MODULE II: Convection: Elementary ideas of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers layers-Newton’s

Newton’s law
of cooling
cooling-factors
factors affecting heat transfer coefficient in forced and natural (free) convection heat transfer
transfer-
application of dimensional analysis to free and fo
forced
rced convection-significance
convection significance of Prandtil number, Reynold’s
number, Grashof number and Nusselt number. Forced convection: Laminar and turbulent flow heat transfer
in a circular pipe
pipe- Laminar and turbulent flow heat transfer in flow over a flat plate
plate-flow across
ross a cylinder.
Natural convection: Natural convection heat transfer from a plate kept vertical and horizontal
horizontal- cylinder kept
vertical and horizontal
horizontal-description
description of natural convection heat transfer from enclosed spaces. (Problems
limited to using importan
importantt empirical relations available in data book)
1. INTRODUCTION
In heat transfer, the exchange of heat from a wall to a fluid or from a fluid to a wall is very important
process (applicable in heat exchangers and performance of engines etc.). The rate of heat at transfer by
convection, between a solid boundary and a fluid, is given by Q = ha A (Ts − Ta ) . The convective heat transfer
coefficient ha is actually a complicated function of ((1)) the fluid flow, (2)
(2 thermal properties of the fluid and
(3) geomet
geometryry of the system. Its numerical value, in general, is not uniform over a surface, and depends also
on the location where the fluid temperature is measured. The relation given by Eqn. is inadequate to explain
the convective heat flow mechanism; therefore, a meaningful analysis which will eventually lead to a
quantitative evaluation of the convective heat transfer coefficient must start with the study of the dynamics
of the fluid flow.
2. HYDRODYNAMICS
It is the
he study of fluids in motion. The study is based uupon pon the physical conservation laws of mass,
momentum, and energy. The mathematical statements of these laws may be written in either integral or
differential form. Applications of hydrodynamics include the study of closed-conduit
closed conduit and open
open--channel
channel flow,
and the calculation of forces on submerged bodies. Equations of motion, Euler’s equation of motion,
Bernoulli’s equation
equation, Continuity
Continuity equation etc. are concerned with hydrodynamics.
hydrodynamics
3. IDEAL AND REAL FLUIDS
An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface
surface tension and is incompressible
incompressible.. In true sense
no such fluid exists in nature. However, fluids which have low viscosities such as water and air can be
treated as ideal fluids under certain conditions. The assumption of ideal fluids helps in simplifying tthe he
mathematical analysis. A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity,
viscosity surface tension and compressibility
in addition to the density. The real fluids are actually available in nature.
4. BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW
When a real fluid flows past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere to Boundary. This means
that the velocity of fluid close to the boundary same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the
velocity of fluid will be zero Farther away from the boundary, the velocity
velocity will be higher and as a result of
ௗ௨
this velocity, the velocity gradient will exist. The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the
ௗ௬
stationary boundary to free stream velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal to the boundary
boundary.. This
variation of velocity from zero to free-stream
free stream velocity in the direction normal to boundary takes place in a
narrow region in the vicinity of solid boundary. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary layer.

4.1. Regions of flow of fluid

1. A very
ery thin layer of fluid, called the boundary layer, in the
immediate neighbourhood of the solid boundary, where the
variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to free
stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes
place. In this rregion,
egion, the velocity gradient du/dy exists and
hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction
of motion. The value of shear stress is given by τ = µ ( du / dy )

2. The remaining fluid which is outside the boundary layer. The velocityvelocity outside the boundary layer is
constant and equal to free
free-stream
stream velocity. As there is no variation-of velocity in this region, the velocity
gradient du/dy becomes zero. As a result of this the shear stress is zero.
4.2. Laminar Boundary Layer
For de
defining
fining the boundary layer (i.e., laminar boundary layer or turbulent boundary layer) consider
the flow of a fluid, having free
free-stream
stream velocity (U), over a smooth thin plate which is flat and placed parallel
Pagee | 1
to the direction for free stream of fluid as show
shownn in Fig. Let us consider the flow with zero pressure gradients
on one side of the plate, which is stationary. The velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate should be equal
to the velocity of the plate. But plate is stationary and hence velocity of fluid
flu id on the surface of the plate is
zero. But at a distance away from the plate, the fluid is having certain velocity.

Velocity gradient is set up in the fluid near

the surface of the plate and develops shear resistance,
with a uniform free
which retards the fluid. The fluid with
stream velocity (U) is retarded in the vicinity of the
solid surface of the plate and the boundary layer
region begins at the sharp leading edge At subsequent
points downstream the leading edge, the boundary
layer region increases because the retarded fluid is
further retarded. This is also referred as the growth
of boundary layer.

Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where the thickness is small, the flow in the
turbulent.. This layer of the fluid is said to be laminar
boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent
boundary layer. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynolds number equal to 5×10 5 for a
plate.
Reynold number, ( Re ) x = ( ρ U x ) µ

Where, x = Distance from leading edge stream velocity,

edge, U = Free-stream velocity µ = Dynamic viscosity
4.3. Turbulent Boundary Layer
If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, the thickness of boundary layer will go on
increasing in the downstream direction. Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of
fluid
d within it, is disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
The short length over which the boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called transition
zone. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continues to grow in
thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer.
4.4. Laminar Sub
Sub-layer
layer
The region in the turbulent boundary layer zone adjacent to the solid surface of the plate, the ve
velocity
locity
variation is influenced only by viscous effects is the Laminar Sub layer. In the Laminar sub
Sub-layer. sub-layer
layer zone
thickness is very small we can reasonably assume that velocity variation is linear and so the velocity gradient
can be considered constant. There fore, the shear stress in the laminar sub-layer
Therefore, sub layer would be constant and equal
to the boundary shear stress τ0.
 ∂u  u  ∂u u 
τ0 = µ   = µ   ∵ For linear var iaion, = 
 ∂y  y =0 y  ∂y y 

4.5. Hydrodynamic boundary layer & Boundary Layer Thickness ((δ)

It is defined as the distance from the solid body meas
measured in
the y-direction
direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid is
approximately equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity (U) of the
fluid. It is denoted by the symbol δ. For laminar and turbulent zone
it is denoted as: (1) δlam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer, (2) δtur= Thickness of turbulent boundary
layer, and (3) δ'' = Thickness of laminar sub-layer.
sub layer.
4.6. Displacement Thickness ((δδ*)
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be
displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of
boundary layer formation. It is also defined as the distance,
perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free stream is displaced
due to the formation of boundary layer. It is denoted by δ*.
δ*.
δ u
δ * = ∫ 1 −  dy
0  U 
Pagee | 2
 Where, y =velocity distance of elemental strip from the plate, dy = thickness of the elemental strip,
u = velocity of elemental strip, d = width of plate.

