UNIT – 1

AIRPLANE CONTROL SYSTEMS

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS :

1. MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS :

Fly by wire (computer):- may be analog computer or digital computer.

Fly by optics (light).
Power by size (uses electro hydraulic actuators).
Intelligent flight control system.

2. ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY:

Controlling the aircraft by using present day electronics is called ‘Active

control Technology’. It helps to improve the handling of aircraft and to reduce the
time lag or control delays by increasing the number of computers etc, in the
aircraft. This advance concept is applicable to the following.
*Fly by wire
*Control configured vehicles
*Automatic flight control systems

3. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS :

The examples for communication systems are:-

HF(High Frequency) communication for long range.
VHF(Very High Frequency) communication for short range.
Sat com(Satellite communication).
ACARS/AIRCOM.

4. NAVIGATION SYSTEMS :

VDF-Very high frequency direction finder.

NDB-Non-directional beacon.
ADF-Automatic Direction Finder.
GPS-Global positioning system.

5. USES OF INS:

INS (Inertial Navigation system) is a sophisticated system for continuously

calculating the aircraft track, ground speed and then convert this information into
other useful data.

6. VOR :

VOR is very high frequency omni range. It is an electrical navigation

system. The name implies the omni-directional or all directional range station that
provides the pilot with courses from any point within service range.

7. CCV :

CCV means control configured vehicle. The manner in which the aircraft
responds to the control inputs can be programmed into a computer, thus enabling
the pilot to exactly create the type of response and handling required. The same
feedback loop correction effect applies to all control inputs hence the pilot gets a
response configured by the aircraft’s control system. Thus it is called ‘control
configured vehicle’.

8. ADF:

ADF stands for ‘Automatic Direction Finder’. It is an aircraft radio

navigation which senses and indicates the direction to low or medium frequency
non-directional beacon ground transmitter.

9. NDB :

NDB stands for ‘Non Directional Beacon’. It is a medium frequency

navigational air, which transmits non directional signals, superimposed with a
masse-code identifier and received by an aircraft’s ADF.

10. ELECTRIC TRIM VS MANUAL TRIM :

Electric trim is usually used to reposition the stabilizer while a manual trim
is used to override the electric trim.

11. SPEED BRAKES VS SPOILERS :

The speed brakes are used for reducing the speed of the aircraft by
increasing the drag. They also act as spoilers to spoil the lift.
Spoilers are used to spoil the lift for descending or landing.
12. CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS :

*Bell crank.
*Walking beam
*Sector and quadrant
*Torque Tube

13. STABILATOR :

A stabilator is a combination of stabilizer and elevator.

14. RUDDERVATORS :

It is a combination of rudders and elevators.

15. FLAPERONS :

It is a combination of flaps and ailerons.

16. AILERON DIFFERENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEM :

The movement of the control stick moves one aileron up and the other
aileron down. This is known as aileron differential movement.

17. YAW DAMPERS IN RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM :

Yaw damper systems operate continuously in flight to improve the airplane’s

directional stability and turn coordination. Damper’s actuators are powered
hydraulically.

18. FLY BY WIRE SYSTEM :

The fly by wire systems eliminates the complexity, fragility, weight of the
mechanical circuit and replaces it with an electrical circuit. The cockpit controls
now operate signal transducers, which generate the appropriate commands, that
are in turn processed by an electronic controller.
19. ANALOG FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEM :

In more sophisticated versions of fly by wire system, analog computers

replaced the electronic controllers. The cancelled 1950’s supersonic Canadian
fighter, the Avro CF-105 Arrow, employed this type of system, analog computers
also allowed some customization of flight control characteristics, including
relaxed stability. This was exploited by the early versions of F-16, giving it
impressive maneuverability.

20. DIGITAL FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEM:

A digital fly by wire control system is similar to analog counterpart.

However, the signal processing is done by digital computers and the pilot literally
can “fly-via computer”. This increases flexibility as the digital computers can
receive input from any aircraft sensor. It also increases electronic stability,
because the system is less dependent on the values of critical electrical
components in an analog computer.

21. ADVANTAGES OF FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEM :

*Weight saving.
*Improved handling techniques.
*Fuel saving.
*Reduced maintenance.

22. PURPOSE OF A QUADRUPLE ACTUATOR :

The quadruple actuator is an electrically controlled and a hydraulically

operated device. When the computer signals are amplified and fed to the actuator,
it repositions the servo valve controlling the PFCU, thus making necessary
movement of the control surface.

23. AUTOPILOT SYSTEM :

The Autopilot or the ‘Automatic pilot’ is a system of automatic controls,

which holds the aircraft on any selected magnetic heading when it is displaced
from it. The autopilot also keeps the aircraft stabilized around its horizontal and
lateral axes.
24. PRINCIPLE OF AUTOPILOT SYSTEM :

Rate of disturbance = Rate of correction

The basic components of autopilot systems are:-

The sensing elements (Gyros).
The command elements (Flight controllers).
The computing elements (Amplifiers).
The output elements (Servos).

25. ILS :

ILS stands for ‘Instrument Landing System’. It is one of the facilities of

Federal Airways. It operates at very high frequency position of the
electromagnetic spectrum. It can be visualized as a slide made of radio signals on
which the aircraft can be brought to runway safely.

26. BASIC COMPONENTS OF ILS :

*Runway localizer.
*Glide scope.
*Marker Beacon.

27. YELLOW SECTOR AND BLUE SECTOR OF THE LOCALISER :

The on course signals on the localizer equipment result from equal reception
of two signals, one containing 90HZ modulation and other containing 150HZ
modulation. On one side of the runway centre like the radio receiver develops an
output in which the 150HZ tone predominates, this area is called the ‘blue sector’.
On the other side of the centre line 90 HZ output is greater, this area is called
‘yellow sector’.

28. GLIDE SCOPE :

It is a radio beam that provides 30 vertical guidance to the pilot, assisting

him in making the correct angle of descent to the runway. It works in a range of
329.3MHZ to 335MHZ.

29. MARKER BEACONS:

These are the signals that indicate the position of the aircraft along the
approach to the runway. Two marker beacons are used in each installation. The
marker beacon transmitters, operating on a fixed 75 MHZ frequency, are place at
specific location along the approach pattern of an ILS facility. The antenna
radiation pattern is beamed straight up.

30. BASIC COMPONENTS OF VOR :

*VOR/LOC receiver with a power source and audio output.
*A frequency selector.
*CDI (course deviation indicator).
*Antenna.

31. PRINCIPLE OF RADIO COMMUNICATION :

It can be illustrated by using a simple transformer. Closing the switch in the

primary circuit causes the lamp in the secondary circuit to be illuminated.

32. FREQUENCY BANDS IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM :

*Low frequency (LF).

*Medium frequency (MF).
*High frequency (HF).
*Very high frequency (VHF).
*Ultra high frequency (UHF).
*Super high frequency (SHF).
It extends approximately from 30KHZ to 30,000MHZ.

33. FUNCTIONS OF TRANSMITTER :

*Generate the RF signal.

*Amplify the RF signal.
*Provide a means of placing intelligence on the signal.

34. FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE ENGINE CONTROL :

*Fuel flow to the engine.

*Air flow into the engine.
*Exhaust gas flow.
35. TYPES OF ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS :

*Multivariable control system.

*Electronic engine control system (EEC).
*Full authority digital engine control system (FADEC).

36. TYPES OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS :

*Conventional system.
*Power assisted flight controls.
*Fully powered flight controls.
*Power actuated systems.

37. POWER ASSISTED FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS :

The pilot is assisted in the operation of the control surface is majority of

work of moving the control surface is done by the actuator and a small portion by
the pilot. The pilot is said to have a ‘feel’ or ‘sense of feel’ of the load on the
control surface.

UNIT-2
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
1) What is skydroll?
Skydroll is a type of hydraulic fluid made up of phosphate ester base .They
have good compressive resistance and so they are used in heavy aircrafts.
E.g.) 570A, 570B.
2) What is flash point?
The flash point of a hydraulic fluid is the temperature up to which the oil
must be heated in order to give off enough vapors to form a combustible mixture
above its surface that will momentarily flash or burn when the vapors is brought
into contact with even a very small flame. Because of the high temperature
operation of aircraft the hydraulic oil should have high flash point.
3) What are shuttle valves?
It is a control valve which collects fluid from various sources and sends
them to one required position. In other words control valve has more than one inlet
and only one output line and opens according to the pressure on corresponding
side.
4) What is ACT?
 ACT stands for active control technology.
 The controlling of aircraft by use of modern control systems is called ACT.
By using ACT one can control the movement 40 times per second which is
not possible for a human pilot.

5) Give some advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic system.

ADVANTAGES
 It is a clean system and has less oil wetting due to lubrication
 The fluid (air) is available in plenty
 It does not require return line and so it is less bulky
 It is purely non combustible

DISADVANTAGES
 They are prone to rapid leakage and so they must be recharged
frequently
 They take sufficient time to compress themselves and then to move
the control surface after master cylinder is being moved

6) Give some advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic system?

ADVANTAGES
 It has capacity to retain pressure for longer duration.
  It gives instant response since oil does not undergo compression as
air
 Capable of withstanding heavy loads

DISADVANTAGES
 They are not as clean as pneumatic systems
 Additional cost is added up for oil purchase
 They need a return line and so they are bulky
 They may rarely light up

7) What are NRV’s?

NRV stands for non return valve.
They are also called as check valves. They facilitate movement of fluid in
only one direction and resist the opposite movement. They are vital components as
they prevent the pressure to return back due to weight of component acting on the
jack.

8) What is antiskid unit?

This is also called as maxret unit or inertia pick-up unit and is installed to a
tyre in case of a power brake system or to each tyre in case of multiple power
brake system and is responsible to maintain the friction between tyre and runway
and prevents skidding of tyre units
9) Classify brake systems?
1. Based on working medium
a) Mechanic b) pneumatic c) hydraulic
2. Based on type of system
a) Independent system
b) Boost power brake system
c) Power brake system
10) What are shock absorbers?
These are the devices used to absorb shocks and thus providing cushioning
effect with the usage of air oleo or spring oleo. They are used in the landing gear
systems to prevent snubbing.
11) What are the types of landing gear systems?
 Retractable
 Non-retractable
 Shock absorbing
 Non shock absorbing
 fixed
 Hulls and floats

12) What are Baffles?

These are thin sheets of very light metals such as aluminium used to control
the splashing of fuel in fuel tank by floating over them. Thus they enable proper
pumping of fuel.
13) What is thygol?
These are the types of fuel tank materials. They are rubber based and are
capable of bending during sudden maneuvers and so they are generally used in
military aircrafts. Thus they prevent breakage of tank due to shocks and vibrations.
14) What is bleed air?
The process by which the air is tapped out from the engine in the third or
fourth stage of compressor is called as bleeding and the air thus obtained is called
as bleeding. The air is used in a/c systems and heaters.
15) What is the need of orifice in landing gear system?
The orifice in the landing gear helps in slow exchange of oil from main
cylinder to the adjacent cylinder by the piston movement even when heavy and
sudden load acts on it. Thus it also prevents oscillation of piston during sudden
application and removal of load.
16) What is hydraulic jack?
It is a hydro mechanical device used to convert the pressure of hydraulic
fluid into mechanical movement of piston.

17) What is the purpose of hand pump?

Hand pump is used as an auxillary pressure source in case the centrifugal
pump fails. It consists of a lever assembly whose oscillating motion is converted
into reciprocating motion of piston provided the inlet and outlet are fitted with the
one way valves.

18) What are filters?

Filters are used to clean the hydraulic fluid by passing them into sieves of
very small diameter. The pores in aircraft filters are in the order of 3 microns.
Filters are generally cleaned ultrasonically.
19) Differentiate hydraulic system and pneumatic system
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
1 They are incompressible They are compressible to certain extend
2 They require a return line return line is not needed
3 They are unclean They are clean systems
4 May rarely light up Purely non-inflammable

20) What are the types of hydraulic fluids?

 Vegetable based (eg: MIL 7644)
 Mineral based (eg: MIL 5600)
 Phosphate ester base (eg MIL 570 A/B)

21) What are deboosters?

They are used to reduce the pressure in the hydraulic system depending on
the pressure required by the system but the input pressure being constant.
Eg) for nosewheel a deboosters provides reduced pressure when compared to
pressure in the mainwheel.

22) What is hydraulic fuse?

These are emergency fluid flow stopping devices which prevents the fluid
flow in case of leakage or when the pressure is reduced to very low values.
They arrest the fluid flow when its pressure sensors sense a very low
pressure value.
23) What is octane rating?
It is a standardized comparision of the antiknock values of a given fuel with
those of a test fuel. The higher the octane rating the higher the fuel’s resistance to
combustion due to heat and pressure.
It means the percentage of iso-octane present in the fuel and the remaining is
the heptanes and other constituents.
24) What is scavenging pump?
The waste materials from the cylinder is removed through the exhaust port
or valve which includes the waste bits or burnt materials by a pump called as
scavenging pump .
The output of this pump is twice the normal pump; this is because of the fact
that the oil in this stage contains lot of air bubbles due to rapid squeezing.
25) Define cloud point.
The cloud point is the temperature at which the separation of wax becomes
visible in the given oil under prescribed test conditions.
26) What is the basic law used in the hydraulic systems?
The basic law used in the hydraulic systems is the PASCAL’S LAW
It states that “A confined hydraulic fluid when compressed exerts equal
pressure at every point and in every direction”
27) Differentiate gear type and vane type pumps.
s.no. Gear type pump Vane type pump
1 It consist of two gears meshing It consist of a slotted rotor located
each eccentrically in the cylinder with
2 other one being motor driven rectangular vanes
As the vane rotates the fluid is made to
The entering fluid cannot flow
pass through reducing volume
between the gear due to close
chambers , so it gets compressed and
meshing so the fluid is forced
pressurized
out through outport

28) What are the types of landing gears?

1. Non absorbing landing gear.
2. Shock absorbing landing gear.
3. Fixed gear.
4. Retractable gear.
5. Hulls and floats.

29) What is a truck? Give its significance

The “truck” is located on the bottom of the strut piston and has the axles
attached to it. It is used when the wheels are arranged in a tandem or dual
tandem manner .The truck takes the tilt force at the piston connection to
allow for changes in the aircraft attitude during takeoff, landing and taxing.
It is also called as boggie.
30) What is swivel gland? Give its purpose
A swivel gland is a flexible joint with internal passages that route hydraulic
fluid to the wheel brakes and bungee cylinder of the landing gear they are used
when the bend radius is small or the space limitations prevent the usage of coiled
hydraulic liner.
31) What is the purpose of shimmy dampers?
The shimmy dampers is the hydraulic snubbing unit that reduces the
tendency of the nose wheel to vibrate from side to side .they may be piston type or
vane type both of which may be modified to power steering or shimmy dampers.
32) What is the purpose of moisture control in pneumatic system?
They are of utmost importance because moisture may cause freezing of
operating units and may interfere in the normal operation of the valves, pumps
Etc… and cause corrosion. It is for this reason that the moisture separator removes
almost 90% of moisture including oil from compressor.
33) How are reservoirs classified?
The reservoirs are classified as:
 Inline reservoirs
 Integral reservoirs
 Pressurized reservoirs
 Unpressurised reservoir
34) Differentiate micronic and porous metal type hydraulic filters

s.no. Micronic filters Porous metal type filters

1 They are made up of metal They are made up of metal,fibre or glass
particles joined together by particles joined together by sintering
sintering process process

2 They are used for ultra high

filtration(3µ) They are used for wide range of filtration
from low to high depending on the
material used

35) What is the purpose of antiskid unit?

