t x
and equating to zero, we have
d qx
( L − x ) + Tw = 0
dT
=
d x d x 2k
dT q
= ( L − 2x ) = 0
d x 2k
q L
Since, ≠0 Then, ( L − 2x) = 0 or, x =
2k 2
The maximum temperature occurs at x = L/2 and its value equals
q x q L L
Tm a x = ( L − x ) + Tw or Tm a x = × L − + Tw
2k x =L /2 2k 2 2
q ALq
= − k A ( L − 2 x ) Then, Q =
2k x=0 o r x= L 2
ALq
When both the surfaces are considered, T h e n , Q = 2× = ALq
2
Also heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated to the surrounding atmosphere at
temperature Ta,
AL q
T h en , Q = = h A(Tw − Ta )
2
L.q
Tw = Ta +
2h
Substituting this value of twin eqn., we obtain
qx L.q
T= ( L − x ) + Ta +
2k 2h
At x = L/2 i.e., at the mid plane,
q L2 L.q L L2
Tm a x = Ta + q
2 h 8k
T = Tm a x = Ta + + and, +
8k 2h
Case II. Both the surfaces of the wall have different temperatures
The total energy balance equation for the elemental area can
be written as
Qx + Qg = Qx+d x
dT dT d 2T
−k A + q. A.d x = −k A − kA 2 dx
dx dx dx
2 2
d T d T q.
q. A. = −k A 2 and + =0
dx d x2 k
This is the general differential equation for this case.
Integrating this expression twice, we get
Fig. 1.22 Plane wall with internal heat
dT q. generation Both the surfaces of the wall
= − x + C1
dx k have different temperatures
q x2
T =− × + C1 x + C 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i )
k 2
The boundary conditions are: At x = 0 then T = Tw1 and At x =Ll then T = Tw1. where Tw=
temperature of the wall surface. Using these boundary conditions in eqn,
T −T q
C 2 = Tw1 , C1 = w2 w1 + L
L 2k
Substituting these values of C1and C2 in eqn, (i)
⇒ T=
q L x q x2
−
(T − T )
+ x w2 w1 + Tw1
2k 2k L
q T −T
T = ( L − x ) + w2 w1 x + Tw1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i i)
2k L
The temperature distribution, in dimensionless form can be obtained by making the following
transformations,
ql2 x x 2 x
T − Tw2 = − + (Tw2 − Tw1 ) + Tw1 − Tw 2
2k L L L
T − Tw 2 ql2 x x 2 x
= − + (Tw2 − Tw1 )
Tw1 − Tw 2 2k L L L
T − Tw2 ql2 x x 2 x
= − − +1
Tw1 − Tw2 2k (Tw1 − Tw 2 ) L L L
T − Tw2 ql2 x x x
= ⋅ 1 − + 1 −
Tw1 − Tw2 2k (Tw1 − Tw2 ) L L L
q L2
Replacing the parameter, (a constant) by a factor Z,
2k (Tw1 − Tw2 )
T − Tw2 Z .x x x
= 1− + 1−
Tw1 − Tw2 L L L
T − Tw2 x Z .x
= 1 − + 1
Tw1 − Tw2 L L
In order to get maximum temperature and its location, differentiating the above Eqn. w.r.t ‘x/L’
and equating the derivative to zero, we have
dt x Z x
= 1 − Z + + 1 (− 1) = 0
d ( x / L) L L
Zx Zx
⇒ Z− − −1 = 0
L L
2Z x
= Z −1
L
x Z −1
⇒ =
L 2Z
x Z −1
Thus the maximum value of temperature occurs at, = and its value is given by,
L 2Z
Tm a x − Tw2 Z − 1 Z − 1
= 1− Z +1
Tw1 − Tw2 2Z 2 Z
ρL ρL 1 I 2ρ
qg × A × L = I 2 × o r qg = I 2 × × =
A A A× L A2
2
I J2
o r qg = ρ = J 2ρ o r qg =
A ke
Where, J = Current density
ke = Electrical conductivity (reciprocal of ρ)
π R2L qg d T
ie, =
− k . 2π R L d r r = R
dT qg
ie, = − R
d r r =R 2k
dT
(3) Al s o , r = 0 t h en =0
dr
Applying first boundary condition in eqn (i),
∂T qg R C
∂r =− . + 1 . . . . (i i i)
r =R k 2 R
dT qg
Applying second boundary condition d r = − R
r=R 2 k
qg C1 qg
− R+ =− R or C1 = 0
2k R 2k
qg
∴ Tw = Ta + R
2h
Inserting the value of Twin eqn., we obtain the temperature distribution (in terms of Ta) as:
qg qg
T = Ta +
2h
R+
4k
(R 2
− r2 )
The value of Tmax at r = 0, is given by
qg qg
Tma x = Ta + R+ R2
2h 4k
d
Under steady state conduction, Qr + Q g = Q( r + d r ) = Qr + ( Qr ) d r
dr
d d dT
Qg = ( Qr ) d r ⇒ q g 4π r 2 .d r = − k . 4π r 2 dr
dr dr d r
d 2 dT qg 1 d 2 dT
q g 4π r 2 .d r = − 4π k r dr ⇒ =− r
d r d r k r2 dr dr
1 d 2 d T qg 1 2 d 2T d T qg
r + =0 ⇒ r . + 2 r . + =0
r2 dr dr k r 2 dr2 d r k
d 2T 2 d T qg d 2T d T qg . r
+ . + =0 ⇒ r. +2. + =0
dr2 r dr k dr2 dr k
d d T d T qg .r
r. + + =0 . . . . (i )
dr d r dr k
dT qg r 2
r. +T + . = C1
Integrating both sides, dr k 2
qg qg qg
T = Tw +
6k
. R 2−
6k
r2 ⇒ T = Tw +
6k
(R 2
− r2 )
qg
The maximum temperature occurs at the centre (r = 0) and its value, Tma x = Tw + R2
6k
Tm a x − Tw R2 Tm a x − Tw R
This is the temperature distribution in dimensionless form. Invoking Fourier’s equation (to
evaluate heat flow),’ we have
dt
Q = −k A
d r r=R
d qg
Substituting the value of T from eqn., Q = −k × 4π R 2 × Tw +
dr 6k
(
R 2− r 2
r =R
)
qg qg
Q = − k × 4π R 2 ( − 2r ) ⇒ Q = k × 4π R 2 × .R
6k r =R 3k
4
∴Q = π R 3 × q g = volume of sphere × heat generation capacity
3
Thus heat conducted is equal to heat generated. Under steady state conditions the heat conducted
(or generated) should be equal to the heat converted from the outer surface of the sphere.