4.7. Momentum Thickness (θ)

Momentum thickness is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by ‘θ’.
δ u u
θ =∫ 1 −  dy
0 U U
4.8. Energy Thickness (δ**)
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by δ**.
δ u u2 
δ ** = ∫  1 −  dy
0 U  U2 

5. THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated
or cold surface, a temperature field is set up in the field
next to the surface. If the surface of the plate is hotter than
fluid, the temperature distribution will be as shown in the
Fig. The zone or this layer wherein the temperature field
exists is called the thermal boundary layer. Due to the
exchange of heat between the plate and the fluid,
temperature gradient occurs.

The thermal boundary layer thickness (δth) is arbitrarily defined as the distance y from the plate
T −T
surface at which, S = 0.99
TS − Tα
Figure (right), shows the shape of the thermal
boundary layer when the free stream temperature Tα is
above the plate surface temperature TS. The thermal
boundary layer concept is analogous to hydrodynamic
boundary layer; the parameters which affect their growth
are however different. Whereas the velocity profile of
the hydrodynamic boundary layer depends mainly on the
fluid viscosity, the temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer depends upon the viscosity, velocity of
flow, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the fluid. The relative magnitude of δ and δth are affected by
the thermo-physical properties of the fluid; the governing parameter, however, is the non-dimensional
Prandtel number Pr.
µ cp
Pr =
k
(i) δth = δ ………. when Pr = 1 (ii) δth ˂ δ ………. when Pr ˃ 1
(iii) δth ˃ δ ………. when Pr ˂ 1
6. HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION
“Convection” is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with another.
Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of medium itself.
Convection constitutes the macro form of the heat transfer since macroscopic particles of a fluid moving in
space cause the heat exchange. The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon the
mixing motion of the fluid.
This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to a flowing
fluid at any surface over which flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a very thin fluid layer at

Page | 3
the surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The heat flow flow depends on the properties of fluid aand
nd is
independent of the properties of the material of the surface. However, the shape of the surface will influence
the flow and hence the heat transfer. Convection is characterized in to many types (1) Forced convection,
convect , (2)
Free convection
convection. Other types are (1) External flow
flow, (2) Internal
nternal flow

6.1. Free or natural convection

convection: Free or natural convection occurs when the fluid circulates by virtue of the
natural differences in densities of hot and cold fluids; the denser portions of the fluid move downward
because of the greater force of gravity, as compared with the force on the less dense. The heat transfer in this
type of convection is primarily ruled by Grashoff number.
6.2 Forced convection: When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be forced convection.
The heat transfer in this type of convection process is predominantly ruled by Reynolds’s number
6.3. Newton’s law of cooling: The rate equation for the convective heat
transfer (regardless of par
particular
ticular nature) between a surface and an
adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling (Refer Fig.).
Newton's Law of Cooling states that “the rate of change of the
temperature of an object is proportional to the difference between its
own tempera
temperature
ture and the ambient temperature” (i.e. the temperature of
its surroundings)
surroundings).. According to this law heat transfer rate,
( )
Q = h A Ts − T f
Where Q= heat transfer rate, h = convective heat transfer
coefficient, A = area exposed to convective heat tr
transfer,
ansfer, Ts= Surface
temperature and Tf = Fluid temperature.
The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘h' (also known as film heat transfer coefficient) may be
defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the ffluid luid and unit area
of surface in unit time.” The value of ‘h’ ‘ ’ depends on the factors like, (i) Thermodynamic and transport
properties (e.g. viscosity, density, specific heat etc.). (ii) Nature of fluid flow. (iii) Geometry of the surface.
(iv) Prevailing tthermal
hermal conditions. Since ‘h’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult to frame a single
single
equation to satisfy all the variations, however, by dimensional Equivalent circuit analysis an equation for the
purpose can be obtained.
1
Convection thermal resis tan ce[(R th )conv ] =
hA

7. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of the dimensions
for solving several engineering problems.
problems. Each physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation
giving relationship between different
different quantities; such quantities are dimensional and non-dimensional.
non dimensional.
Dimensional analysis helps in determining a systematic arrangement of the variables in the physical
relationship, combining dimensional variables to form non non-dimensional
dimensional parameters. It is bbased on the
he
principle of dimensional homogeneity and uses the dimensions of relevant variables affecting the
phenomenon. Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analysing fluid flow problems. It is
especially useful in presenting experimental results in a concise form.
7.1. Uses of Dimensional Analysis:
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion.
2. To derive rational formulae for a flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equations expressed in terms of non
non-dimensional
dimensional parameters to sshow
how the relative
significance of each parameter.
4. To plan model tests and present experimental results in a systematic manner; thus making it possible
to analyse the complex fluid flow phenomenon.
7.2. Dimensions
The various physical quantities used in flu
fluid
id phenomenon can be expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities or primary quantities. The fundamental quantities are mass, mass length
length, time and temperature,
temperature
designated by the letters M, L, T, θ respectively. Temperature is especially useful in compressible flow.. The
quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or primary quantities are called derived or
Pagee | 4
secondary quantities, (e.g., velocity, area, acceleration etc.). The expression for a derived quantity in terms of
the primary quantities is ca called
lled the dimension of the physical quantity. The following table gives the
dimensions of various quantities.

7.3. Methods of dimensional analysis

With the help of dimensional analysis the equation of a physical phenomenon can be developed in
terms of dimensionless groups or parameters and thus reducing the number of variables. The methods of
dimensional analysis ar
are based on the Fourier
Fourier’ss principle of homogeneity. The important methods of
dimensional analysis are, ((1) Rayleigh’s
Rayleigh s method. (2) Buckingham’s
Buckingh π-method/theorem
method/theorem
7.4. Rayleigh’s Method
This method gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless group, and has the
inherent drawback that it does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to
be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. Due to this reason this method has become obsolete and is
not favoured for use. Rayleigh's method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends
upon maximum three or four variables only. In case the number
number of independent variables becomes more than
four, then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable. In this method a functional
relationship of some variables is expressed in the form of an exponential equation which must be
dimensionally
imensionally homogeneous. Thus if X is a variable which depends on X1, X22, X3 ... Xn; the functional
equation can be written as. X = f (X ( 1, X2, X3 ... X n) (1)
Pagee | 5
 In the above equation X is a dependent variable, while X1, X2, X3 ... Xn are independent variables. A
dependent variable is the one about which information is required while independent variables are those
which govern the variation of dependent variable. Equation (1) can also be written as;
X = C (X1a, X2b, X3c ... Xnn) (2)
Where C is a constant and a, b, c ,... n are the arbitrary powers. The values of a, b, c... n are obtained
by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimensions of both sides. Thus the expression is obtained for
dependent variable.
7.5. Buckingham’s π-method/theorem
When a large number of physical variables are involved Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis
becomes increasingly laborious and cumbersome. Buckingham’s method is an improvement over the
Rayleigh’s method. Buckingham designated the dimensionless group by the Greek capital letter π (Pi). It is,
therefore often called Buckingham π-method. The advantage of this method over Rayleigh’s method is that it
lets us know, in advance of the analysis, as to how many dimensionless groups are to be expected.
The Buckingham’s n-theorem states that “If there are n variables (dependent and independent
variables) in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental dimensions (such
as M, L, T, etc.), then the variables are arranged into (n-m dimensionless terms. These dimensionless terms
are called π -terms”.
Mathematically, if any variable X1 depends on independent variables, X1, X2, X3 ... Xn; the functional
equation may be written as
X1 = f (X2, X3, X4 ... Xn) (3)
Equation (3) can also be written as,
f1 (X1, X2, X3 ... Xn)= 0 (4)
It is a dimensionally homogeneous equation and contains n variables. If there are m fundamental
dimensions, then according to Buckingham’s π theorem, it [Eqn. (4)] can be written in terms of number of
π -terms (dimensionless groups) in which number of π -terms is equal to (n - m). Hence Eqn. (4) becomes as
f1 (π1, π2, π3 ... πn-m) = 0 (5)
Each dimensionless π-term is formed by combining m variables out of the total n variables with one
of the remaining (n - m) variables i.e., each π -term contains (m +1) variables. These m variables which
appear repeatedly in each of π -terms are consequently called repeating variables and are chosen from among
the variables such that they together involve all the fundamental dimensions and they themselves do not form
a dimensionless parameter. Let in the above case X2, X3, and X4 are the repeating variables if the fundamental
dimensions m (M, L, T) = 3. Then each term is written as