The turbined aircrafts are usually fitted with anti skid unit to prevent the loss
of control of aircraft on the ground preventing skidding of wheels. They repeatedly
engage and disengage brake preventing skidding at the frequency of 300times per
minute

UNIT-3
AIRCRAFT ENGINE SYSTEMS
PART-A QUESTIONS

1. What are the different methods of construction of fuel tanks?

A. The fuel tank construction is mainly of three types.
 Integral Type
 Rigid Removal Type
 Bladder Type

2. What are the different types of fuel pump used?

A. The types of fuel pump used are
 Vane Type Pump
  Variable Volume Pump
 Centrifugal Pump
 Ejector Pump

3. What are the different types of fuel system used?

A. Aircraft fuel system is classified into two broad categories
 Gravity Feed Fuel System
 Pressure Feed Fuel System

4. List out the components of fuel system of multiengine aircraft?

A. The components of fuel system of multiengine aircraft are
 Fuel Pump
 Fuel Heater
 Fuel Filter
 Fuel Spray Nozzle
 Flow Divider
 Fuel Pressure and Dump Valves
 Drain Valves
 Fuel Transmitter

5. What are the requirements of lubrication oil?

A. The important requirements for a lubrication system are
 It should have the proper viscosity at the engine operating
temperature.
 It should have anti-friction characteristics.
 It should have high anti-wear properties.
 It should have maximum cooling ability.

6. What are the different types of starters used in aircraft power plants?
The different types of starters used are
 Electrical Starter
 Cartridge Starter
 Isopropyl Nitrate Starter
 Air Starter
 Gas Turbine Starter
A. What is Aviation Gasoline?
B. Aviation Gasoline is the fuel commonly used for piston engines. It is also
called as AVGAS. It have an octane rating of 100 and relative density of
0.70 to 0.75. Flash point is less for this type of fuel when compared with Gas
Turbine fuels.

7. What is Aviation Kerosene?

A. Aviation Kerosene is the fuel commonly used for Gas Turbine engines. It has
a very high flash point. The octane rating of Aviation Kerosene is 135. The
relative density will be in the range of 0.78 to 0.82.

8. What is the purpose of fuel pump?

A. The fuel pump delivers a continuous supply of fuel at the proper pressure
and at all times during the operation of aero engine. It is capable of
delivering maximum needed flow at high pressure to regulation. Fuel pump
is classified into two distinct categories.
 Contact Displacement Fuel Pump
 Variable Displacement Fuel Pump

9. What are the different types of engine driven fuel pump?

A.Engine driven fuel pumps in the fuel system of piston engine aircraft are
usually
 Gear Type
 Rotary Vane Type
 Diaphragm Type

10.What is the purpose of fuel heater?

A. The fuel heater is a heat exchanger that uses engine compressor, bleed air,
engine oil (or) if the hydraulic system generates sufficient heat, hydraulic
fluid is used to heat the fuel to avoid freezing or sometimes melting the ice
crystals. The fuel and water mixture can then flow to the engine and be
burned. The ratio of water to fuel is very slight and does not affect the
operation of engine.

12.What is meant by ‘Oil Dilution’?

A. A method known as ‘oil dilution’ is employed to facilitate starting aircraft
engines when the temperature is very low. With this method, a length of
 tubing connects the carburetor or other full pressure source through the
solenoid valve to the oil ’Y’ drain or elsewhere to oil system.
13.Why priming is needed for aircraft power plants?
A. Unlike an automobile engine, non-fuel-injected, reciprocating aircraft
engines must often be primed before starting because the carburetor does not
function properly until the engine is running. For this reason, it is necessary
to have a separate system to prime the cylinders with raw fuel for starting.
This is accomplished by the Priming System.

14.How an aircraft engine be started?

A. The engine of an aircraft can be started by
 Turn the ‘Auxiliary Fuel Pump’ ON.
 Place the mixing control to the position recommended for the
engine.
 Open the throttle to a position that will provide 1000 to
1200rpm.
 Energize the starter after the propeller has made at least two
complete revolutions and turn the ignition switch ON.

15.What are the functions of engine lubricating oil?

A. The functions of engine oil are
 It lubricates thus reducing the friction between moving parts.
 It cools various parts of an engine.
 It serves as a cushion between the parts where impact loads are
introduced.

16.Define Flash Point?

A. The Flash Point of an oil is the temperature to which the oil must be heated
in order to give off enough vapour to form a combustible mixture above the
surface that will momentarily flash or burn when the vapour is brought into
contact with a very small flame.

17.What is the purpose of a fuel system?

A. The purpose of fuel system is to deliver a uniform flow of clean fuel under
constant pressure to the carburetor or other fuel control unit.

18.What is the purpose of starting system?

A. The purpose of starting system is to develop sufficient amount of torque that
allow engine to attain a self sustained speed at which the engine position to
 give sufficient amount of air to reach the combustion chamber to get positive
combustion.

19. What is the purpose of ignition system?

A. The purpose of ignition system is to supply a spark to ignite the fuel-air
mixture in the cylinder so that combustion will take place to produce thrust
and also to rotate the turbine.

20. What are the characteristics of fuel system?

A. The characteristics of fuel system are given below.
 It should have appropriate calorific value.
 It should have medium volatility.
 It should have high stability.
 It should be having high freezing point that even at -600c the fuel
should not freeze.
 It should have high octane rating.

21.What are the requirements needed for fuel systems?

A. The needed requirements for fuel system are
 Reliability
 Fuel-System Independence
 Filler Caps
 Lightening Protection
 Fuel Flow
 Hot-Weather Performance

22.Define scavenge oil system?

A. Gas Turbine lubrication systems are usually of the dry-sump type, in that the
oil is scavenged from the engine and stores in an oil tank. Scavenge pumps
return oil from the engine’s bearing cavities to a sump in an accessory drive
gearbox or directly to the oil tank. Scavenge pumps are normally of higher
capacity tha engine-driven pumps because of the air that mixes with the oil
in the bearing cavities. A scavenger pump operates in much the same
manner as a pressure pump.

23.What is the purpose of magnetic chip detector?

A. Magnetic chip detectors can be installed in the scavenge lines, oil tank and
accessory gearbox if the optional chip detector provisions are on the engine.
This detector indicates the presence of metal contamination without the
 necessity of opening the filter. When the detector picks up ferrous metal
particles, the center plug becomes grounded to the case. In that case, the
warning light kept between central terminal of detector and ground will burn
indicating metal particles on detector.

24.Differentiate Wet Sump and Dry Sump Lubrication System?

A.
WET SUMP DRY SUMP
25.
1. Centrifugal Compressor is used. 1. Axial flow compressor is used.

2. Oil is stored in the engine 2.Oil is stored in separate storage

3. It is air cooled 3. It is oil cooled.

4. Oil is fed by ‘Splash Method’ 4. Oil is fed by ‘Spray Method’.

5.It store less oil 5. Larger quantity of oil can be

accumulated.
Draw schematic diagram of Electronic Ignition System of Jet Engine?
26.Define Gravity-Feed Fuel System?
A. A gravity-feed fuel system uses the force of gravity to cause fuel to flow to
the engine fuel-control mechanism. For this to occur, the bottom of the fuel
tank must be high enough to assure a proper fuel-pressure head at the inlet to
the fuel-control component (carburetor) on the engine. Ih high-wing
aircrafts, this is accomplished by placing fuel tanks on wings.

27.Define Pressure-Feed Fuel System?

A. A pressure-feed fuel system uses a pump to move fuel from the fuel tank to
the engine fuel-control component. This arrangement is required because the
fuel tanks are located too low for sufficient head pressure to be generated or
because the tanks are some distance from the engine.

28. What is the purpose of fuel strainers and filters?

A. Because of the ever present possibility of fuel contamination by various
types of foreign matter, aircraft fuel systems are required to include fuel
strainers and filters. The fuel is usually strained at three points in the system:
first through a finger strainer or boost pump strainer in the bottom of the fuel
tank; second through a master strainer which is usually located at the lowest
point in the fuel system; and the third through a strainer in the carburetor or
near the fuel control unit.

29.What is the function of oil separator?

A. In any air system where oil or oil mist may be present, it is often necessary
to utilize a device called an oil separator. This device is usually placed in the
discharge line from a vacuum pump or air pump, and its function is to
remove the oil from the discharge air. The oil separator contains baffle plates
which cause the air to swirl around and deposit any oil on the baffles and on
the sides of separator. The oil then drains back to the engine through the oil
outlet.

30.What are the different methods of starting of Piston Engine?

A. The different methods of starting Propeller engine are
 Cartridge Method
 Hand Inertia Method
 Electric Inertia Method
 Hand Cranking Method
 Combination of Hand Cranking and Electric Inertia Methods.
  Direct Cranking Electric Starter.
UNIT IV
ENVIRONMENTAL & AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

PART A:-

1. What do you mean by environmental system?

Environmental systems are those a/c systems used to make the
interior environment of the a/c comfortable and/or habitable for human beings.
Example: - oxygen system, air-conditioning systems.

2. What is bleed air?

When the compressor compresses air, as the pressure increases, the
temperature also increases to a large extent. This heated and compressed air
which can be driven to the cabin heating system is called ‘bleed air’.

3. What are air-conditioning systems?

Aircraft cooling systems are used to reduce the temperature inside
the a/c for crew and passenger comfort. Two basic methods of reducing
temperature are,
i) Vapour cycle machine.
ii) Air cycle machine.

4. What is air cycle machine?

The turbine and compressor unit by which air is cooled is called ‘air
cycle machine’ or ACM. It uses compression and expansion of air to lower the
temperature of cabin air.

5. What is vapour cycle machine?

It uses refrigerant instead of air. Vapour cycle machine is a closed
system using evaporation and condensation of Freon to remove heat from the
cabin interior.

6. What do you mean by purging the system?

In the vapour cycle system, purging means releasing the refrigerant
but in a fuel system, purging means draining the fuel from the tank by
introducing inert gas CO2 or N2 to the tank. The recommended procedure for
purging the vapour cycle system is first to connect the service manifold to the
low-side and high-side service valves. The manifold port should be connected
to the vacuum pump connected to a closed container. Either one or both of the
service valves are cracked, with a vacuum pump on to allow a slow escape of
the refrigerant into a closed container. The escaping gas should be monitored
for escaping compressor oil, which indicates that the system is being purged too
quickly. If oil is discharging with the gas, the discharge is too rapid and the
manual valves should be closed slightly. When both pressure gauges on the
service manifold indicate zero pressure, the system is purged and can be
disassembled.

7. What is shirt-sleeve environment?

In order to make the cabin environment comfortable for the a/c
occupants, the cabin must normally be pressurized to maintain the cabin air
pressure at a level reached at no higher than 8000 ft. This enables the crew and
passengers to function without the use of supplemental oxygen and with
adjustments of the cabin air temperature, allows them to be in a shirt-sleeve
environment.

8. Differentiate between supercharger and turbocharger?

A supercharger is an engine driven air pump, which compresses air
for use by the engine in the combustion process.
A turbocharger is used in a similar manner as a system charger
except that the turbocharger is driven by exhaust gases from the engine which
drives an air compressor to supply an air charge to the engine.

9. What is outflow valve?

It regulates the amount of pressurized air that is allowed to exit the
cabin. The outflow valve modulates between open and closed position to allow
the pressurized air to vent out of the cabin at a controlled rate.

10. What is the purpose of safety valve?

It prevents cabin over pressurization by opening automatically at a
predetermined pressure. It is also referred to as positive pressure relief valve.

11. What is the purpose of negative pressure relief valve?

It prevents cabin pressure from going below that of the ambient air.
It also prevents structural damage during a rapid descent.

12. What is a cooling pack?

Cooling packs consist of primary heat exchanger, secondary heat
exchanger and an air cycle machine. They are used to cool the air by the
 process of compression and expansion of air.

13. What is hypoxia?

A lack of oxygen causes a person to experience a condition called

hypoxia. Some of the most common indications (symptoms) of hypoxia are:
1. An increased breathing rate
2. Light headedness or dizzy sensation
3. Tingling or a warm sensation
4. Cold chills and/or cold extremities
5. Sweating and increased heart rate.
6. Reduced color vision and visual field.
7. Sleepiness, insomnia and/or nervousness
8. Blue coloring of skin, fingernails and lips
9. Behavior change, giddiness, belligerence, cockiness, anxiousness or euphoria

Subtle hypoxic effects begin at 5,000 ft., particularly noticeable at night. In the
average individual, night vision will be blurred and narrowed. Also, dark
adaptation will be compromised. At 8,000 ft., night vision is reduced as much as
24% without supplemental oxygen. Some of the effects of hypoxia will be noticed
during the daylight at these altitudes without supplemental oxygen during long
flights, i.e. 3 to 5 hours.

14.What is anoxia?
When permanent physical damage results from lack of oxygen, the
condition is called anoxia.

15.What are oxygen systems?

As the total atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the
available oxygen pressure also decreases in proportion. This necessitates
supplemental oxygen. Hence oxygen is carried in the aircraft in various forms
for the comfort of the passengers and the crew. The entire system that provides
oxygen is called oxygen system.

16.Classify oxygen systems?

Oxygen systems can be classified as:-
i) Continuous flow oxygen system.
ii) Diluted Demand system.
iii) Pressure Demand system.
iv) Stored Gas system.
v) Chemical Oxygen Generator.
vi) Liquid oxygen system (LOX).

17. What are auxiliary systems?

Auxiliary systems are not essential for the actual operation of the
a/c, but they are vital for its safe operation. Examples:- Fire and Ice protection
systems.

18. State the principle of exhaust heating system?

The simplest type of heating system, often employed on light
aircraft, consists of a heater muff around the engine exhaust stacks, an air scoop
to draw ram air into the heater muff, ducting to carry the heated air into the
cabin and a valve to control the flow of heated air. The heat from the exhaust
gases is transferred to the cabin air, before the exhaust gases leave the manifold.

19.What ways can ice be detected?

Ice detection can be done in many ways :-
i) Visual detection- The pilot can detect the ice on the wings and other areas
of the a/c visually. There are lights that indicate the formation of ice.
ii) Electronic instruments- Modern a/c’s normally contain sensors or probes
that give a warning signal(electrical pulses) to the pilot about ice
formation.

20.What is de-icing?
De-icing is the removal of ice that has already formed. The de-
icing system is usually used on the leading edges of the wing, horizontal and
vertical tail surfaces. The system removes accumulated ice from these surfaces.

21.What is anti-icing?
“Prevention is better than cure”. An anti-icing system is used in the
a/c to prevent the ice formation on those a/c parts, which are most affected by
ice accretion or where damage could occur if the accumulated ice breaks off.
Anti-icing system is mainly used on wings, engine inlet cowl, air data system,
cockpit windows, water and waste system lines and drains and propellers.

22.What is thermal anti-icing?

Heated air is directed through specially designed heater ducts in the
leading edge of the wing and tail surfaces to prevent ice formation. In case of
piston engined a/c combustion heaters around the engine exhaust system heat
the air. This hot air is also routed to the carburetor when conditions are
conducive to carburetor icing.
23.What is windshield ice control?
Windshield can be protected by the following ways:-
i) By heating the windshield.
ii) By spraying the fluid on the windshield, to remove ice and prevent the
formation of more ice.

24. What is gasper system?

The individual air-distributive system, also called the gasper
system, reuses only the cold air from the air-conditioning packs to individually
regulated outlets in the control and passenger cabins.

25.Mention any three valves used in pressurization systems.

i) Outflow valve
ii) Safety valve
iii) Negative pressure relief valve.

26.Classify air cycle cooling systems.

i) Ram air system
ii) Bleed air or Boot Strap system.
iii) Displacement Blower system.

27.Classify vapour cycle cooling systems.

i) Turbo compressor system
ii) Turbo fan system
iii) Brake Turbine system

28.What are face masks?

Face mask is a type of breathing device. There are two types of
face masks- partial rebreather and the sequential rebreather. A partial rebreather
type has an external plastic bag. The sequential rebreather mask has a check
valve that efficiently allows induction of oxygen and outside air into the mask.

29.What is the purpose of primary heat exchanger?

Primary heat exchanger receives bleed air from the flow control
shut off valve. As the bleed air goes through the heat exchanger, ram air
removes heat. The cooled air then goes to the compressor section of the air
cycle machine.

30.What is the purpose of condenser in vapour cycle system?

The condenser in a vapour cycle cooling system receives the hot
and high pressure refrigerant vapours from the compressor. It transfers the heat
from the refrigerant vapours to the air flowing over the condenser coils. After
the heat is removed, the refrigerant turns into liquid state.

31.What is the purpose of evaporator in the vapour cycle system?

Evaporator is that part of the air-conditioning system where the
cold air is produced. The function of the evaporator is to lower the cabin air
temperature. In the evaporator, heat is absorbed by the refrigerant. In the
process the refrigerant changes from liquid to vapour state.

32.What is APU?
APU stands for auxiliary power unit. It provides both electric and
pneumatic power when the a/c is on ground and during emergency.

33.How do you ascertain the level of Freon in the vapour cycle system?
As the refrigerant vapour is cooled in the condenser, it becomes a
liquid and flows to the receiver-drier-filter. It is essentially a reservoir
containing the filter and a dessicant. A sight glass is usually located on the top
of the receiver to allow observation of the fluid flow through the unit. If bubbles
are seen in the fluid, the system refrigerant is known to be low and requires
replenishment.

34.What are the consequences of ice formation?

i) Change the leading edge shape (airfoils, fairings and air intakes).
ii) Change the airfoil skin roughness.
iii) Decrease the air intake performance.
iv) Poor visibility (cockpit window icing).
v) Jamming of control cables.
vi) Erroneous sensor information.

35.Classify ice protection systems?

i) Passive protection ( shielding, drainage and surface treatment with ice
phobic materials).
ii) Chemical protection ( use of freezing point depressant fluids).
iii) Mechanical protection.
iv) Thermal Protection ( Hot air circulation or electrical heating).

36. What are the types of anti-icing systems?

i) Thermal anti-icing.
ii) Electrical anti-icing.
iii) Chemical anti-icing.

37. What are the types of de-icing systems?

i) Conventional Pneumatic Boot De-icing system
ii) Pneumatic Impulse De-icing system.
iii) Electro-Thermal system.
iv) Electro- Impulse system.
v) Electro-Expulsive de-icing system
vi) Eddy current de-icing system.

38.What is an ice detector?

An ice detector is generally designed to provide a signal when
the a/c is operating in icing conditions either in flight or on ground at static
condition.

39.Classify ice detectors based on their principle?

i) Visual icing cues.
ii) Ice condition sensors.
iii) Ice accretion sensors.
iv) Detection by aerodynamic perturbations.

40.Classify fire extinguishing systems?

i) Conventional system
ii) High rate of discharge system.
iii) Portable fire extinguishers.

41.What are the commonly used fire extinguishing agents?

i) CO2
ii) Freon
iii) Halon 1211 ( CBrClF2).
iv) Halon 1301 ( CF3Br).

42.Classify smoke and flame detectors?

i) Carbon monoxide detector.
ii) Photo- electric detectors
iii) Ionization type detectors.
iv) Visual smoke detectors.
v) Flame detector.

43. Classify fire detection systems?

i) Thermal Switch detector.
ii) Thermocouple system.
iii) Continuous Loop system.

44.What is a thermocouple system?

A thermocouple is also referred to as ‘rate of rise detection
system’. Thermocouples are made of two dissimilar metal wires such as
chromal and constantan, which are twisted together inside an open frame. The
flame allows air to flow over the wires exposing the wires to damage. The cold
junction or the reference thermocouple is located under the insulating material
in the sensor unit. When there is a difference in temperature between the two
junctions, a current of order 4mA is created which is sufficient to close the
sensitive relay and activate the alarm.

45.What is a thermal switch system?

A thermal switch system consists of one or more switches
connected to an electrical circuit with a warning horn and an aural alarm to alert
the flight crew that an overheat condition is present. If more than one switches
are used, they are connected in parallel so that closing of any one switch will
provide a warning. The thermal switch is also called a ‘spot detector’.

46.What is a continuous loop detector?

The continuous loop detector consists of a small, light weight,
flexible inconel tube with pure nickel wire as electrode. The space between the
nickel tubing and the conductor wall is covered by ceramic beds which act as
insulators. Any voids or clearances are saturated with a eutectic salt mixture
which has a low melting point. When heated, the current can flow between the
centre wire and the tube wall because the eutectic salt melts and the resistance
drops rapidly. This increased current flow provides a signal which is usen in the
control unit to sound the alarm system.
47.What are the requirements for fire protection systems?
i) Fire warning system to provide immediate warning of fire or overheat.
ii) The system must indicate whether the fire has extinguished and whether
it reignites.
iii) It must be durable and resistant to damage.
iv) Requires minimum of electrical system and must operate from the a/c
electrical system without inverters or other special equipment.

48. What is ‘slugging’?

When the liquid refrigerant appears between the
vaporizer(evaporator) and the compressor, the condition is called ‘slugging’.
The presence of slugging indicates that the controls for the system are not
functioning and the system will not function efficiently.

49. Classify heater systems?

i) Heater muff system or Exhaust heating system.
ii) Combustion heaters.
iii) Electrical heaters.

50. What is the purpose of water separator in a vapour cycle system?

The rapid cooling of air in the turbine causes moisture to condense
in the form of water droplets. The cold air from the air cycle machine can
contain moisture (atomized water mist). The water separator collects and
removes from the air before it goes into the distribution system. Air goes into
the water separator inlet and the coalescer bag and support. The bag collects
water droplets as moisture goes through the bag.

UNIT-5
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Part-a
1. Classification of aircraft instruments:
Aircraft instruments are classified according to two bases
1. Purpose of instruments
2. Principle of working of instruments

2. Classifications of aircraft instruments according to their purpose:

1. Flight instruments and navigation instruments
2. Engine instruments
 3. System analysing instruments

3Classification of aircraft according to their principle of working:

1. Instruments working on basis of pitot pressure, static pressure and
pitot-static pressure
2. instruments working on basis of fluid pressure
3. instruments working on gyroscope
4. instruments working on magnetic pressure
5. instruments working on electricity

4. Flight instruments and their definition:

Flight instruments measure the pressure altitude of the flight
1. Altimeter
2. Airspeed indicator
3. Vertical speed indicator (or) rate of climb indicator
4. Directional indicator
5. Artificial horizon
6. Turn and bank (or) turn and slip indicator

5. Navigation instruments and their definition:

Navigational instruments measure the navigational and
communicative purposes needed for an aircraft
1. Clock
2. Timers
3. Radio for communication
4. weather-thermometers

6. Engine instruments-definition and their role:

Engine or power plant instruments measure the various
characteristics related with aircraft engine. They measure
1. Quantity and pressure of liquids and gases
2. Engine rpm
3. Engine temperature

7. Basic engine instruments in any aircraft:

1. Tachometer
2. Fuel and oil pressure gauges
3. Oil temperature gauges
4. Fuel quantity gauge
 8. Additional instruments in piston engine aircraft:
1. Manifold pressure gauge
2. Cylindrical head temperature gauges
3. Carburetor air temperature gauges

9. .Additional instruments in jet engine aircraft:

1. Turbine or tailpipe temperature gauges
2. Exhaust pressure radio indicator

10. System instruments-definition:

System instruments usually measure the quantity, pressure,
temperature.etc of fluid and air in controlling system of an aircraft

11. List of some instruments:

1. Fluid quantity gages in hydraulic system
2. Fluid pressure gages in hydraulic system
3. Air quantity gages in pneumatic system
4. Air pressure gages in pneumatic system

12. Alloys used in manufacture of instrument casings:

1. Aluminium alloys
2. Magnesium alloys
3. Iron and steel
4. Plastics (non alloy) eg: bakelite

13. Coatings used in instrument casings:

1. Luminous paint
2. Calcium supplied
3. Phosphor coating
These are used to coat numerals, dial markings and pointers.

14. Aircraft pressure gauges:

Pressure gauges are used to indicate the pressure at which engine oil is
forced through bearings oil passage and moving parts of engine and pressure at
which fuel is delivered to the carbruator or fuel control.
15. Boardon tube:

The boardon tube is an aircraft instrument made of metal tubing, oval or somewhat
flat in cross section. The metal tubing is closed at one end and mounted rigidly in
the instrument case at its other end.

16. Hydraullic pressure gauges:

The mechanisms used in raising and lowering the landing gear or flaps in
most aircrafts are operated by a hydraulic system. Hydraulic pressure gauges are
designed to indicate either the pressure of complete system or pressure of an
individual unit in the system.

17.De- icing pressure gauge:

 The de- icing pressure gauge measure the difference between prevailing
atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the de-icing system ,indicating
whether there is sufficient pressure to operate the de-icing boots. The gauges also
provide a method of measurement when adjusting the relief valve and regulator of
de-icing system.

18. Diaphram type pressure gauges:

This type of pressure gauges uses a diaphragm for measuring pressure. The
pressure or section to be measured is admitted to the pressure sensitive diaphragm
through an opening in the back of instrument case.
19. Section gauges:
Section gauges are used on aircraft to indicate the amount of section that
activates the air driven gyroscopic instruments. The spinning rotors of gyroscopic
instruments are kept in motion by streams of air directed against rotor vanes.

20. Mainfold pressure gauge:

The manifold pressure gauge is an important instrument powered by an

reciprocating engine. The gauge is designed to measure absolute pressure which is
sum of air pressure and added pressure created by super charger. The dial of the
instrument is calibrated in inches of mercury (Hg).
21. Pitot static tube:

22. Instruments working on basis of pitot static system:

1. Altimeter (static)
2. Vertical speed indicator (static)
3. Air speed indicator (pitot+static)

23. Altimeter and its principle:

The altimeter is a special form of aneroid barometer (a pressure

without liquid) that measures the height of at which the aircraft is flying from
mean sea level. It is working on principle in such static pressure with respect to
altitude indicated by static tube.

24. Errors occurring in altimeter:

1. Scale error
2. Hysteresis error
3. Installation error
25. Rate of climb (or) vertical indicator principle:

The VSI (vertical velocity or rate of climb) shows the rate, in feet per
minute at which the aircraft is ascending or descending. The principles on which it
operates the change in barometric pressure which occurs with any change in height

26. Airspeed indicator (ASI) and its principle:

The airspeed indicator is used to measure the speed at which the

aircraft is traveling through the air. The principle is that the ASI needs both pitot
and static pressure from the pitot-static system to measure speed and pressure at
same time
27. Accelerometer:

It is used on new mode aircraft during test flight

to measure acceleration loads on aircraft
structure. The principle is that main pulley
receives a movement and that causes the movement of the indicating needle

28. Mach meter:

A mach indicator provides a continuous indicates the ratio of an aircraft air

speed to local speed of sound at that particular altitude and temperature existing at
any time during flight. The principle is that air speed of Mach number by
measuring and correlating dynamic and static pressures.

29. Gyroscope:
 The gyroscope is a rotor or spinning wheel rotating at high speed in a
universal mounting called GIMBAL, so its axle can be pointed in any direction.
The instrument depends upon Newton’s law of motion. The applications depend
upon gyroscopic inertia, precession.

30. Instruments working on the basis of gyroscope:

Heading indicator or directional gyro
Attitude indicator or artificial horizon
Turn and slip indicator or turn and bank indicator

31. Directional indicator:

The heading indicator or directional gyro is an instruments used to

show the direction of the aircraft. It works on the principle such that the gyro
wheel in this is vertically mounted and spins about its horizontal axis at
approximately 12000rpm.

32. Attitude indicator:

 The attitude indicator or artificial horizon or gyro horizon provides the
pilot with an artificial horizon as means of reference when the natural horizon is
not visible. It works on principle as such that gyro wheel is mounted horizontally
and spins about its vertical axis.

33. Turn and bank indicator:

It is an instrument which shows the amount of turn, amount of slip and

amount of bank by an aircraft. The basic principle which governs operation of the
turns needle is gyroscopic precession.

34. The factors which gyroscopic rigidity depends:

1. Weight
2. Angular Velocity
3. Radius at which Weight is Concentrated
4. Bearing Friction
35. Synchro system:
A synchro system is an electrically operated system used for transmitting
information from one point to another synchro refers to any one of number of
electrical devices capable of measuring and indicating angular deflection.

36. Types of synchro system:

1. Autosyn system
2. Secsyn system
3. Magnesyn system
37. Synchroscope:

Synchroscope is an instrument that indicates whether two (or) more engines

are synchronized and whether they are operating at same rpm. The instrument
works on the principle such that current from faster running engine controls the
direction in which synchroscope motor rotates.

38. Tachometer and types of tachometer:

The tachometer is an instrument for indicating the speed of the crank shaft
of a reciprocating engine of a reciprocating engine and the speed of the main motor
assembly of a gas turbine engine. Based on type of engine – it is classified as
1. Piston tachometer
2. GTE tachometer.
Based on mode of operation – it is classified as
1. Mechanically indicating systems
2. Electrically indicating systems

39. Temperature indicator:

 1. Electrical resistance indicator
2. Thermocouple thermometer indicators
3. Gas temperature indicator
4. Ratrometer electrical resistance thermometer

40. Fuel flow meter:

Fuel flow meter systems are used to indicate fuel usage and to primarily
show the fuel economy.

41. Angle of attack indicators:

This is used to detect the local angle of attack of the aircraft from a point on
the side of the fuselage and furnishes reference information for the control and
actuation of others units.