π1 = X 2 a1 , X 3b1 , X 4 c1 . X 4 

π2 = X 2 a2 , X 3b2 , X 4 c2 . X 5 

:  (6)
π n−m = X 2 , X 3 , X 4 . X n 
an − m bn − m cn − m

Where a1, b1, c1; a2, b2, c2 etc. are the constants, which are determined, by considering dimensional
homogeneity. These values are substituted in Eqn. (6) and values of π1, π2, π3 ... πn-m are obtained. These
values of π are substituted in Eqn. (5). The final general equation for the phenomenon may then be obtained
by expressing anyone of the π -terms as a function of the other as
π1 = φ (π 2 , π 3 , π 4 ,...π n − m ) 

π2 = φ (π 1 , π 3 , π 4 ,...π n − m )  (7)

7.6. Selection of repeating variables

The following points should be kept in view while selecting m repeating variables:
1. m repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions involved in the
phenomenon. Usually the fundamental dimensions are M,L and T. However, if only two dimensions
are involved, there will be 2 repeating variables and they must contain together the two dimensions
involved.
2. The repeating variables must not form non-dimensional parameters among themselves.

Page | 6
 3. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variables.
4. No two repeating variable should not have the same dimensions.
5. The repeating variable should be chosen such a way that one variable contains geometric property
(eg., length,l; diameter, d; height, h etc), other variables contains flow property (eg., velocity, V;
acceleration, a etc.), and third variables contains fluid properties (eg., mass density, ρ; weight
density, w; dynamic viscosity, µ etc.)
7.7. Dimensionless numbers and their physical significance
In dimensional analysis, a dimensionless number or quantity of dimension one is a quantity without
an associated physical dimension. It is thus a "pure" number, and as such always has a dimension of 1.
Dimensionless numbers are widely used in mathematics, physics, engineering, economics, and in everyday
life. Numerous well-known quantities, such as π, e, and φ, are dimensionless. By contrast, non-dimensionless
quantities are measured in units of length, area, time, etc.
Dimensionless numbers are often defined as products or ratios of quantities that are not
dimensionless, but whose dimensions cancel out when their powers are multiplied. This is the case, for
instance, with the engineering strain, a measure of deformation. It is defined as change in length over initial
length but, since these quantities both have dimensions L (length), the result is a dimensionless quantity.
In computing the flow parameters the problem often encountered is the change of the parameters
associated. The variables that are associated with this are often identified and the equations are formulated
by different theories. When the parameter to be computed are difficult to find out using the actual methods or
the theoretical values vary to higher extent compared to that of the actually observed ones, then the
experimental outputs and the variation of different parameters are found out at different points.
These values are used to formulate the equations associated. Often such equations are too complex
and can’t be generalized. To solve such problems the different variables that are associated are represented
as functions of the dimensionless numbers .the dimensionless numbers are the ratios of different parameters
associated .this is discussed below.
In real practice the parameter to be formulated is identified as a function of the dimensionless
numbers and the experiments done to find the changes in these numbers at different points. Important
Dimensionless numbers are discussed below.
7.7.1. Reynolds number [Re]:
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force. Reynolds number signifies the relative
predominance of the inertia to the viscous forces occurring in the flow systems. The higher the value of Re
the greater will be the relative contribution of inertia effect. The smaller the value of Re, the greater will be
the relative magnitude of the viscous stresses. Reynolds number is taken as an important criterion of
kinematic and dynamic similarities in forced convection heat transfer.
inertia force ρ U 2 L2 ρ UL Ul
Re = = = =
viscous force µ UL µ v
7.7.2. Prandtl number [Pr]:
It is defined as the ratio of Kinematic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity. Kinematic viscosity
indicates the impulse transport through molecular friction whereas thermal diffusivity indicates the heat
energy transport by conduction process. Prandtl number provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of
the momentum and energy transport by diffusion. • Prandtl number is a connecting link between the velocity
field and temperature field, and its value strongly influences relative growth of velocity and thermal
boundary layers.
kinematic viscosity µ ρ ν
Pr = = =
thermal diffusivity k ρ C p α

7.7.3. Grashoff number [Gr]:

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of the viscous
force. Grashoff number is related with natural convection heat transfer. Grashoff number has a role in free
convection similar to that played by Reynolds number in forced convection. Free convection is usually
suppressed at sufficiently small Gr, begins at some critical value of Gr depending upon the arrangement and
then becomes more and more effective with increasing Gr.

Page | 7
 inertia force×buoyancy force
Gr =
( viscous force )2

Gr =
( ρ U L ) × ( ρ β g .∆T L ) = ρ β g ∆T L
2 2 3 2 3

( µ U L )2 µ2

7.7.4.
4. Nusselt number [Nu]:
Nusselt number can be defined in several ways:
(i) It is defined as the ratio of heat flow rate by convection process under
u nder a unit temperature gradient to
th
thee heat flow rate by conduction process under a unit temperature gradient through a stationary
thickness of L meters. Thus
Qconv h hL
Nu = = =
Qcond k / L k

(ii) It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate

rate, Q to the rate at which
which heat would be conducted within
the fluid under a temperature gradient ∆θ /L. Thus
Q Q L hL
Nu = = . =
( ∆θ .k ) / L ∆θ k k
(iii) It is defined as ratio of characteristic length L to the thickness ∆x of a stationary fluid layer
conducting the heat at the same rate under the same temperature difference as in the case of
convection process. Thus
∆t k
Q=k = h.∆t or ∆x=
∆x h