42. Valves used in typical pump-drives vacuum system:

1. Suction relief valve
2. Pressure relief valve
3. Gate check valve
4. Selector valve
5. Restrictor valve
 PART-B

AIRPLANE CONTROL SYSTEMS

1) FLY – BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEM

 This is the first European production Aircraft to have this system of this
kind.
 The Position Sensors produce electrical signals according to the information
fed into them connecting the position of the cockpit controls.
[ControlColumn].

 These signals are also applied to a computer, which is already receiving the
data concerning the Altitude and Airspeed of the Aircraft.
 The computer computers all the information applied to it and produces an
Output signal, which is related not only to the control column movement buy
also the conditions under which the Aircraft is operating.
 The computed signals are Amplified and fed to a Quadruple Actuator.
 The Actuator is electrically controlled and hydraulically operated to
reposition the Servo Valve controlling the PFCU.
 The PFCU then moves the control surface through its mechanical linkages.
 Under fault condition, the computer disengages, the system then reverts to
direct electrical signaling from the sensors through the Amplifier to the
Quadruple Actuator.
 With complete signaling failure, the electrical clutch disengages allowing the
mechanical signaling of the servo valve through the Mechanical clutch.

2) AUTO PILOT SYSTEM

DEFINITION:
The Autopilot or Automatic pilot is a system of automatic controls that holds
the Aircraft on any selected magnetic heading and returns the Aircraft to that
heading when it is displaced from it. The Automatic pilot also keeps the Aircraft
stabilized around its horizontal and lateral axes.
PURPOSE:
The purpose of an Autopilot system is primarily to reduce the work strain
and fatigue of controlling the Aircraft during long flights. It allows the pilot to
maneuver the Aircraft with a minimum of manual operations. It provides for one,
two or three axes control of the Aircraft.

PRINCIPLE:
Rate of disturbance = Rate of correction

The autopilot system flies the Aircraft by using electrical signals developed
in Gyro sensing units. These units are connected to flight instruments that indicate
direction, rate of turn, bank or pitch. If the flight attitude or magnetic heading is
changed, the electrical signals are developed in the Gyros. These signals are used
to control the operation of the servo units, which convert the electrical energy into
mechanical motion.

The servo is connected to the control surface and converts the electrical
signals into mechanical force, which moves the control surface in response to
corrective signals or pilot commands.
BASIC COMPONENTS:
All Autopilot system contain the same basic components,

1. The sensing elements. [Gyros]

2. The command elements.
3. The computing elements. [Amplifier]
4. The output elements. [Servos]

SENSING ELEMENTS: GYRO

The directional Gyro, turn and bank Gyro, Attitude Gyro and Altitude
control Gyro are the sensing elements. These units sense the movements of the
Aircraft and automatically generate signals to keep the movements in control.

COMMAND ELEMENTS:
The command unit [flight controller] is manually operated to generate
signals that cause the Aircraft to climb, dive or perform coordinated turns.
Additional command signals can be sent to the Autopilot system by the Aircraft’s
navigational equipments. The Autopilot system is engaged or disengaged
electrically or mechanically, depending on design.

COMPUTING ELEMENTS: COMPUTER OR AMPLIFIER

The computing element consists of an amplifier or computer. The amplifier
receives signals, determines what action to the signals is calling for and amplifies
the signals received from the sensing elements. It passes these signals to the
Ailerons, Rudder and Elevators servo to drive the control surfaces to the position
called for.

OUTPUT ELEMENTS: SERVO MOTORS

These are the servomotors, which actuate the control surfaces. The majority
of the servos in use are either electric motors or electro pneumatic motors.

3) INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM – ILS

 The ILS is one of the facilities of the Federal Airways.

 It operates at a very high frequency position of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 The ILS can be visualized as a slide made of radio signals on which the
Aircraft can be brought to the runway safely.
 The ILS is a radio based approach guidance system, provides guidance is
poor visibility conditions.
 ILS provides horizontal direction reference through LOC, when operates at
108 -112 MHz frequency.
 Vertical direction reference through glide slope, which operates at 330 – 335
MHz frequency and is, located perpendicular to runway centerline. It is
located at 15% of the runway length from either side of the runway.
 When Aircraft approaches for landing the signal right of LOC path will be
modulated with 150 Hz and left of LOC path will be modulated to 90 Hz.
 Suppose Aircraft is to the right side of the LOC centerline, 150 Hz
modulated signal predominate and the vertical needle of CDI [code
deviation indicator] will point towards left of the center line indication the
pilot to fly left to align with the center line of the runway and vice versa.
 If the Aircraft approaches for landing above the glide path, 90 Hz will be
predominant and vice versa.
 Glide slope receiver provides and output from the horizontal pointer in such
a way that the pilot will have a visual indication of Aircraft position with
respect to the glide path.
BASIC COMPONENTS:

1. Runway localizer.
2. Glide slope.
3. Marker beacons.

LOCALIZER:
The localizer equipment produces a radio course aligned with the center of
an Aircraft runway. The on course signals result from equal reception of 2 signals,
one containing 90 Hz modulation and other containing 150 Hz modulation. On one
side of the runway center line the radio receiver develops an output in which the
150 Hz tone predominates. This area is called the blur sector. On the other side of
the center line 90 Hz output is greater, this area is called yellow sector.

4) VOR SYSTEM:

 The radials can be considered as lines that extend from the transmitter
antenna like spokes of a cycle wheel.
 Operation is in the VHF portion of the radio spectrum. [Frequency range 108
MHz to 117.95 MHz] with the result that interference from atmospheric
precipitation static is negligible.
 The typical Airborne VOR receiving system consists of a receiver, visual
indicator, antennas and a power supplier.
 In addition, a unit frequency selector is required and in some cases located
on the receiver unit front panel.
 The VOR receiver, in addition to course navigation, functions as a localizer
receiver during ILS operation.
 Also, some VOR receivers include a glide slope receiver in a single case.
 The intelligence from the VOR receiver is displayed on the CDI.
 The CDI performs several functions during VOR operation the vertical
needle is used as the course indicator.
 The vertical needle also indicates when the Aircraft must be turned t attain
the desired course.
 The TO-FROM indicator presents the direction to or from the station along
the Omni radial.
 The CDI also contains a VOR-LOC flag alarm.
 Normally, this is a small arm, which extends into view only in the case of a
receiver malfunction or the loss of a transmitted signal.
  When localizer signals are selected on the receiver, the indicator show the
position of the localizer beam, relative to Aircraft and the direction the
Aircraft must be turned to intercept the localizer.

5) COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION SYSTEM

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

 Safe Aircraft operation is dependant to a large degree upon the satisfactory

performance of the airborne communications and navigation systems.
 Communication and navigation are the 2 main functions of the airborne
radio.
 Communication systems primarily involve voice transmission and reception
between the Aircraft and ground stations.
 Radios are used in Aircraft as navigational aids in a number of applications.
 Federal Aviation Regulations require an inspection of radio equipment
installations at regular intervals.
 These inspections include a visual examination for security of attachment,
condition of wiring, bonding, shock mounts, radio racks and supporting
structure.
 Also, installation and inspection of radios, antennas, navigation equipment
and associated wiring is required.

BASIC RADIO PRINCIPLE:

  The principle of radio communication can be illustrated by using a simple
transformer.
 As shown, closing the switch in the primary circuit causes the lamp in the
secondary circuit to be illuminated.
 Opening the switch extinguishes the light.
 The energy that illuminates the light is transmitted by an alternating
electromagnetic field in the core of the transformer.
 The basic concept of radio communication involves the transmission and
reception of electromagnetic energy waves through space.
 Alternating current passing through a conductor creates electromagnetic
fields around the conductor.
 Energy is alternately stored in these fields and returned to the conductor.
 As the frequency of current alternation increases, less and less of the energy
stored returns to the conductor.
 Instead of returning, the energy is radiated into space as electromagnetic
waves.
 A conductor radiating in this manner is called the transmitting antenna.

FREQUENCY BANDS:

The radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from

approximately 30 KHz to 30000 MHz. This is divided into number of frequency
bands like,
 Low frequency – LF
 Medium frequency – MF
  High frequency – HF
 Very high frequency – VHF
 Ultra high frequency – UHF
 Super high frequency – SHF
BASIC COMPONENTS:
TRANSIMITTER:
A transmitter may be considered as a generator, which changes electrical
power into radio waves. A transmitter must perform the following function,

1. Generate the RF signal.

2. Amplify the RF signal.
3. Provide a means of placing intelligence on the signal.

The transmitter contains an oscillator circuit to generate RF signal and an

amplifier circuits to increase the output power. The voice [audio] intelligence is
added to the RF signal by a special circuit called the modulator. This may be
Amplitude Modulated [AM] or Frequency Modulated [FM].
RECEIVERS:
The communications receiver must select radio frequency signals and
convert the intelligence contained on these signals into a usable form. A receiver
must be able to select the desired frequency from all those present and amplify the
small AC signal voltage. It contains a demodulator circuit to remove the
intelligence [AM or FM].
 It is a special type of electrical circuit designed to radiate and receive the
electromagnetic energy. It is a conductor that radiates electromagnetic waves when
a radio frequency current is passed through it. Depending upon the frequency to be
transmitted and specific purpose, they vary in shape and design.

MICROPHONE:

It is essentially an energy converter that changes Acoustic energy into

corresponding electrical energy. When spoken into a microphone, the audio
pressure waves generated strike the diaphragm of the microphone causing it to
move in and out accordance with the instantaneous pressure delivered to it. The
diaphragm is attached to a device that causes current to flow in proportional to the
pressure applied.

POWER SUPPLY:

It is a component that furnishes the correct voltages and current needed to

operate the communication equipment. Electromagnetic devices used as electronic
power supplier includes Dynamotors and Inverters.

6) ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

 In early jet aircraft, pneumatic and hydro mechanical flow control devices
performed the control of fuel to the combustors.
 Thrust was demanded and maintained at an approximately fixed condition
by the pilot adjusting the throttle lever and continuously monitoring his
temperature and speed gauges.
 This was proved to be totally unsatisfactory, since the wide range of ambient
conditions encountered in flight meat that continual throttle adjustments
were needed.
 Further the engine had to be handled carefully to avoid flameout or surge
during accelerations and decelerations.
 The task of handling the engines was eased by the introduction of electronic
control in the form of magnetic amplifiers in the early civil and military
aircrafts.
 The mag-amp allowed engines to be stabilized at any speed in the throttle
range by introducing a servo–loop with the engine exhaust temperature as a
measure of engine speed and an analogue fuel valve to control fuel flow.
 This allowed the pilot to accelerate and decelerate the engine while the
control system limited fuel supply to prevent over speeds or excessive
temperatures.
 Control systems become more sophisticated with additional engine
conditions sensors with multiple servo-loops.
  On modern aircraft the engine is supervise by a computer to allow the pilot
to operate at maximum performance in a combat aircraft of at optimum fuel
economy in a passenger carrying aircraft.

THE CONTROL PROBLEMS:

 The basic control action is to control a flow of air and fuel to the engine to
allow it to operate at its optimum efficiency over a wide range of forward
speeds, altitudes and temperatures whilst allowing the pilot to handle the
engine without fear of malfunction.
 The degree of control required to a large extent upon the type of engine and
the type of aircraft in which it is installed.
 The civil operator requires reliable, economical and long – term operation
under clearly defined predictable conditions with minimum risk to
passengers and schedules to obtain these objectives, control can be exercised
over the following aspects of engine control;

1) Fuel flow: - To allow varying engine speeds to be demanded and to

allow the engine to be handled without damage by limiting rotating
assembly speeds, rates of acceleration and temperatures.
2) Air flow:- To allow the engine to be operated efficiently throughout
the aircraft flight envelope and with adequate safely margins.
3) Exhaust gas flow:- By burning the exhaust gases and varying the
nozzle area to provide additional thrust.
TYPES:
Electronic control has been applied in all these cases with varying degrees of
complexity and control authority. Such control can take the form of simple limiter
function through to sophisticated,
  Multivariable control system.
 Electronic engine control systems.
 Full authority control systems.

The need to control precisely the many factors involved in operation of

modern high speed and by pass turbo fan engines and airliners.

The manufactures worked together to develop EEC system that prolong

engine life, save fuel, improve reliability, and reduce flight crew workload and the
maintenance cost.

The two types of EEC are

1) Supervisory EEC
 2) Full authority EEC

SUPERVISORY EEC:

 It includes a computer, which receives information regarding various engine

operating parameters and adjusts the standard Hydro mechanical FCU to
obtain the most effective engine operation.
 Hydro mechanical FC unit responds to EEC commands.
 The HFCU performs the functions necessary for engine operation and
protection.
 By measuring exhaust gas pressure, thrust level angle, altitude data Mach
number, inlet airflow, inlet air temperature and total air temperature it
computes the requirement for flawless flight.
 The EEC is able to maintain constant thrust from the engine regardless of
changes in air pressure and temperature and flight environment.
 This control replaces previous hydro mechanical units, producing significant
savings by precise and uniform control of power settings and other critical
engine operating functions.
 This control does not employ any hydro mechanical computational elements.

It can perform the following functions:

1. Basic engine operation such as starting, acceleration, deceleration, speed

governing, compressor vane and bleed scheduling.
2. Engine operating and rating data.
3. Fault detection.
4. Indication of fault status for display and maintenance.
 It uses thrust lever position to determine the commanded ‘T’ setting
parameter and modulates fuel flow to make the actual and commanded
values equal.
 This system reduces flight crew workload, controls system components, and
extends engine life.
 In addition provides increased engine fuel efficiency and allows improved
integration and coordination of engine control and aircraft system.
 It assists in engine maintenance through its internal diagnostic capability,
which is able to detect faults and generate maintenance messages that
identify which control system components need to be repaired or replaced.
 This system will allow the same basic engine configuration to produce from
222400 N to 311360 N of thrust simply by changing the data entry plug for
the control and the data plate for the engine.
7) FLIGHT CONTROL LINKAGE SYSTEM

The pilot’s manual inputs to the flight controls are made by moving the
cockpit control column or rudder pedals in accordance with the universal
convection.

 Pitch control is exercised by moving the control column fore and aft.
 Moving the control column from side to side or rotating the control yoke
achieves roll control.
 The rudder pedals control yaw.

There are presently two main methods of connecting the pilot’s controls
to the rest of the flight control system. There are,
 1) Push – pull rod control system.
2) Flexible push – pull system.

 The following figure shows the simplified 3-d schematic of the Hawk 200
flight control, which is typical of the technique widely used for fighter
aircraft.
 A push rod and lever system is a common form of remote control. Through
actual mode of application may vary between aircraft construction, but the
same basic principles apply.
 The “push rods” are normally of tubular construction with either bell or fork
end couplings to link them to the levers.
 One end of each rod is screwed so that its length can be adjusted accurately.
 The levers are usually light alloy stampings or forgings mounted on plain
ball bearings.
 The liver and fittings are either ball or forked to suit the ends of the rods.
 One of the arms of each lever assembly may have its ends screwed to allow
the length of the arm to be adjusted slightly
 Some types of pushrod controls have springs loaded and fittings to eliminate
play in the system.
 Push rods, levers and tubes can transmit both pull and push movements
effectively without any loss.
 The direction of motion can be altered or changed by employing bell cranks
mounted on by shafts.
FLEXIBLE PUSH PULL ROD SYSTEM
 The Teleflex control system of remote control is installed in aircraft to
operate from the pilot cockpit, component such as engine and propeller
controls, trimming controls and fuel valves can be adapted for the indication
of under carriage movement and position of flaps.
 These control system are not always Teleflex throughout, it may be instance
cable, and chain or linkage is used for part of the control run in conjunction
with Teleflex components for initial and final part.
 It is capable of relaying both pull and push motion, is basically a flexible
cable transmitting cable working in a rigid conduit.

8) AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:
 Flight controls have advanced considerably throughout the years.
  In the earliest biplanes flown by the pioneers flight control was achieved by
warping wings and control surfaces by means of wires attached to the flying
controls in the cockpit.
 When top speeds advanced into the transonic region the need for more
complex and sophisticated methods became obvious.
 They were needed first for high- speed fighter aircraft and then with larger
aircraft when the jet propulsion became more wide spread.
 The higher speeds resulted in the higher loads on the flight control surfaces,
which made the aircraft very difficult to fly physically.
 To overcome the higher loads powered surfaces began to be used with
hydraulically powered actuators boosting the efforts of the pilot.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT CONTROL

 All aircrafts are governed by the same basic principles of flight control,
whether the vehicle is the most sophisticated high performance fighter or the
simplest model aircraft.
 The following figure shows the direction of the aircraft velocity in relation
to the pitch, roll and yaw axes.
 For most of the flight the aircraft will be flying straight and level and the
velocity vector will be parallel with the surface of the earth and proceeding
upon a heading that the pilot has chosen.
TYPES OF FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
1) Convectional system.
2) Power assisted flight controls.
3) Fully powered flight controls.
4) Power actuated systems.

POWER OPERATED FLYING CONTROL SYSTEM:

 The PFCU normally consists of two essential elements in the form of an
actuator, or jack to which is attached a selector valve or a servo valve inlet.
 The selector of servo valve is activated by the pilot when movement of the
control column of rudder pedals are made.
 Figure indicates the simple example of a PFCU movement of the cock-pit
control moves the servo valve input via cables or rods, which determines the
direction of the fluid flow from one side to the other of the piston.
 The fluid cannot move the piston as the piston rod or the ram is connected to
the aircraft structure and the result is that the unit body moves and through
linkage, moves the control surface.
 This action creates a flow up motion. So that, when a small input is made,
the body will move until the ports close.
 In this way the movement of the unit is always related to the movement of
the cockpit control.
 Each time an input made to the servo valve, the body will move until the
parts are closed, when the servo valve is in neural, return valve is also
controlled and directed by the servo valve and when allowed to flow is
directed bank to the common return.
 When the servo is in the neutral, a hydraulic lock is formed so that, the
control surface is held rigidly in the selected position.
POWER ASSISTED CONTROL:

 In a power assisted control system the pilot is assisted in the operation of the
control surface in the real sense that the majority of the work of the moving
the control surface is done by the actuator and a small proportion by the
pilot.
 This is shown by the examples illustrated in the figure. In powered control
system the actuator does all the work and pilot’s contribution of effort is
zero.
 In a power assisted installation the pilot feels a proportion of the load on the
control surface and therefore can be said to have “feel “or “sense of feel”.
  This achieved by proportional feedback in that whilst most of the load acting
on the control surface is transmitted via the actuator body, fluid, piston and
ram back into the airframe through the input lever and control run to the
cockpit control and will be felt by the pilot.
 If at high speed the control surface is progressively deflected, the load on the
control surface will progressively increase and so the feel experienced by the
pilot will be progressive increase.

CONTROL CONFIGURED VEHICLE [CCV]

 Aircrafts are made statically and dynamically stable. In other words,

longitudinally and laterally stable.
 The stable aircraft possess problem for manoeuvrability.
 By making the aircraft longitudinally unstable say by keeping the C.G., aft
of left centre, the higher roll rates can be obtained.
 But, controlling the aircraft becomes very difficult for the pilot.
 The improvement of electronics, the present day aircraft helps in applying
the controls 40 times per second, which is impractical for a human pilot.
 Controlling of the aircraft by the present day electronics is called “ACTIVE
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY” [ACT].
 AACT takes into account of all the safety factors and limitations of the
particular aircraft and controls the aircraft in pitch, roll and yaw, taking into
consideration of the pilot inputs, through control column and rudder pedal.
 The pilot makes nightmare of the load factor control [‘g’ control], roll rate
control [‘p’ control], angle of attack [AOA] control are fully taken care by
ACT.
  This is accomplished by having its own sensors, to sense pitch rate, roll rate,
yaw rate, longitudinal acceleration, lateral acceleration, vertical acceleration
etc.
 In addition, the applications of the controls are modified as per altitude and
Mach number.
 This is done by sensing the pitot pressure and static pressure.
 This information is vorted out to have redundancy of the information.
[Vorting-means comparing information from 3 to 4 sources taking average
of this information and comparing with each input not compatible with the
average value is vorted out].
Unit-2

PART – B:
1) EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS TECHIQUES USED IN LANDING GEAR
RETRACTION SYSTEM.

The main purpose for the usage of retractable type landing gear is to reduce the
drag of the aircraft or to adapt the aircraft for landing on different surfaces, as with
retractable wheels used with float. Various methods or systems have been
implemented to retract the gear.
THEY ARE:-
 Mechanical system.
 Hydraulic system.
 Electrical system.

MECHANICAL SYSTEM:
This type of landing gear retraction is used in some older a/c and many current
production light a/c make use of mechanical emergency extension system. This
system is powered by the pilot moving a lever or operating crank mechanism.
Many older a/c use lever arrangement, which is around 2ft or 0.61m long, located
in the cabin, which moves through an arc of 900 so that it could retract or extend the
gear. When the lever is moved from the vertical to horizontal position, the lever
unlocks the gear, and through the use of over enter springs, torque tubes & bell
cranks retract the gear. The gear is locked in the up position by securing the cabin
lever in a locking device in the cabin floor. The opposite operation extends the
gear. The lever locks in the vertical position to lock the gear down. The lever
serves as the gear position indicator. This system does not require an emergency
extension system.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:
An electrically operated system is most preferably used in light a/c, where the
weight of the landing gear is not so great as to require large operating motors or
complex hydraulic systems. The gear selector is positioned and the electric motor
is energized and operates a gear that opens the doors. Once the gear is in selected
position, a micro switch breaks the appropriate gear indication to be displayed.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
A hydraulic retraction landing gear makes use of hydraulic pressure to move the
gear between the retracted and extended positions. Although this system is
commonly used for all sizes of a/c, it is preferred and used exclusively where the
landing gear is large and cannot be operated economically by any other method.
The power of the operation of the system may be generated by engine driven
pumps and for emergency purposes a hand driven pump is used.
Electrically operated pumps are often found in light a/c, where as transport a/c rely
primarily on the engine driven pumps.
HYDRAULIC LANDING GEAR SYSTEM
2) EXPLAIN VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC POWER
SYSTEM:
 STORAGE BOTTLE
 The bottle is mounted above the fuselage’s pneumatic panel and is fitted
with three parts.
 It may have a volume of 750m3 and stores air at 3300 psi. it is used for
operating landing gear, propeller brake, nose steering and rear door
retracting subsystems.
 The air pressure is reduced to 1000psi before being routed to subsystems
other than brakes.
 The primary air storage bottle for the F-27 is constructed of steel with a
plastic coating on the inner surface to provide a longer service life.
 The a/c that use the pneumatic system only for emergency purposes have
the storage bottle equipped with a charging valve for ground servicing
and a control valve to release pressure into the system being controlled.
 MOISTURE CONTROL
 In pneumatic system it is of utmost importance that the air in the system
is completely dry.
 Moisture in the system can cause freezing of operating units, interface
with the normal operating valves, pump etc. and cause corrosion.
 It is for this reason that moisture separators and chemical separators are
used in pneumatic systems.
 FILTERS
 Three sintered pneumatic filters are used in each compressor circuit and
one in the primary circuit.
 The filter is a vertically mounted unit containing a replaceable filter
element of stainless steel that removes foreign matter of 10 µm or large
from the compressor output air
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
  Other types of filters commonly found in pneumatic system include
micronic and wire screen filters. The micronic filter has a replaceable
cartridge where as the wire screen filter can be cleaned and reused.
 The basic construction of these filters is the same as the micronic filter
unit used in hydraulic systems.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
1 The bleed valve controlled by compressor lubricating oil pressure ,
directs the compressed air to the compressor circuit relief valve and
unloading valve.
2 In the event of compressor oil pressure drops below 40 psi the bleed
valve will direct compressed air from the fourth stage over board
3 Pressure output from the bleed valve is routed to a relief valve in the
unloading valve
4 The relief valve protects all the components of the compressor circuit
from excessive pressure build up in the event of any component
downstream of the compressor malfunction .The relief valve is set to
open at 3800 psi.

 MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1 The tubing used for pneumatic system follows the pattern described for
hydraulic systems.
2 For the high pressure sections, stainless steel tubing is used(300 psi)
3 Specification :MIL T-8504
4 Size:3/16 to 3/8 OD
  GROUND CHARGING VALVE
1 It is installed in both the left and right nacelles to provide a means of
initial filling or ground charging the entire pneumatic system during
the period when the engine is not running.
2 If the system pressure is below 1000 psi the isolation valve should be
closed before charging
3 Usually only right nozzle is used and left nozzle is used only during
emergency and maintenance.

3) Explain shock absorbers in landing gear system.

 This dissipates the impact energy due to landing by some means such as heat
 Most of them do this by forcing the fluid through a restriction
 The movement of this system generates heat and the heat is radiated into the
surrounding atmosphere thus dissipating the landing energy
 There are two types of shock absorbers as follows:
 SPRING OLEO:
Spring oleo struts are not usually found in modern aircrafts
consists of a piston type structure and a heavy coiled spring. The
piston and cylinder arrangement have an oil chamber and an orifice
through which oil is forced during landing. When the aircraft is
airborne, the strut is extended and the oil flows by gravity to the lower
chamber .when the plane lands the piston with the orifice is forced
downwards into the cylinder and the oil is forced through the cylinder
into the upper chamber. This action provides a cushioning effect to
absorb the primary shock of landing. As the strut collapses, the coil
spring is compressed, thus providing additional cushioning. Thus the
 spring supports the aircraft weight on ground, during taxiing and the
oleo struts absorb the shock of landing.
 AIR OLEO STRUTS:
The principle of operation of an air oleo strut is similar for all
struts, regardless of the type of fluid metering employed .During
compression of the strut at landing an orifice provides a restriction of
fluid flow and thus reduces the rate at which the piston moves into the
outer cylinder .This provides a cushioning effect to reduce the shock
of landing. As the fluid flows through the orifice into the upper
chamber, the air in the upper chamber is compressed to the point that
the entire weight of the aircraft is supported by the air in the landing
gear strut. The compressed air then acts as the shock absorber
during the time that the aircraft is taxiing.
The oleo shock strut can be used for either non-retractable or
retractable landing gear .It has many variations in design.

4) Explain the hydraulic system of a light aircraft.

 A schematic diagram of a hydraulic system for a light , twin engine aircraft is as
shown in the figure
 The engine driven hydraulic pump (10) draws hydraulic fluid from the reservoir
(15) and pumps it through the pressure port of the ‘power pack’ assembly into
the landing gear selector pressure chamber
 When the two selector valves are in the neutral position, the fluid travels from
the landing gear selector valve (1) through the flap selector valve(2) and back to
the reservoir
 The power pack assembly is a modular unit that includes the reservoir, relief
valve, hand pump , landing gear selector valve, wing flap selector valve , filters ,
and numerous other small parts essential for the operation
 When both selector valves are in the neutral position , the system acts as a open-
center system , in that the fluid flows first through one selector valve and then to
other before returning to the reservoir
 During this time the fluid flows freely at a reduced pressure
 Since the fluid supply line runs first through the landing gear sub system is in
operation
 Each selector valve has a separate return line to allow fluid from the actuating
cylinders or the cylinders to flow back to the reservoir

5) Classify pneumatic systems and give their characteristics

Aircraft pneumatic systems are used primarily as emergency sources of
pressure for many of the hydraulically actuated subsystems.
The principle of operation of a pneumatic power system is the same, with
one important exception, as that of the hydraulic power systems i.e., the
requirement of a return line
In the hydraulic system as soon as the accumulator fluid has been used and
the pump is not operating, the fluid pressure drops immediately from accumulator
pressure to zero pressure
The entire pneumatic system, including the air storage bottles can act to
store pressure
In the hydraulic system the only pressure fluid storage is the accumulator,
and the pressure is supplied by compressing air or gas in the air chamber of the
accumulator
The air in the pneumatic system must be kept clean by means of filters and
also be free from moisture and oil droplets or vapors
For this reason, liquid separators and chemical air driers are incorporated in
the systems
Moisture in the pneumatic systems may freeze in the low temperatures
encountered at high altitudes, resulting in serious system malfunctions
Another important feature of the pneumatic system is that there is no need
for the return lines
After the compressed air has served its purpose, it can be dumped overboard,
which saves tunings, fittings and valves
TYPES:
The type of unit used to provide pressurized air for pneumatic systems is
determined as pressure system
These are of three types:
1. High pressure system
2. Medium pressure system
3. Low pressure system

HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM:

 For high pressure systems , air is usually stored in metal bottles at
pressure ranging from 1000 to 3000 psi depending on the particular
system
 This type of air bottles have two valves one of which is a charging
valve
 A ground operated compressor can be connected to this valve to add
air to the bottle
 Although the high pressure storage tank is light in weight , it has a
definite disadvantage
  Since the system cannot be recharged during flight , operation is
limited by the small supply of bottled air
 Such an arrangement cannot be used for the continuous operation of
the system
 On some aircrafts permanently installed air compressors have been
added to re-charge air bottles whenever pressure is used for operating
a unit

MEDIUM PRESSURE SYSTEM:

 A medium pressure pneumatic system ranging from 100 to 150 psi
usually does not include an air bottle
 Instead , it generally draws air from jet engine compressor section
 In this case , air leaves a engine through a take off and flows into
tubing, carrying air first to the pressure controlling units and then to
the operating units

LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM:

 Many aircraft equipped with reciprocating engine obtain a supply of
low pressure air from vane type pumps
 These pumps are driven by electric motors or by the aircraft engine
 When it begins to operate, the drive shaft rotates and changes position
of the vanes and sizes the chambers. Vane number 1 then moves to the
right , separating chamber B from the supply port
 Chamber B now contains trapped air. As the shaft continues to turn ,
chamber B moves downward and becomes increasingly smaller ,
gradually compressing it’s air
 6) GIVE THE CLASSIFICATION OF LANDING GEARS.
 The landing gear of an aircraft serves for a number of very important functions
and it is classified by a number of different characteristics
 It supports the aircraft during ground operations, dampens vibrations when the
aircraft is being taxied or towed and cushions the landing impact
 The landing of an aircraft often involves stresses far in excess of what may be
considered normal; therefore the landing gear must be constructed and
maintained in a manner that provides the strength and reliability needed to
meet all probable landing conditions.
 The landing gear of an a/c consists of main and auxiliary units, either of which
may be fixed or retractable.
 The main landing gear provides the main support for an a/c on land or water.
 It may include a combination of wheels, floats, ski’s, shock-absorbing
equipment, cowling, fairing and structural members.
 The auxiliary landing gear consists of tail or nose landing wheel installations,
skids, outboard pontoons, etc. with necessary cowling and reinforcement.