L L hL
∴ Nu = = =
∆x k /h k
The Nusselt number is a convenient measure of th the convective heat transfer coefficient. For a given
value of the Nusselt number, the convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to thermal
conductivity of the fluid and inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.
7.7.5.
5. Stanton Number [St]:
It is the ratio of heat transfer
transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit temperature rise due to the
velocity of the fluid. It may also be defined as the ratio of Nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number
and Prandtl number.
h
St =
ρ Uc p

hL k Nu
St = =
 ρUL   p  Re.Pr
µ c
 µ . k 
   

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS APPLIED TO FORCED CONVENTION HEAT TRANSFER

Pagee | 8
Pagee | 9
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS APPLIED TO NATURAL OR FREE CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
The heat transfer coefficient in case of natural or free convection, like forced convection heat
transfer coefficient depends upon the variables V, p, k, µ,
µ cp and L/D . Since the fluid circulation in free
convection is owing to difference in density between the various fluid layers due to temperature gradient and
not by external agenc
agency,
y, therefore, velocity V is no longer an independent variable but depends upon the
following factors:
(i) ∆ T i.e„ the difference of temperatures between the heated surface and the undisturbed fluid.
(ii) β i.e., coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid.
(iii) g i.e., acceleration due to gravity. (β g ∆ T is considered as one physical factor)
Thus heat transfer coeff
coefficient
icient ‘A’ may be expressed as follows:

Page | 10
1
Page | 111
8. FORCED CONVECTION: LAMINAR FLOW HEAT TRANSFER IN A CIRCULAR PIPE
8.1. Development of Boundary Layer
In case of a pipe flow, the development of boundary layer proceeds in a fashion similar to that for
flow along a flat plate. A fluid of uniform velocity entering a tube is retarded near the walls and a boundary
layer begins to develop as shown in Fig. by dotted lines. The thickness of the boundary layer is limited to the
pipe radius because of the flow being within a confined passage. Boundary layers from the pipe walls meet

at the centre of the pipe and the entire flow acquires the
characteristics of a boundary layer. Once the boundary
layer thickness becomes equal to the radius of the tube
there will not be any further change in the velocity
distribution, this invariant velocity distribution is called
fully developed velocity profile i.e., Poiseulle flow
(parabolic distribution).
The entrance length (Le) is expressed as:
Le
= 0.0575 Re where D represents the inside diameter
D
of the pipe

8.2. Velocity Distribution

Fig. shows a horizontal circular pipe of
radius R, having laminar flow of fluid through it.
Consider a small concentric cylinder (fluid
element) of radius r and length dx as a free body. If
τ is the shear stress, the shear force F is given by
F = τ × 2π r × dx
Let p be the intensity of pressure at left end
and the intensity of pressure at the right end be

 ∂p 
 p + .dx 
 ∂x 
Thus the forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The shear force, τ × 2π r × dx on the surface of fluid element.

2. The pressure force, p × πr2 on the left-end.
 ∂p 
3. The pressure force,  p + .dx  π r 2 on the right end.
 ∂x 

For steady flow, the net force on the cylinder must be zero.
 2  ∂p  2 
∴  p × π r −  p + ∂x .dx  π r  − τ × 2π r × dx = 0
   
∂p
or − .dx × π r 2 − τ × 2π r × dx = 0
∂x
∂p
or − τ × 2π r × dx = .dx × π r 2
∂x
∂p dx × π r 2 ∂p r
τ =− . = − . (8.1)
∂x 2π r × dx ∂x 2
Equation (8.1) shows that flow will occur only if pressure gradient exists in the direction of flow.
The negative sign shows that pressure decreases in the direction of flow. - Equation indicates that the shear
stress varies linearly across the section (see Fig. 8.3). Its value is zero at the centre of pipe (r = 0) and
maximum at the pipe wall given by,
Page | 12
 ∂p R
τ0 = − . (8.2)
∂x 2
du
From Newton’s law of viscosity, τ = µ. (i )
dy

In this equation, the distance y is measured from the

boundary. The radial distance r is related to distance y by the
relation y = R - r or dy = - dr
du
The eqn. (i) becomes τ = − µ. (8.3)
dr
Comparing two values of τ from Eqns. 8.1 and 8.3, we
have
du ∂p r 1  ∂p 
− µ. =− . or du =   r.dr
dr ∂x 2 2µ  ∂x 

Integrating the above equation w.r.t. ‘r’ we get

1 ∂p 2
u = . .r + C (8.4)
4µ ∂x
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary condition:
At r = R, u = 0
1 ∂p 2 1 ∂p 2
0 = . .R + C or C =− . .R
4µ ∂x 4µ ∂x
Substituting this value of C in Eqn. (8.4), we get
1 ∂p 2 1 ∂p 2
u = . .r − . . R
4µ ∂x 4µ ∂x

1 ∂p 2 2
u =− .
4µ ∂x
(
R −r ) (8.5)

Equation (8.5) shows that the velocity distribution curve is a parabola (8.2). The maximum velocity
occurs at the centre and is given by,
1 ∂p 2
umax = − . R (8.6)
4µ ∂x
From equation 8.5 and 8.6, we have
  r 2 
u = umax 1 −    (8.7)
  R  
Equation 8.7 is the most commonly used equation for the velocity distribution for laminar flow
through pipes. This equation can be used to calculate the discharge. The discharge through an elementary
ring of thickness dr at radial distances r is given by
  r 2 
dQ = u × 2π r × dr or dQ = umax 1 −    2π r.dr
  R  

R   r 2 
Total discharge Q = dQ ∫ or Q= ∫0
umax 1 −    2π r.dr
  R  
π
∴ Q= .umax .R 2
2

Page | 13
 Q (π 2 ) .umax .R 2
Average velocity of flow, u = =
A π .R 2
umax
∴ u= (8.8)
2
Equation (8.8) shows that the average velocity is one-half the maximum velocity. Substituting the
value of umax from Eqn. (8.6), we have
1  ∂p  2
u = − R (8.9)
8µ  ∂x 

∂p
The pressure gradient is usually expressed in terms of a friction factor f, defined as
∂x
2
∂p f ρu
− = . (8.10)
∂x D 2
2
ρu
Where is dynamic pressure of the mean flow and D is the tube diameter. From Eqn. (8.9) and
2
(8.10, we get the friction factor as a simple function of Reynolds number,
64 64
f = = (8.11)
( ρ Du µ ) Re

This is valid for laminar tube flow, Re ˂ 2300. Further Eqn. (8.9) can be written as,
8µu
− ∂p = .∂x
R2
The pressure difference between two sections 1 and 2 at distances, x1 and x2 (Fig. 8.2), is given by
p2 8µu x2 8µu
− ∫ p1
∂p =
R2 ∫x1
∂x ⇒ p1 − p2 =
R2
( x2 − x1 )

8µu L 32µu L 128µQ L

p1 − p2 = ⇒ p1 − p2 = ⇒ p1 − p2 =
R2 D2 π D4
p1 − p2 128µQ L
or = hL = (8.12)
w wπ D 4
Obviously the head loss hL over a length of pipe varies directly as the first power of the rate of
discharge Q and inversely as the fourth power of the pipe diameter.