The landing gear is classified into :-

6. Non absorbing landing gear.
7. Shock absorbing landing gear.
8. Fixed gear.
9. Retractable gear.
10.Hulls and floats.

NON SHOCK ABSORBING LANDING GEAR:-

 This includes those of landing gear that do not dissipate the energy of the a/c
contacting the ground during landing.
 They only temporarily store the energy and quickly return it to the a/c.
 These types of gear include rigid landing gear, shock-cord landing gear and spring
type landing gear.
 This gear is rigidly mounted to the a/c with no specific component to cushion the
ground contact other than through the flexing of the landing gear or airframe
structure.
 When rubber shock cord is used, the landing-gears struts are usually made of steel
tubing mounted in such manner that a stretching action is supplied to the tightly
wound rubber cord.
 When the landing shock occurs, the cord is stretched, thus storing the impact
energy of landing.
 The stored energy is gradually returned to the a/c during landing roll.

SHOCK ABSORBING LANDING GEAR:-

 This dissipates the impact energy of landing gear through some means.
 Most of these types of landing gear do this forcing a fluid through a restriction.
 The movement of this fluid generates heat, and the heat is radiated into the
surrounding atmosphere, thus dissipating the landing energy.
 The two types of shock absorbing landing gear are
1. Spring oleo
2. Air oleo

FIXED GEAR:-
 Non retractable landing gear are called as fixed landing gears.
 It is generally fixed to the structure of the a/c with bolts, but it is not actually fixed
because it must absorb the stresses.
 The landing gear normally contains a fairing where it joins the fuselage or wing to
reduce drag.

RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR:-

 It was developed to reduce drag as much as possible, the drag caused by the
exposure of the landing gear to the airflow during flight.
 Usually the landing gear is completely retractable although there are cases in
which the landing gear is not fully retracted and a portion of it visible after the gear
is retracted.
 The direction of retraction varies.
 On some a/c’s, the retraction is towards the rear while in some other it is to the
inward and on still others it is towards the wing tip.
 The method of retraction also varies.
 The retraction is normally accomplished with hydraulic or electric power.
 In addition to the normal operation, emergency systems are usually provided to
ensure that the gear can be lowered in case of main system failure.

7) EXPLAIN A TYPICAL PNEUMATIC SYSTEM WITH A NEAT

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
It provides power for operation of the landing gear retraction and extension, nose
wheel centering, propeller brakes, main- wheel brakes, and passenger entrance-
door retraction.
 This system described includes only the development and delivery of
compressed air to each component or sub system, not the actual operation of
the component or sub system.
 The pneumatic power in the aircraft is delivered by one of two systems; the
primary system or the emergency system.
 The power section of the primary pneumatic system is that portion located in
each engine nacelle.
 It consists of a gear box driven compressor; bleed valve, unloading valve,
moisture separator, chemical drier, backpressure valve, and a filter.
 In addition, each nacelle contains a shuttle valve, disk-type relief valve, and
a ground charging connection to aid in ground maintenance or initial filling.
 Each power section independently supplies compressed air to the primary
system is stored in two storage bottles, and the system delivers the air for
normal operation components, as required by directional valves.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
8) Explain a typical Boeing 757 hydraulic system with neat schematic
diagram:-
 The Boeing 757 hydraulic system is presented as a representation of a
modern transport aircraft with multiple redundant systems for the supply of
hydraulic power and the operation of controls.
 Many modern transports and the corporate aircraft have systems that are
similar, with the same philosophy of multiple redundancies.
 The primary emphasis in the following description is on the system design
and operation and not on specific components, which have been previously
described.
 The 757 are equipped with three separate and independent hydraulic
systems, titled Left, Center and Right, as illustrated in the fig.
 The hydraulic systems provide power to the thrust reversers, brakes,
autopilot servos, flight controls, flaps/slats, landing gear and nose wheel
steering.
 The left & right systems are each powered by one engine pump and one
electric pump.
 Two electric pumps power the center hydraulic system.
 If required, a ram air turbine can power the center hydraulic system.
 The center hydraulic system’s flaps/ slats, landing gear, and nose wheel
steering can also receive power from the right hydraulic system through a
power –transfer unit. PTU.
 The system operates at a nominal pressure 20,685 Kpa using a fire-resistant,
synthetic-type fluid.
 Each system is normally powered by two hydraulic pumps that are driven
from independent power sources, as illustrated in the fig.
 Distribution of pressure from the 3 systems is such that the failure of one
system will not result in loss of any flight-control malfunctions, and the
airplane can be safely operated in the event of loss of two hydraulic systems.
 An emergency hydraulic system provides flight-control operation in event of
dual engine failure.
 An electric motor pump is available in each system for ground servicing and
maintenance.
 A central fill point facilitates fluid servicing of all 3 systems.
 Reservoir pressurization is obtained from the airplane pneumatic system and
is available when engines are operating and during APU operation.
 External hydraulic power can be connected to each system.
BOEING 757 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
9) What are the types of braking system in aircraft &explain Independent
brake system and Power brake system?
 Brake-actuating systems for aircraft can be classified as mechanically
operated, hydraulically operated, or pneumatically operated.
 All brake-actuating systems provide for applying brakes either on one side
of the aircraft or all the aircraft brakes by operating foot pedals or hand
levers.

 Mechanical brakes are found on only a few of the older, small airplanes.
 A mechanical brake- actuating system includes pulleys, cables, and bell
cranks for connecting the foot pedals to the brake-shoe operating
mechanism.
 In some aircrafts, the hydraulic brake system is a sub system of the main
hydraulic system.
 In other aircrafts, there is an entirely independent brake system.
 Many of the large aircrafts have a power brake system is a subsystem of the
main hydraulic system.
 The smaller aircrafts usually have an independent, master brake cylinder
system.
 Pneumatic brake systems utilize air pressure instead of fluid pressure to
operate the brakes.
 Some hydraulic brake systems are arranged with pneumatic backup systems
for operation in case of hydraulic-fluid los or failure of hydraulic pressure.

Independent brake system

 An independent brake system, such as is shown in fig, is usually found on
small aircraft.
 This system is self-contained and independent of the aircraft’s main
hydraulic system.
 The basic components of this type of system are a reservoir, a master
cylinder operated by the brake-control pedal or handle, a brake assembly
on the wheel, and necessary lines, hoses and fittings.
 Expander-tube, shoe, or disk-brake assemblies may be used with this type
of system.
 The reservoir is a storage tank that supplies the fluid to compensate for
small leaks in the connecting lines or cylinders.
 The reservoir may be a part of the master cylinder.
 The master cylinder is actually a foot-operated, single action-reciprocating
pump, the purpose of which is to build up hydraulic fluid pressure in the
system.
 Mechanical linkages are required to transmit the energy of the foot to the
master cylinder.
 Most aircrafts have the master cylinders mounted on the rudder pedals,
although a few aircraft have the master cylinders mounted at a distance
from the pedals.
 Other control arrangements make use of heel brakes, operated by the pilot
pressing his heel on the brake pedal, and a central hand brake lever, which
operates all brakes at the same time.
 The fluid lines may consist of flexible or rigid tubing or a combination of
both.
 Usually flexible tubing is employed with retractable gear systems and
between the movable parts of the shock strut.
 The brake actuating mechanism of the brake assembly causes braking
action to occur when pressure from the master cylinder is transmitted to
them.
 The parking brake mechanism is a sub assembly of the usual hydraulic
brake system.
 The control for the mechanism is in the pilot’s compartment and usually
consists of a pull handle or lever.
 With respect to parking brakes, the setting of these brakes when the main
brakes are hot may cause serious damage.
 Hot brakes should be allowed to cool before the parking brakes are
applied.
Power Boost system:
 These are used on aircraft that have landing speeds or too heavy for an
independent brake system to operate efficiently but that do not require the
power of a power brake system.
 This system, shown in the figure uses hydraulic system pressure to operate
the brakes.
 When the pilot depresses the brake pedal, the power boost master cylinder
opens a metered line to allow hydraulic system pressure to flow to the
brakes.
 The metering mechanism is either a tapered pin or variable size orifice.
 The further the pedal is pressed, more the fluid flows through the metering
device, with a resulting increase in braking action.
 When the pedal is released, the pressure inlet line is blocked and the
master cylinder ports the pressure in the brake line to the hydraulic system
return line.
10) Explain Power brake system & multiple power brake system.
POWER BRAKE STSTEM
 A power brake system is used to operate the brakes of the large aircraft, where
the independent and power boost systems are not adequate.
 The pilot operates the system by depressing the brake pedal.
 This causes a power brake control valve to direct hydraulic system pressure to
the brake and operate the brake assembly.
 The power brake control valve for transport aircraft or brake-metering valves
are fitted in this system.
 One metering valve assembly is used for each main landing gear brake.
 In a typical system, four hydraulic lines are attached to each valve.
 These lines are for pressure, return, brakes and automatic braking.
 Valve ports are opened or closed by operating a circular grooved, sliding valve
rod [spool].
 The linkage end of the valve rod projects beyond the valve body, where as the
opposite end is compensating chamber.
Working:
 When the brake pedals are depressed, an inward movement is imparted to the
metering valve rod through the mechanical linkage and cables.
 As the rod moves in the return port is closed and the pressure port is opened to
direct hydraulic fluid pressure to the brakes.
 A passage through the valve rod permits the hydraulic fluid under pressure to a
compensating chamber enclosing the inner end of it and creates a return force
tending to the brakes.
 This return force varies with the intensity of braking force and provides feel at
the pedals.
 The desired braking effort is obtained by depressing the pedals a greater or
lesser distance.
 Cable stretch and adjustment of pedal position permits the valve rod to move
back until both pressure and return ports are closed.
 Releasing the brake pedals allows the pressure in the compensating chamber to
move the valve out and open the brake line to return line.
 As pressure in the brake lines falls, the brakes are released, and return force on
the valve rod is relieved.
 Automatic braking is connected to the landing gear retract hydraulic line.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A POWER BRAKE SYSTEM
 Multiple power brakes actuating system:
 The brake actuating for a transport turbine aircraft involves many
components and a number of subsystems and is described briefly here to
provide the technician with a general understanding of how such a system
operates.
 This information also emphasizes the need for careful work on the part of
the technician while servicing, maintaining, and repairing such a system.
 The brakes are operated by two completely independent hydraulic power
systems.
 The number 1 hydraulic system supplies pressure to the number 1 brake
system, number 3 to number 2 brake system.
 Each wheel brake is actuated by power from both systems through
independent pressure-metering valves.
 Each brake system consists of a dual brake control valve, pressure
accumulator, brake-pressure transmitter and indicator, brake system
manifold, eight skid-control valves, eight fluid quantity-limiter valves, a
skid-control manifold for each gear, and a parking-brake valve, all of
which contribute to the actuation of the independent cylinders in the eight
main wheel brakes.
 Although both brake-pressure systems are normally used at all times,
either system is capable of stopping the aircraft on a maximum-gross
weight landing.
 UNIT--3
1. Explain briefly the requirements for fuel system?

A. The purpose of fuel system is to deliver a uniform flow of clean fuel

under constant pressure to the carburetor or other fuel-control unit. This supply
must be adequate to meet all engine demands at various altitudes of flight.
Recommended installations employ gravity-feed or mechanical pumping
systems.

The location of various units in fuel system must be such that entire
fuel supply, except that designated as unusable fuel is available for use when
airplane is in steepest climb, in the best angle of glide, or in any reasonable
maneuver.

Reliability:-

Each fuel system must be constructed and arranged to ensure a flow of

fuel at a rate and pressure established for proper engine ad auxillary power unit
functioning under each likely operating condition. Auxillary power units are
usually installed only in large transport-type aircraft.

Fuel System Independence:-

Each fuel system must meet engine-operation requirements by

allowing the supply of fuel to each engine through a system that is independent
of parts of another system supplying fuel to any other engine. That is, the fuel
system must be designed so that anyone engine can operate without being
affected by fuel-system problems for another engine.

Filler Caps:-

Filler caps must be designed to minimise the probability of incorrect

installation or loss of caps in flight some fuel caps incorporate vents that keep
the fuel tank at atmospheric pressure. The filler cap of the area immediately
next to cap should be placarded with word fuel and the proper type and
minimum grade of fuel approved for use in aircraft.

Fuel Flow:-

The fuel flow for a gravity-fed system must be at least 150 percent of
take off fuel consumption of the engine. For pressure pump systems, the fuel
 flow for each reciprocating engine must be at least 125 percent of take off fuel
flow. These quantities are established by appropriate tests.

Lightening Protection:-

Fuel system must be designed and arranged to prevent the ignition of

fuel vapour within the system by direct or swept lightening strikes to areas
where these are likely to occur. In addition, the design must be such that fuel
vapour cannot be ignited at fuel vent outlets.

Hot-Weather Performance:-

Fuel systems must perform satisfactorily in hot-weather operation.

Systems must be free of vapour-lock when operating with fuel at 1100F (430C)
under critical conditions. Vapour lock is a condition of fuel starvation that can
occur in a reciprocating engine fuel system in which the fuel in the fuel line is
heated enough to cause it to vapourise, forming a bubble of fuel-vapour in the
line blocking fuel from flowing to the engine. Fuel-boost pumps installed in the
bottom of a fuel tank are an effective method for reducing the possibility of
vapour lock.

2. Explain with neat diagram about Electronic Ignition System of Jet Engine?

A. Electronic ignition

The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker

points to interrupt the low voltage high current through the primary winding of
the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where they ride the cam to
open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the
constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and
the opening of the contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is
subject to mechanical variations.

In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact

effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency. A
mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average ignition current of
more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may
limit the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.

Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems,

points were still used but they only handled a low current which was used to
control the high primary current through a solid state switching system. Soon,
however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by an angular sensor
of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more
commonly using a Hall effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet
mounted on the distributor shaft. The sensor output is shaped and processed by
suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor,
which switches a large current through the coil.

The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the
mechanical system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical
system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals. For older cars, it
is usually possible to retrofit an EI system in place of the mechanical one. In
some cases, a modern distributor will fit into the older engine with no other
modifications.

Other innovations are currently available on various cars. In some

models, rather than one central coil, there are individual coils on each spark
plug, sometimes known as direct ignition or coil on plug (COP). This allows the
coil a longer time to accumulate a charge between sparks, and therefore a higher
energy spark. A variation on this has each coil handle two plugs, on cylinders
which are 360 degrees out of phase (and therefore reach TDC at the same time);
in the four-cycle engine this means that one plug will be sparking during the
end of the exhaust stroke while the other fires at the usual time, a so-called
"wasted spark" arrangement which has no drawbacks apart from faster spark
plug erosion; the paired cylinders are 1/4 and 2/3. Other systems do away with
the distributor as a timing apparatus and use a magnetic crank angle sensor
mounted on the crankshaft to trigger the ignition at the proper time.

During the 1980s, EI systems were developed alongside other

improvements such as fuel injection systems. After a while it became logical to
combine the functions of fuel control and ignition into one electronic system
known as an engine control unit. More recently a retrofit Leburg electronic
ignition system was made available for VW aero engines. This system does
away with the distributor and other mechanical parts entirely. The variable
ignition timing is based on the instantaneous RPM, which is measured with an
electronic sensor.

The various instruments used are

1. Dynamotor
2. Exciter Unit
 3. Transformer
4. Igniter Plug

1. Dynamotor:-
It has the leads feeding to exciter unit. The dynamotor will rotate and
produce electricity for the needs.

2. Exciter Unit:-
Exciter unit is basically a capacitor where two conductors are
separated by an insulator to produce capacitance to store electric energy. It
will store electric energy and pass the energy to transformer as per needed.

3. Transformer:-

Capacitor
 Transformer is used to step up the electric current so as to get
high intensity of spark. Low pressure, very high intensified spark is set up by
using transformers. The transformers used are of step up type only.

4. Igniter Torch:-
High tension leads connect transformer to igniter plug. It will
produce the necessary spark for perfect combustion.

According to the engine pressure ratio, number of igniter plugs

are determined by
1. Total amount of thrust produced
2. Chamber
3. Banking of Chamber

Digital Electronic Ignitions

At the turn of the century digital electronic ignition modules became

available for small engines on such applications as chainsaws, string trimmers,
leaf blowers, and lawn mowers. This was made possible by low cost, high
speed, and small footprint microcontrollers. Digital electronic ignition modules
can be designed as either capacitive discharge (CDI) or inductive discharge
ignitions (IDI). Capacitive discharge digital ignitions store charged energy for
the spark in a capacitor within the module that can be released to the spark plug
at virtually any time throughout the engine cycle via a control signal from the
microprocessor. This allows for greater timing flexibility, and engine
performance; especially when designed hand-in-hand with the engine
carburetor.
3. Explain with neat sketch about Pressure Feed Fuel System?
A. A pressure feed fuel system uses a pump to move fuel from the
tank to the engine-fuel-control component. This arrangement is required
because the fuel tanks are located too low for sufficient head pressure to be
generated or because the tanks are some distant from engine.

The system in the figure given below is for a bio wing aircraft where
the wing tanks are on the same approximate level as the carburetor.

The fuel flows from the tanks through separate fuel lines to the fuel
selector valve. After leaving the selector valve, the fuel flows through the fuel
strainer and into electric fuel pump. The engine-driven pump supplies the fuel
pressure necessary for normal operation. During high altitude operation, take-
off and landing, the boost pump is operates to ensure adequate fuel pressure.
Most large aircrafts and aircrafts with medium-to-high powered engines require
a pressure feed system, regardless of fuel-tank location, because of the large
volume of fuel that must be delivered to the engines at a high pressure.
Low pressure feed system

Plumbing

 Plumbing is the name given to the fuel supply lines. They are depicted as
solid in the illustration but in real life obviously this is not true.
 Lines are generally made from metallic tubing, not pipes.
 Routing must be placed on the opposite side of the aircraft from the oxygen
supply and below any electrical wiring.
 The flow of fuel inside the fuel lines may produce static electricity. The lines
are therefore electrically connected to prevent any electrical charge
accumulation.
Fuel tank

 This is the fuel storage component. It must be large enough to carry fuel for
the whole mission.
 Fuel tanks must have means of dumping fuel in cases of emergency.
 They must be vented so that used fuel may be replaced by air or inert gases.
If there is insufficient flow of air into the tank, it may collapse (due to
loading caused by high performance or steep descend from altitude to sea
level). For integral wing tanks, the pressure difference may cause structural
damage and component failure.
 Fuel tanks may have a sump which collects water and solid particles in fuel.

Level indicator

 As the name suggests, this component provides the flight crew with the
current measurement of fuel content.
 Fuel measurement are difficult to measure as they depend on fuel tank shape
and aircraft attitude.
Pumps

 The pumps may be mounted externally or immersed in the fuel.

 It is important that the pumps are free of fuel vapour intrusion as they supply
fuel to the engine. To avoid this, air separators are installed at the pump
inlets.

Pressure switch

 The switch gives no indicator of the pressure value but rather reacts to the
presence of pressure which is above the pre-set lower limit of the switch.
 Relying solely on pump power indication is insufficient because even
though power switch may be on, the pump may not be working due to seized
rotor or blocked inlet. The pressure switch accounts for this.
 It gives the flight crew an indication of which pumps are operating since not
all pumps are switched on during operation (during take-off and aerobatics,
both pumps are on).

Non Return Valves (NRV's)

 Since during operation only one pump may be working, the NRV ensures
that fuel pumped from the operating pump is not returned to the fuel tank via
inoperative pump.

Pump by-pass valve

 This valve allows the fuel from other tanks to enter the indicated tank.
 If incorporated with a cross feed valve, it becomes a three way valve.

Tank isolation valve

 This valve isolates the tank from the fuel system. This is usually done in
cases of emergency or if a fuel leak develops in the tank, thus draining the
remaining aircraft fuel.
 Under normal operating conditions, this valve is open.
Cross feed valve

 Requirements state that the engine may only be supplied with fuel from one
tank at a time. The cross feed valve allows for this. It supplies fuel from
other tanks.
 This valve is usually closed under normal operating conditions.

Low pressure valve

 This valve is fitted after all tanks have had access to the fuel line.
 It allows maintenance on any part of the fuel circuit in the fuselage that is
not connected to the tank fuel distribution circuit.

Power drain valve

 This valve allows quick discharge of fuel from the system for maintenance
or emergency purposes.
 Power drain valve must be closed before engine start up.

High pressure feed system

Backing pump

 This is not an essential component; however, in case the engine requires a

fuel pressure higher than that produced by tank pumps, this pump is able to
do so.
 It is required that the engine must still operate without the use of this pump.

Fuel Cool Oil Cool (FCOC)

 The volatility (ability of evaporate) of fuel may be increased by heating it.

This is particularly important if fuel is supplied from wing tanks where it has
been exposed to low temperature soak at altitude.
 The hot oil from engine heats up the cool fuel and in the process cools itself
off, thus reducing the number of oil cooling components in the platform.

Fuel heater

 If additional fuel heating is required, the fuel heater is able to do this by the
use of high pressure compressor gas.
Fuel filter

 As the name suggests, this component filters out unwanted particles

contained in the fuel.
 The filter may be configured to trap water, in which case, it may become
blocked up due to ice formation.
 To avoid clogging when contaminants and/or ice are trapped, a bypass valve
is installed to get around a blocked filter.
 Regular inspection is essential unless the filter is equipped with an electrical
signaling device which indicates blockage.

Generally, change over from fuselage to engine occurs between these two
components.
Flow meter

 Quantity of fuel supplied to the engine is an important piece of information

for management of flight fuel use.
 If installed as it is depicted in the above illustration, it doesn't account for the
fuel bypassing the engine and returning to tanks.
 To give a correct fuel flow to engine indication, it can be installed after the
fuel control unit (FCU) where any fuel flowing must go to the engine.
Pressure transmitter

 This transmitter measures the pressure of the fuel entering the engine.
 If there is a problem during the mission, the flight crew can eliminate the
fuel pressure as a cause of this problem by reading the value off the pressure
transmitter.

Pressure switch

 This switch monitors the pressure of fuel entering the engine. If a low
pressure is sensed, the switch automatically alerts the crew and activates
master caution warning.

High Pressure pump (HP pump)

 This gear pump supplies the engine with fuel and is driven through an
accessory gearbox mounted to the engine.
 It is capable of producing pressures of up to 5.5 MPa.

4. Explain Gravity Feed Fuel System with neat diagram?

A. A gravity-feed fuel system uses the force of gravity to cause the

movement of fuel to the engine fuel-control mechanism.

For this to occur, the bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to
assure a proper fuel-pressure head at the inlet to the fuel-control component on the
engine. In high-wing aircraft, this is accomplished by placing the fuel tanks in the
wings. The fuel flows by gravity from the wing tanks through the feed lines to the
fuel selector valve. After passing through the selector valves, the fuel flows
through the strainer and then continues on to the carburetor.

Fuel for the primer is taken from the main fuel strainer. Since both
tanks may feed fuel to the engine simultaneously, the space above the fuel must be
interconnected and vented outside of the wing, where the possibility of fuel
accumulation in one tank causing instability can be minimized.
To engine
5. Explain about Spark Plug with neat diagram?

A. A spark plug is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of some
internal combustion engines and ignites compressed aerosol gasoline by means of
an electric spark. Spark plugs have an insulated center electrode which is
connected by a heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magneto circuit on the
outside, forming, with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap
inside the cylinder.

Operation:-

The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or

magneto. As the electrons flow from the coil, a voltage difference develops
between the center electrode and side electrode. No current can flow because the
fuel and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to
change the structure of the gases between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds
the dielectric strength of the gases, the gases become ionized. The ionized gas
becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across the gap. Spark plugs
usually require voltage in excess of 20,000 volts to 'fire' properly.

As the current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of
the spark channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in the spark channel causes the
ionized gas to expand very quickly, like a small explosion. This is the "click" heard
when observing a spark, similar to lightning and thunder. A new type of plug
called a pulse plug released in 2007 incorporates a peaking capacitor into the plug
itself that releases all its contents into the plug gap giving a much more intense
spark.

The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the end
of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the gases
burn on their own. The size of this fireball or kernel depends on the exact
composition of the mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion
chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will make the engine
run as though the ignition timing was retarded and a large one as though the timing
was advanced.

Spark plug construction

 A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the conductor. It pierces
the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion
chamber against high pressures and temperatures, without deteriorating over long
periods of time and extended use.

Parts of the plug

Terminal

The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition
system. The exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark
plug. Most passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but
some wires have spade connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut.
Plugs which are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve
a double purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for
either type of connection. These are a necessary part of the spark plug.

Insulator

The main part of the insulator is made from porcelain. Its major function is
to provide mechanical support for the centre electrode, whilst insulating the high
voltage. It has a secondary role, particularly in modern engines with deeply
inaccessible plugs, in extending the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make
it more readily accessible.
Ribs

By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the
grounded metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to
improve the electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along
the insulator surface from the terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer
path makes the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark
plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture.

Insulator tip

The tip of the insulator, the part from the metal body of the plug to the center
electrode protruding into the combustion chamber, must resist high temperatures
whilst retaining electrical insulation. To avoid over-heating the electrode, it must
also offer good thermal conductivity. The porcelain of the main insulator is
inadequate and so a sintered

Seals

As the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber of the engine when
installed, the seals ensure there is no leakage from the combustion chamber. The
seal is typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze as there are no braze
compositions that will wet both the ceramic and metal case and therefore
intermediary alloys are required.

Metal case

The metal case (or the "jacket" as many people call it) of the spark plug
bears the torque of tightening the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator
and pass it on to the cylinder head, and acts as the ground for the sparks passing
through the center electrode to the side electrode. As it acts as the ground, it can be
harmful if touched while igniting.

Center electrode

The center electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire

and commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of radio noise from
the sparking. The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron,
chromium, or precious metals. In the late seventies, the development of engines
reached a stage where the ‘heat range’ of conventional spark plugs with solid
nickel alloy centre electrodes was unable to cope with their demands.
Side electrode, or ground electrode

The side electrode is made from high nickel steel and is welded to the side of
the metal case. The side electrode also runs very hot, especially on projected nose
plugs. Some designs have provided a copper core to this electrode, so as to
increase heat conduction. Multiple side electrodes may also be used, so that they
don't overlap the center electrode.

Spark plug gap

Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted
by the technician installing the spark plug, by the simple method of bending the
ground electrode slightly to bring it closer to or further from the center electrode.
The belief that plugs are properly gapped as delivered in their box from the factory
is only partially true, as proven by the fact that the same plug may be specified for
several different engines, requiring a different gap for each. It can depend on the
engine: new spark plugs might be pre-gapped for a V-8 engine, installing all 8
plugs unchanged; however if installed in a 6-cylinder engine, all (6) plugs would
require re-gapping.

A spark plug gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of
precise diameters, and is used to measure the gap; use of a feeler gauge with flat
blades instead of round wires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, will
give erroneous results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes. The simplest
gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses which match the desired
gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With current engine
technology, universally incorporating solid state ignitions and computerized fuel
injection, the gaps used are much larger than in the era of carburetors and breaker
point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era are much too
small for measuring the gaps of current cars.

The gap adjustment can be fairly critical, and if it is maladjusted the engine
may run badly, or not at all. A narrow gap may give too small and weak a spark to
effectively ignite the fuel-air mixture, while a gap that is too wide might prevent a
spark from firing at all. Either way, a spark which only intermittently fails to ignite
the fuel-air mixture may not be noticeable directly, but will show up as a reduction
in the engine's power and fuel efficiency. The main issues with spark plug gaps are:

 narrow-gap risk: spark might be too weak/small to ignite fuel;

 narrow-gap benefit: plug always fires on each cycle;
 wide-gap risk: plug might not fire, or miss at high speeds;
  wide-gap benefit: spark is strong for a clean burn.

A properly gapped plug will be wide enough to burn hot, but not so wide
that it skips or misses at high speeds, causing that cylinder to drag, or the engine to
begin to rattle.

As a plug ages, and the metal of both the tip and hook erode, the gap will
tend to widen; therefore experienced mechanics often set the gap on new plugs at
the engine manufacturer's minimum recommended gap, rather than in the center of
the specified acceptable range, to ensure longer life between plug changes. On the
other hand, since a larger gap gives a "hotter" or "fatter" spark and more reliable
ignition of the fuel-air mixture, and since a new plug with sharp edges on the
center electrode will spark more reliably than an older, eroded plug, experienced
mechanics also realize that the maximum gap specified by the engine manufacturer
is the largest which will spark reliably even with old plugs and will in fact be a bit
narrower than necessary to ensure sparking with new plugs; therefore, it is possible
to set the plugs to an extremely wide gap for more reliable ignition in high
performance applications, at the cost of having to replace or re-gap the plugs much
more frequently, as soon as the tip begins to erode.

6. Schematically explain the Lubrication System for Gas Turbine Engine?

A.

Gas Turbine engines have been designed and manufactured in many different
configurations. Thus there are correspondingly different designs for the lubrication
systems of such engines.