8.3. Temperature Distribution

In order to estimate the distribution of
temperature let us consider the flow of heat through an
elementary ring of thickness dr and length dx as shown in
Fig.8.4. Considering the radial conduction (neglecting
axial conduction) and axial enthalpy transport in the
annular element, we have:
Heat conducted into the annular element,
∂T
dQ r = −k ( 2π r.dx )
∂r

 ∂ ∂T  
Heat conducted out of the annular element, dQ( r + dr ) = −k  2π ( r + dr ) .dx  T + dr 
 ∂r  ∂r  
∂T
Net heat convected out of the annular element, dQconv = ρ ( 2π r.dr ) u c p dx
∂x
Page | 14
Considering energy balance on the annular element, we obtain
(Heat conducted in)net = (Heat convected out)net ⇒ dQr − dQ( r + dr ) = ( dQconv )net

 ∂T    ∂  ∂T   ∂T
 − k ( 2π r.dx ) ∂r  −  −k 2π ( r + dr ) .dx ∂r  T + ∂r dr   = ρ ( 2π r.dr ) u c p ∂x dx
      
Neglecting second order terms, we get
 ∂T ∂ 2T  ∂T
k + r 2  dx.dr = ρ r u c p dx.dr
 ∂r ∂r  ∂x

1 ∂  ∂T  ρ c p ∂T 1 ∂  ∂T  u ∂T
r =u or r = . (8.13)
r ∂r  ∂r  k ∂x r ∂r  ∂r  α ∂x
Inserting the value of u from eqn. (8.7), we get,

1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂T   r 2 
r  = . u max 1 −   
r ∂r  ∂r  α ∂x   R  

∂  ∂T  umax ∂T  r3 
r = .  r − 2 
(8.14)
∂r  ∂r  α ∂x  R 
Let us consider the case of uniform heat flux along the wall, where we can take ∂T ∂x as a
constant. Integrating Eqn. (8.14) we have

∂T 1 ∂T  r2 r4 
r = . umax  − 2  + C1 (8.15)
∂r α ∂x  2 4R 

∂T 1 ∂T r r3  C
or = . umax  − 2  + 1
∂r α ∂x  2 4R  r
Integrating again, we have

1 ∂T  r2 r4 
T= . umax  − 2 
+ C1 ln (r ) + C2 (8.16)
α ∂x  4 16 R 
∂T
The boundary conditions are: At r = 0, then =0 and at r = R, then T = Ts
∂r
Applying the above boundary conditions, we get
1 ∂T 3R 2
C1 = 0, C2 = Ts − . umax
α ∂x 16
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eqn. (8.16), we have

1 ∂T  r2 r4   1 ∂T 3R 2 
T= . umax  − 2 
+  s
T − . u max 
α ∂x  4 16 R   α ∂x 16 

umax ∂T  3R 2 r 2 r4 
or Ts − T = .  − +  (8.17)
α ∂x  16 4 16 R 2 
For determining the heat transfer coefficient for fully developed pipe flow, it is important to define a
characteristic temperature of the fluid. It is the bulk temperature (Tb) or the mixing up temperature of the
fluid which is an average taken so as to yield the total energy carried by the fluid and is defined as the ratio
of flux of enthalpy at a cross-section to the product of the mass flow rate and the specific heat of the fluid.
11 umax 2 ∂T
Tb = Ts − .R (8.18)
96 α ∂x
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated from the relation,
Page | 15
  ∂T 
kA  
Q  ∂r r = R 48k
h= = ⇒ h=
A(Ts − Tb ) A(Ts − Tb ) 11D
Where D is the diameter of the tube. The Nusselt number is given by
hD 48k D hD 48
Nu = = × ⇒ Nu = = = 4.364
k 11D k k 11
This shows that the Nusselt number for the fully developed laminar tube flow is constant and is
independent of the Reynolds number and Prandtl number. We will be regarded the flow in long, straight,
constant diameter sections of a pipe as a fully developed laminar flow. The gravitational effects (mass
forces) will be neglect. The velocity pro-file is the same at any cross section of the pipe. Although most
flows are turbulent rather than laminar, and many pipes are not long enough to allow the attainment of fully
developed flow, a theoretical treatment and full understanding of fully developed laminar flow is of
considerable importance. First, it represents one of the few theoretical viscous analysis that can be carried
out exactly (within the framework of quite general assumptions) without using other ad hoc assumptions or
approximations. . Second, there are many practical situations involving the use of fully developed laminar
pipe flow.
9. IMPORTANT EQUATIOND OF FORCED CONVECTION: LAMINAR FLOW HEAT TRANSFER
OVER A FLAT PLATE
9.1. Equation of Motion or Momentum for Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer over Flat Plates
∂u ∂u µ ∂ 2u
u +v = .
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y 2

Where, u –Velocity along X- direction

v – Velocity along Y- direction
9.2. Blasius exact solution for laminar boundary layer flows
Boundary conditions: (i) At y = 0, then u = 0 (ii) At y = 0, then v = 0 (ii) At y = ∞, then u = U
µL µx
Boundary layer thickness, δ = ⇒ δ=
ρU ρU

The velocity profiles at different locations along the plate are geometrically similar and they differ
u
only by a stretching factor in Y-direction. The dimensionless velocity, can be expressed at any location x as
U
y
a function of the dimensionless distance from the wall .
δ
u  y u  y  u  ρU  u
= f  ⇒ = f  ⇒ = f  y  ⇒ = f (η )
U δ  ` U 
 µ x ρU  U  µ x  U

ρU
Where, η=y denotes thestretching factor
µx

d f  y d f 1 µU 
u =U and v= U − f (η ) 
dη  2 x dη 2 ρ x 

d3 f d2 f
Non -linear differentialequation for f : 2 + f =0 ⇒ 2 f ''' + f . f ' ' = 0
dη 3 dη 2

ρU ρU
The value of η at the edge of the boundary layer (y=δ ) is given by, η = y =δ =5
µx µx
.

Page | 16
 µx δ µ δ 5
or δ =5 ⇒ =5 ⇒ =
ρU x ρ Ux x Re x
`
ρU x
Where Re x = is the local reynold's number based on distance x from leading edge of the plate
p
µ
9.3. Von Karman Integral Momentum Equation
τ0 dθ
2
= Where θ is the momentum thickness
ρU dx
Drag Force (FD)
Drag force on a small distance dx of a plate is given by
∆FD = shear stress × area = τ0 × B × dx (where B = width of the plate)
Total drag on the plate of length l one side
L L
FD = ∫
0
∆ FD = ∫
0
τ 0 × B × dx

Skin friction coefficient or Local coefficient of drag

drag: (Cf)
Skin friction coefficient: (Cf) is defined as the ratio of shear stress τ0 at the plate
late to the dynamic head
½ ρ U 2 caused by free stream velocity. Thus the local skin friction coefficient Cfx at any value of x is,
1 0.664
C f x = τ0 ρU 2 ⇒ Cf x =
2 Re x

The average value of the skin friction coefficient can be determined by integrating the local skin
friction coefficient from x = 0 to x = L (where L is the plate length) and then diving the integrated result by
plate length.
1 L 1.328
Cf =
L ∫
0
C fx ⇒ Cf =
Re L

Average coefficient of drag (CD or Cf x)

Itt is defined as the ratio of total drag on the plate to the dynamic head ½ ρ U 2 caused by free stream
velocity.
FD
CD =
1
ρ AU 2
2
Where ρ = density of fluid, A = Area of surface/plate and U = free stream velocity.
Mass flow through boundary layer
5
mx = ρU δ
8

Page | 17
1
9.4. Energy Equation of Thermal boundary layer over a Flat plate
2 2
∂T ∂T k ∂ 2T µ  ∂u  ∂T ∂T ∂ 2T µ  ∂u 
u +v = 2
+   ⇒ u +v =α 2 +  
∂x ∂y ρ c p ∂y ρ c p  ∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂y ρcp  ∂y 
Pohlhausen solution for Energy equation:
Ts − T
Dimensionless temperature, θ =
Ts − Tα

Where Ts = surface temperature, Tα = free stream temperature

From this equation we obtain a ordinary differential equation as,
d 2θ 1 µ dθ d 2θ 1 dθ
2
+ f (η ) =0 ⇒ 2
+ Pr f (η ) =0
dη 2 ρα dη dη 2 dη
µ
Prandtl number, Pr = =0
ρα
The solution obtained by Pohlhausen for energy equation is given by,
 dθ  η  Pr η 
θ (η ) =  
 dη η = 0
∫
0
exp  −
 2 ∫ f (η ) dη dη
0

Local heat transfer coefficient (hx)

It is the heat transfer coefficient at a distance x from the leading edge of the plate
k 1/ 2
hx = 0.332 ( Re x ) ( Pr )1/ 3
x
Local value of Nusselt number (Nux)
It is the value of Nusselt number at a distance x from the leading edge of the plate
hx x 1/ 2 1/ 3
Nu x = = 0.332 ( Re x ) ( Pr )
k
Average heat transfer coefficient
k
h = 0.664 ( Re L )1/ 2 ( Pr )1/ 3
L
Average value of Nusselt number (Nux)
hL 1/ 2 1/ 3
Nu = = 0.664 ( Re L ) ( Pr )
k
10. FORCED CONVECTION- TURBULENT FLOW HEAT TRANSFER OVER A FLAT PLATE
10.1. Turbulent flow
The flow in the boundary layer, in majority of practical applications in the convective heat transfer,
is turbulent rather than laminar. In a turbulent flow the irregular velocity fluctuations are mainly responsible
for heat as well as momentum transfer. As the mixing in the turbulent flow is on a macroscopic scale with
groups of particles transported in a zig-zig path through the fluid, the exchange mechanism is many times
more effective than in laminar flow. Consequently, in turbulent flow, the rates of heat and momentum
transfer and the associated friction and heat transfer coefficients are several times larger than that in laminar.
Since the nature of turbulent flow is complex, therefore, it is difficult to solve the problems relating turbulent
flow analytically. The heat transfer data can best be calculated by laboratory experiments; the other method
of study is the analogy between heat and momentum transfer.

Page | 18
10.2. Turbulent flow heat transfer over a flat plate
Refer Fig. 10.1 As compared to laminar boundary layers; the
turbulent boundary layers ar are thicker. Further in a turbulent boundary
layer the velocity distribution is much more uniform, than in a laminar
boundary layer, due to intermingling of fluid particles between different
layers of the fluid. The velocity distribution in a turbulent bound
boundary
ary layer
follows a logarithmic law ie. u ~ log y, which can also be represented by a
power law of the type
n
u  y
= 
U δ 
Where n 1/7 (approximately) for Re ˂ 107 but ˃ 5× 105

17
u  y
∴ =  This is known as one-seventh power law (1
(10.1)
0.1)
U δ 
This Eqn. cannot be applied at the boundary itself because at y = 0,
∂u 1
= U δ 1/ 7 y −6/
6/7
=∞
∂y 7
This difficulty is answered by considering the velocity in the viscous laminar sublayer to be linear
and tangential to the seventh root profile at the point, where the laminar sublayer merges w
seventh-root with
ith the turbulent
part of the boundary layer. According to Blasius the relation for viscous shear stress:
1/ 4
22 
µ 
τ 0 = 0.0225 ρU   (for Re ranging from 5 × 1055 to1077 )
 ρU δ 
The values of δ , τ 0 , C fx ,and
, and C f for the velocity distribution given by Eqn. (10.1) are as,

0.371 x
(i) Boundary layerthickness, δ = 1/5
( Re x )
0.371 x
( ii ) Shear stress, τ 0 = 1/ 5
( Re x )
0.0576
( iii ) Local skin friction (drag) coefficient,
coefficient, C fx = 1/ 5
( Re x )
0.072
( vi ) Average value of skin friction (drag)
(drag) coefficient, C f = 1/5
(for 5 ×10 5  Re L  10 7 )
( Re L )
0.455
Average value of skin friction (drag) co
coefficient,
efficient, C f = 2.58
(for 107  Re L  109 )
( log10 Re L )
10.3. Total Drag Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
When the leading edge is not very rough, the
does
turbulent boundary layer do es not begin at the leading edge,
it is usually preceded by the laminar boundary layer. The
point of transition from laminar to turbulent layer depends
upon the intensity of turbulence.
turbulence. The distance xc (Fig.
10.2.) of the transition from the leading edge ccan an be
obtained from critical Reynolds number which normally
ranges from 3 × 105 to 3 × 106.

Drag force (FD = F) for the turbulent boundary layer can be estimated from the following relation:
Fturb = (Fturb )total - (Fturb )xc

Page | 19
1
Where, (Fturb )total = the drag which would occur if a turbulent boundary extends along the entire length of the
plate, and
(Fturb )xc = drag due to fictitious turbulent boundary layer from the leading edge to a distance xc.
Let us assume that the plate-is long enough so that Reynolds number is greater than 107, then the
turbulent drag is given by
0.455 ρU 2 0.072 ρU 2
Fturb = 2.58
× × ( L × B) − 1/ 5
× × ( xc × B )
( log10 Re L ) 2 ( R e xc ) 2

Where L = length of the plate, B = width of the plate, and U = free stream velocity.
The laminar boundary layer prevails within the length xc and its contribution to drag force is given by
1.328 ρU 2 1.328xc ρU 2 B
Flami n ar = × × ( xc × B ) ⇒ Flami n ar = ×
R ec 2 R ec 2

Ftotal = Flami n ar + Fturb

Rec xc Rec L
Also = or xc =
ReL L ReL

1.328 R e 0.455 0.072 R ec 0.8  LB ρU 2

Then Ftotal = c
+ 2.58
− 
 R eL ( log10 Re L ) R eL  2

Assuming that transition occurs at Rec = 5×105

 0.455 1670  LB ρU 2
Then Ftotal = 2.58
− 
 ( log10 Re L ) R eL 

2

1 LB ρU 2
Also Ftotal =C f ρ AU 2 = C f
2 2

0.455 1670
Where, Cf = 2.58
−
( log10 Re L ) Re L

10.4. Reynolds and Colburn analogy (Analogy between momentum and Heat transfer)
Reynolds analogy is the inter-relationship between fluid friction and Newton’s law of viscosity.
The heat flux is given by, Q = −kA ( dT dx ) ..........(i )

Shear stress, τ 0 = µ ( du dy ) ........(ii )

When Pr is unity, Temperature and velocity are identical (For most of the gases, 0.6 ˂ Pr ˂ 1.0)

µ cp k
=1 or cp = .......(iii )
k µ

Q kA ( dT dx ) k . A.dT
Dividing (i) by (ii) and using value of c p =− =−
τ0 µ ( du dy ) µ .du

dT
⇒ Q = −c p . A.τ 0 .......(10.2)
du

Page | 20
Separating the variables and integrating within the limits: At the plate surface, u = 0 and T = Ts. At the outer
edge of boundary layer, u = U and T = Tα

Q U Tα

c p . A.τ 0 ∫
0
du = − ∫Ts
dT

Q
U = − (Tα − Ts ) = (Ts − Tα ) (10.3)
c p . A.τ 0

Q τ 0 .c p
or = (10.4)
A (Ts − Tα ) U

Q 1
But = hx And τ 0 = C fx × ρU 2
A (Ts − Tα ) 2

Rearranging this, we get

1 cp C fx
hx = C fx × ρU 2 ×
2 U
⇒ hx =
2
(ρ c U )
p

hx C fx
or =
ρ c pU 2

hx
is the Stanton number, St x
ρ c pU

Nu x C fx
But St x = = (10.5)
Re x .Pr 2

Equation 10.5 is called the Reynolds analogy. By using this interrelationship we can find out the heat
transfer data from shear stress measurement. Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we
have

hx .x 1/ 2 1/3
Nu x = = 0.332 ( Re x ) ( Pr )
k
Dividing both sides of the equation by Rex (Pr)1/3 ,
1/2
Nu x 0.332 ( Re x ) ( Pr )1/3 0.332
1/3
= 1/3
= 1/2
Re x ( Pr ) Re x ( Pr ) ( Re x )
The LHS of the quantity can be written as,
Nu x Nu x 2/3 2/3
1/3
= .( Pr ) = St x ( Pr ) (10.6)
Re x ( Pr ) Re x Pr

2/3 C fx
For Pr = 1, St x ( Pr ) = (10.7)
2
Equation (10.7) has been designed as Colburn analogy. For Pr = 1 the Reynold’s and Colburn analogy
are the same.
10.5. Heat transfer parameters for turbulent flow:
The heat transfer parameters for turbulent flow may be derived using Colburn analogy, as
C fx 0.0576
From Colburn analogy, St x ( Pr )
2/3
= = ( Re x )
−1/5
∵ C = 0.0576 ( Re )−1/5 
2 2  fx x


Page | 21
 −1/5
Nu x 2/3 −1/5 0.0288 ( Re x ) Re x Pr
or . ( Pr ) = 0.0288 ( Re x ) ⇒ Nu x = 2/3
Re x Pr ( Pr )
hx .x 4/5 1/3 k 4/5 1/3
or = 0.0288 ( Re x ) ( Pr ) ⇒ hx = 0.0288   ( Re x ) ( Pr ) ....(10.8)
k x
The average value of heat transfer parameters for turbulent flow is given by,
1 L
h=
L ∫0
hx . dx

k 4/5 1/3

⇒ h = 0.036   ( Re L ) ( Pr ) (10.9)
L

hL 4/5 1/3
Nu = = 0.036 ( Re L ) ( Pr ) (10.10)
k
10.6. Heat transfer parameters for combination of laminar and turbulent flow:
k
h =   ( Pr ) 0.036 ( Re L ) − 836 
1/3 0.8
(10.11)
L  

hL
= ( Pr ) 0.036 ( Re L ) − 836 
1/3 0.8
Nu = (10.11)
k  
11. FORCED CONVECTION- TURBULENT TUBE FLOW
Some of the important relations for fully developed turbulent flow (Re > 2300) through pipes and
conduits are:
1/ n
u y 
(i) Thevelocity distribution: =  (11.1)
umax R 
Where, u = local average velocity, and
Umax = velocity at centre line,
R = radius of the pipe, and
y = distance from the wall = (R - r).
2
f Lu dp
(ii) Thehead loss: hL = = (11.2)
ρ 2g
Where, f = friction factor
ū = average flow velocity
In case of turbulent flow through tube, it is difficult to derive simple analytical expressions for heat
transfer coefficient and Nusselt number. But such expressions can be easily found out by using empirical
relations.
11.1 EPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR FORCED CONVECTION
Refer HMT DATA Book
11.2 BANKS OF TUBES
Some typical applications of
flow across the tube banks are: 1. Air-
conditioning applications; 2. Water
tube boilers (where water flows
through the lubes and hot gases flow
across these tubes); 3. Waste heat
recovery systems; 4. Different types of
heat exchangers. Two types of tube
bank arrangements frequently

Page | 22
used: (a) ''In-line" and Staggered. The geometry of tube bank is characterised by:
1. The tube diameter. D
2. The longitudinal pitch SL
3. The transverse pitch, ST
4. The diagonal pitch SD (used in the staggered arrangement)
The maximum/largest velocity (Umax) of the fluid flowing through the bank of tubes in the above
arrangements in given as:
ST
(U max )in −line = .U (11.3)
ST − D

ST
(U max )staggered = .U (11.4)
2 ( SD − D )

Where, U is the velocity of fluid as it approaches the tube hank. The Nusselt number is,
0.25
hD  Pr 
Nu = = C.(Re) m .(Pr)0.36   (11.5)
k  Prw 

Where, Nu = The average Nusselt’s number; h = The average heat transfer coefficient; Pr = The
bulk Prandtl number, and Prw = The wall Prandtl number.
12. NATURAL CONVECTION
When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than that of the fluid, a
layer of fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated or cooled. A density difference is created between this layer
and the still fluid surrounding it. The density difference introduces a buoyant force causing flow of fluid near
the surface. Heat transfer under such conditions is known as free or natural convection. Thus “Free or natural
convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs due to movement of the fluid particles by density
changes associated with temperature differential in a fluid” This mode of heat transfer occurs very
commonly, some examples are (1) The cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers, (2)
The heating of rooms by use of radiators, (3) The heat transfer from hot pipes and ovens surrounded by
cooler air, (4) Cooling the reactor core (in nuclear power plants) and carry out the heat generated by nuclear
fission etc.
In free convection, the flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow velocities in forced
convection, consequently the value of convection coefficient is lower, generally by one order of magnitude.
Hence, for a given rate of heat transfer larger area could be required. As there is no need for additional
devices to force the liquid, this mode is used for heat transfer in simple devices which have to be left
unattended for long periods. The rate of heat transfer is calculated using the general convection equation.
Q = h A (Ts − Tα )
Where Q = heat transfer, (W), H = convection coefficient, (W/m2oC), A = area, (m2), Tα = temperature of
fluid at distances well removed from the surface (here the stagnant fluid temperature).
12.1 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS IN FREE CONVECTION
It has been observed that during heat transfer from a heated surface to the surrounding fluid, the fluid
adjacent to the surface gets heated; this results in thermal expansion of the fluid and reduction in its density
(compared to the fluid away from the surface). Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid causing it to
flow up the surface, and in the neighbourhood of the plate, hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are
set up. Since here the flow velocity is developed due to difference of temperatures, the two boundary layers
are of the same order irrespective of Prandtl number. The property that comes into play in free or natural
convection is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the fluid, defined by
1  ∂ν  1  ∂p 
β =   =−  
ν  ∂T  p ρ  ∂T  p

RT  ∂ν  R
For ideal gas ν= ,   =
p  ∂T  p p

1
And hence β=
T
Page | 23
 Since in free convection heat transfer coefficients are low and Reynolds number is not an
independent parameter, a new dimensionless grouping plays the major role (in free convection) which
incorporates the coefficient of thermal expansion β in the expression. This dimensionless grouping is called
the Grashof number, expressed as
g β L3∆T
Gr =
ν2
Where L = characteristic length, ∆T = (TS - Tα), where TS and Tα , are the surface temperature and
temperature of the surrounding fluid respectively.
The role of Grashof number is the same in free convection as that of Reynolds number in forced
convection. The critical Grashof number for the flow of air over a flat plate has been observed to be 4 ×108
(approximately).
In general, Nu = f(Gr, Pr) = C (Gr)a (Pr)b
In several cases, the above relation simplifies to the form
Nu = C(Gr. Pr)m
Hence, a new dimensionless group is often used called Rayleigh number viz.,
Ra = Gr. Pr
The product is also a criterion of laminar or turbulent character of the flow as determined by its
values. Thus 104 ˂Gr. Pr˂109 for laminar flow and Gr. Pr ˃109 for turbulent flow
The values ofGrandPrareevaluated at the mean film temperature, T f = (Tw − Tα ) 2

12.2. TRANSITION AND TURBULENCE IN FREE CONVECTION

A transition from laminar to turbulent condition in both forced and free convection is caused by
thermal and hydrodynamic instabilities. It has been observed that the transition in free convection boundary
layer occurs when the value of Rayleigh number approaches 109. Thus
Ra x ,c =Grx ,c .Pr = g β (Tw − Tα ) x 3 ν α = 109

The analysis of turbulent free convection is very complex. However, the results obtained from
various experiments have been used to obtain the pertinent empirical relations.
12.3 EPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR NATUL CONVECTION
Refer HMT DATA Book
13. EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN CONVECTION
13.1 Evaluation of film temperature

The film temperature is the temperature at which various parameters can be evaluated and is given by
For plates, cylinders spheres, T f = (Ts + T∞ ) 2 . Where, TS = Temperature of the wall, Tα = Free stream
temperature. For internal flows ----bulk mean temperature is used. Tbm = (Tmi + Tmo ) 2 . Where, Tmi =mean
film temperature at the inlet, Tmo =mean film temperature at the outlet.
13.2 Finding the property value for the given problem

The property value of the case can be evaluated from the values given in HMT data book page 21
to page 33. The property value is evaluated for the film temperature in most cases or as the bulk mean
temperature. In most cases the value of this temperature will not be directly available in the data book. In this
case the value corresponding to the film temperature is deduced by linear interpolation and is given by,
Ptf = Pt1 ± [ P2 − P T2 − T ] × T1 f . The main properties are density, absolute and kinematic viscosity, thermal
diffusivity, Prandtl number, specific heat, thermal conductivity.

13.3. Finding the value of Reynolds number

The value of Reynolds number can be found out from the equation given in HMT data book page
111. Re = ρ vl µ . The various cases are differentiated by the value of the Reynolds number. Also it

Page | 24
can be seen that the value of Reynolds number is the count weather the flow is laminar, transition or
turbulent. The value of other parameters that are to be found out is dependent on the Reynolds number.
13.4 Deducing the value of Nusselt’s number
The value of the heat transfer depends on the case taken. There are different cases discussed in the
book like the flow over the flat plate, flow past the cylinder etc. in each will be given different values of the
Nusselt’s number. [Note: all the cases pertaining to the system as discussed are given in HMT data book
page 112 to 133]
It may be noted that the value of Nusselt’s number is a function of the Prandtl number and Reynolds
number together with an exception in the case of flow past a sphere. It should be noted that there are two
types of Nusselt number
Local Nusselt number Nux ----- -- used to find the value at a specific point of parameters like .heat
flux, local heat transfer coefficient etc
Average Nusselt number Nul ---used to find the value of anything till a point such as the average
heat transfer coefficient, total heat transfer etc.
Also it should be noted that there exists a relationship between average and local Nusselt number
and is given above specified pages.
13.5 Deducing the heat transfer coefficient
The value of the heat transfer coefficient can be found out from the equation of Nusselt number
given in HMT data book page 111 Nu = h. l k .It should be noted that the value of the heat transfer
coefficient found from average Nusselt number will yield average value and that found from the local value
will yield the local value.
13.6 Finding the value of the total heat transferred
The value of total heat transferred can be found out from the below given equation. Q = h.A.∆T
Here, A = area associated with the heat transfer; ∆T = temperature difference causing the heat transfer
h = heat transfer coefficent
The value of this heat transfer coefficient should be the average value in this case.
13.7 Finding the value of the heat flux
The value of the heat flux can be found out from the below given equation, q = h.∆T . It should be
noted that the value of the heat transfer coefficient used here must be the local heat transfer coefficient.
Reynolds number is a function of the characteristic length and should be checked again for the case since the
total heat transfer is for the total length and the heat flux is deduced for a specific point that exists at a length
from the start point of the flow.
13.8 Finding the value of the boundary layer thickness
There are two boundary layers -- the hydro dynamic and the thermal boundary layer. The equations
corresponding to the two boundary layers are given in HMT data book 112 to 133 at the specific locations.
The equation for the momentum thickness and displacement thickness is also given in the data book. Also
there exists a relation between the two boundary layers and is different for each case.
13.9 Friction factor [wall friction factor]
It is the friction coefficient due to the fluid friction that is caused as a result of the flow that takes
place. There are two types here also as discussed earlier – the average and the local .the equations pertaining
to this is given in HMT data book page 112 to 133
13.10. Wall shear stress

The equation for the wall shear stress is given in the HMT data book page 112. The wall shear stress
is given by, C fx = τ ( ρu 2) .
2
Since average value of friction coefficient is used the value of the
shear stress is also average value. This average shear stress when multiplied with the area will give the force
exerted on the walls. Other equations are also given in the corresponding page s for convection page 114.

Page | 25