There are three basic oil lubricating systems known as

1. Pressure Relief Valve System:-

The oil flow to the bearing chambers is controlled by limiting the

pressure in the feed line to a given value. This is accomplished by the use of a
spring-loaded valve which allows oil to be directly returned from the pressure
pump outlet to the oil tank or pressure pump inlet, when the design value is
exceeded. The valve opens at a pressure which corresponds to the idling speed
of the engine, thus giving a constant feed pressure over normal engine operating
speeds. However, increasing engine speed causes the bearing chamber pressure
to rise sharply. This reduces the pressure differential between the bearing
chamber and feed jet, thus decreasing the oil flow rate to the bearings as the
engine speed causes the bearing chamber pressure to rise sharply. This reduces
the pressure differential between the bearing chamber and feed jet, thus
decreasing the oil flow rate to the bearings as the engine speed increases. To
alleviate this problem, some pressure relief valve systems use the increasing
 bearing chamber pressure to rise sharply. This reduces the pressure differential
between the bearing chamber and feed jet, thus decreasing the oil flow rate to
the bearings as the engine speed increases. To alleviate this problem, some
pressure relief valve systems use the increasing bearing chamber pressure to
augment the relief valve spring load. This maintains a constant flow rate at the
higher engine speeds by increasing the pressure in the feed line as the bearing
chamber pressure increases.

2. Full Flow System:-

Although the pressure relief system operates satisfactorily for engines

which have low bearing chamber pressures that do not increase greatly with
engine speed, it is an undesirable system for engines which have high bearing
chamber pressures. This would result in the need for large pumps and would
create difficulties in matching the required oil flow at lower speeds.

The full flow system does not utilize a relief valve and achieves the
desired oil flow rates throughout the complete engine speed range by allowing
the pressure-pump delivery pressure to go directly to the oil feed jets. The
pressure pump size is determined by the flow required at maximum engine
speed. This system allows smaller pressure and scavenge pumps to be used than
in the pressure relief valve system.

3. Total Loss System:-

For engines which run for periods of short duration, such as booster
and vertical-lift engines, the total-loss oil system is generally used. This system
is simple and incurs low weight penalties because it requires no oil cooler,
scavenge pump or filters. On some engines, oil is delivered in a continuous flow
to the bearings by a plunger-type pump, indirectly driven from the compressor
shaft; on others, oil is delivered by a piston-type pump operated by fuel
pressure. Once the oil is used for bearing lubrication, it is disposed of; there is
no recirculation.

The major difference lies in the control of oil flow to the bearings. In the
lubrication system, the lubricating oil is stored in the tank. The fluid passes
through the filter. A pump is provided to pump the lubricating oil. A relief valve is
provided between the pump and the pressure regulating valve. When the pressure
exceeds the limit in the valve, the relief valve is opened so that the oil is ejected till
the pressure normalises. The oil is regulated between the valves and then later
cooled and returned to the tank after the operation.
7. Schematically explain the Lubrication System of Piston Engine?

A. Oil is pumped out of the engine into an external oil tank. Oil
flows from the oil tank to the engine driven pressure pump. The oil temperature
is sensed before the oil enters the engine; that is, the temperature of the oil in
the oil-in line is sensed, and the information is displayed by the engine oil
temperature gauge. The pressure pump has greater capacity than is required by
the engine; therefore, a pressure relief valve is incorporated to bypass excess oil
back to the inlet side of the pump. A pressure gauge connection, or sensor, is
located on the pressure side of the pressure pump to actuate the oil pressure
gauge. The oil screen or filter is usually located between the pressure pump and
the engine system; oil screens are provided with bypass features to permit
unfiltered oil to flow to the engine in case the screen becomes clogged, since
unfiltered oil is better than no oil. After the oil has flowed through the engine
system, it is picked up by the scavenge pump and returned through the oil
cooler to the oil tank. The scavenge pump has a capacity much greater than that
of a pressure pump, because the oil volume it must handle is increased as a
result of the air bubbles and foam entrained during engine operation. The oil
cooler usually incorporates a thermostat control valve that bypasses the oil
around the cooler until the oil temperature reaches a proper value. To prevent
pressure build up in the oil tank, a vent line is connected from the tank to the
engine crank case. This permits the oil tank to vent through the engine venting
system. Check valves are employed in some systems to prevent oil from
flowing by gravity to the engine when the engine is inoperative.
Oil Tanks:-

Dry-sump engine lubrication systems require a separate oil tank

for each engine system. These tanks are constructed of welded sheet aluminium,
riveted aluminium or stainless steel. Some aircraft are equipped with synthetic
rubber tanks similar to fuel cells.

An outlet for the tank is normally located at the lowest section

of the tank to permit complete drainage, either in the ground position or in a
normal flight attitude. If the aircraft is equipped with a propeller- feathering
system, a reserve of oil must be provided for feathering, either in the main tank,
the normal outlet must be arranged so the reserve oil supply cannot be drawn
out of the tank except when it is necessary to feather the propeller.

Some oil tanks, particularly those that carry a large supply of

oil, are designed with a hopper that partially isolates a portion of the oil in the
 tank from the main body of the oil. Oil to the engine is drawn from the bottom
of the hopper and return oil feeds into the top of the hopper. This permits a
small portion of the oil in the tank to be circulated through the engine, thus
permitting rapid warm-up of the engine. The hopper is open to the main body of
the oil through holes near the bottom and in some cases the hopper is equipped
with a flapper valve that allows oil to flow into the hopper as the oil in the
hopper is consumed. The hopper is also termed as temperature-accelerating
part.

Provision must be made to prevent the entrance into tank

itself or into the tank outlet, of any foreign object material which might obstruct
the flow of oil through system. The oil tank outlet must not be enclosed by
screen or guard which would reduce the flow of oil below safe value at any
operating temperature condition. The diameter of the oil outlet must not be less
than the diameter of the oil outlet must not be less than the diameter of the inlet
to the oil pump. That is, the pump must have greater capacity than the outlet of
the tank.

Oil tanks must be constructed with an expansion space of 10

percent of tank capacity or ½ gallons whichever is greater. It must not be
possible to fill the expansion space when the tank is refilled. This provision met
by locating the filler neck or opening so that it is below the expansion space in
the tank. Reserve oil tanks which have no direct connection to any engine must
have an expansion space which is not less than 2 percent of tank capacity.

8. Explain with a schematic diagram Electric Starting System of Turbojet

Engine and also explain the following briefly 1. Cartridge Starting 2.
Isopropyl Nitrate Starting?

A. Two separate systems are requires to ensure that a Gas Turbine Engine
will start satisfactorily.

Provision must be made for the compressor and gas turbine to rotate
upto a speed which adequate air passes into the combustion system. Provision
must be made for ignition of the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.

During the starting of the engines, starters are required. There are 6
types of starters used.
 1. Electrical Starter

2. Cartridge Starter

3. Isopropyl Nitrate Starter

4. Air Starter

5. Gas Turbine Starter

6. Auxillary Power Unit

Electric Starter:-

The electrical starter is usually a DC electric motor coupled to the

engine through a reduction gear and clutch, which automatically disengages
after the engine has reached self-sustaining speed.

The electric supply may be of low or high voltage and is passed

through a system of relays and resistance to allow the full voltage to be
progressively built up the starter going speed.

This starting process normally uses an electric motor to spin the main
turbine shaft. The motor is bolted to the outside of the engine and uses a shaft
and gears to connect to the main shaft. The electric motor spins the main shaft
 until there is enough air blowingthrough the compressor and the combustion
chamber to light the engine. Fuel starts flowing and an igniter similar to a spark
plug ignites the fuel. Then fuel flow is increased to spin the engine up to its
operating speed. If you have ever been at the airport and watched a big jet
engine start up, you know that the blades start rotating slowly. The electric
starter motor does that. Then you (sometimes) hear a pop and see smoke come
out of the back of the engine. Then the engine spins up and starts producing
thrust.

Besides the starter shaft, most big jet engines include another output
shaft for driving things like electrical generators, air conditioning compressors,
etc. needed to operate the plane and keep it comfortable. This shaft can connect
to the main turbine shaft at the same point the starter does or elsewhere. Some
jet airplanes have a separate turbine (sometimes in the tail cone of the plane)
that does nothing but generate auxiliary power. It is more efficient to run this
smaller turbine when the plane is sitting on the tarmac.

Cartridge Starter:-

Sometimes this method is used on military engine. It is a quick

method of starting. The starter motor is basically a small impulse type of
turbine that is driven by high velocity gases from a burning cartridge.

The power output of the turbine is passed through a reduction

gear and automatic disconnect mechanism to the rotation of engine. This starter
used a large blank cartridge containing Cordite which, when fired, caused the
engine to turn over and start, which was evidenced externally by the spinning of
the propeller.

Shotgun starters are composed of a breech (into which the cartridge is

inserted) which is connected to the motor by a short steel pipe, which acts like a
gun barrel. The blank cartridge fits into the breech, and is triggered either
electrically or mechanically. When the aircraft's ignition is turned on and the
cartridge is fired, high-velocity, high-pressure gas (~1000 psi at ~600 ft/s)
shoots down the pipe, forcing the motor to spin and engage the starter ring on
the engine, which is attached to the crankshaft.

The advantage of the cartridge system over electric starters is that the
batteries of the time were weak and trouble-prone. Aircraft with electric motors
often required the use of a battery cart and jumper cables, or large, heavy
batteries carried in the plane. Inertia starters use a heavy wheel, usually made of
 brass, which is spun by a hand crank or electric motor, causing the spinning
wheel to engage the starter ring. The Coffman system weighs less.

The primary disadvantages of the shotgun starter are the need to keep a
stock of cartridges, one of which is used for each attempt to start, and the short
time that the motor is spun by each cartridge. Compressed-air starters, which
use the same type of motor, are usually recharged by an engine-driven
compressor, negating the need to carry cartridges, but adding requirements for
the compressor and air tank. Hybrid systems can be made simply by adding a
cartridge breech or an air tank to an existing system.

Isopropyl Nitrate Starter:-

It has a turbine that transmits the power through a reduction gear to

the engine. The turbine is rotated by high pressure gases resulting from the
combustion of isopropyl nitrate.

9. Explain Air Starter with schematic diagram and also briefly explain Gas
Turbine Starter?

A. Air Starter:-

Air starting system is used on most of commercial aircrafts. Air starter

motor transmits power through a reduction gear and clutch to the starter. The
starter turbine is rotated by air taken from an external ground supply auxillary
power unit or cross feed from a running engine.

An air starter on a turbine engine usually consists of a radial inward

flow turbine which is connected to the N2 spool through the accessory gearbox,
plus the associated piping and valves. Compressed air is provided to the system
by bleed air from the aircraft's auxiliary power unit or from an air compressor
mounted on ground support equipment.

Compared to electric starters, air starters have a higher power-to-

weight ratio. Electric starters and their wiring can become excessively hot if it
takes longer than expected to start the engine, while air starters can be run as
long as their air supply lasts. For reciprocating engines, significant complexity
is added to the engine by using an air start system, as the cylinder head must
have an extra valve in each cylinder to admit the air in for starting, plus the
 required control systems. This added complexity and cost limits the use of air
starters to very large and expensive reciprocating engines. Turbine starters are
much simpler and are a natural fit for turbine engines, and thus are used
extensively on large turbofan engines used on commercial and military aircraft.

Gas Turbine Starter:-

Gas Turbine Starter is used for some jet engines and is completely self
contained. It has its own fuel, ignition, starting and oil system. It connects
electrically to one turbine and it is connected to turbine through shaft. After
reaching 1000 rpm or more, it will work as generator for other electric
purposes.

This type of starter is economical to operate and provides a high power

output for a low weight.

10. Explain about AVGAS?

A. Avgas is a high-octane aviation fuel used to power many aircraft and
racing cars. Avgas is a portmanteau for aviation gasoline, as distinguished from
mogas (motor gasoline), which is the everyday gasoline used in cars. Some
light aircraft also use automobile fuel instead of avgas.

Avgas is used in aircraft that have piston or Wankel engines. Gas turbines
can operate on avgas, but typically do not. Turbine and diesel engines are
designed to use kerosene-based jet fuel.

Avgas properties and varieties:-

Gasoline used for aviation fuel generally has two numbers associated
with its octane rating. Examples of this include the now almost completely
unavailable 80/87 avgas, and the still widely available 100/130 avgas. The first
number indicates the octane rating of the fuel tested to "aviation lean"
standards, which is similar to the Motor Octane Number (MON) rating given to
automotive gasoline. The second number indicates the octane rating of the fuel
tested to the "aviation rich" standard, which tries to simulate a supercharged
condition with a rich mixture, elevated temperatures, and a high manifold
pressure.

Avgas has a lower and more uniform vapor pressure than automotive
gasoline, which keeps it in the liquid state at high-altitude, preventing vapor
lock. The particular mixtures in use today are the same as when they were first
developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and therefore the high-octane ratings are
achieved by the addition of tetra-ethyl lead (TEL), a highly toxic substance that
was phased out for car use in most countries in the 1980s. The main petroleum
component used in blending avgas is alkylate, which is essentially a mixture of
various isooctanes, and some refineries also use some reformate.

Avgas is currently available in several grades with differing maximum

lead concentrations. Since TEL is a rather expensive additive, a minimum
amount of it is typically added to the fuel to bring it up to the required octane
rating so actual concentrations are often lower than the maximum.

Grades

100LL:-
 100LL, spoken as "100 low lead", contains tetra-ethyl lead (TEL), a lead
based anti-knock compound, but less than the "highly-leaded" 100/130 avgas it
effectively replaced. Most piston aircraft engines require 100LL and a suitable
replacement fuel has not yet been developed for these engines. While there are
similar engines that burn non-leaded fuels, aircraft are often purchased with
engines that use 100LL because many airports only have 100LL. 100LL
contains a maximum of 2 grams of lead per US gallon, or maximum 0.56
grams/litre and is the most commonly available and used aviation gasoline.

82UL:-

82UL is the specification for an unleaded fuel similar to automobile

gasoline but without additives. It could potentially be used in aircraft that have
a Supplemental Type Certificate for the use of automobile gasoline with an
aviation lean octane rating (MON) of 82 or less or an antiknock index of 87 or
less. It could not be used in engines that require 100LL. See Octane Rating. The
FAA highly recommends installing placards stating the use of 82UL is or is not
approved on those airplanes that specify unleaded autogas (mogas) as an
approved fuel.As of 2008, 82UL is not being produced and no refiner has
announced plans to put it into production.

80/87:-

Prior to its phase out in the early 1990s, avgas 80/87 had the lowest
lead content with a maximum of 0.5 grams lead per U.S. gallon, and was only
used in low compression ratio engines.

100/130:-

Avgas 100/130 had a higher octane grade aviation gasoline,

containing a maximum of 4 grams of lead per US gallon, maximum 1.12
grams/litre. 100LL "low lead" has replaced avgas 100/130 in most places, but
Avgas 100/130 is still sold in Australia and New Zealand as one of the two
manufacturers in Australia is unable to make Avgas 100LL.

91/96 & 115/145:-

In the past other grades were also available, particularly for military
use, such as avgas 115/145 and 91/96. Note that the octanes of avgas cannot be
directly compared to those of mogas, as a different test engine and method is
used to determine the octane. The first (lower) number is the lean mixture
 rating, the second (higher) number is the rich mixture rating. For mogas, the
octane rating is typically expressed in the U.S. as an anti-knock index (known
as "pump rating"), which is the average of the octane rating based on the
research and motor test method ((R+M)/2).

Avgas compared to other fuels

Many general aviation aircraft engines were designed to run on 80/87

octane, roughly the standard for North American automobiles today. Direct
conversions to run on automotive fuel are fairly common and applied via the
supplemental type certificate (STC) process. However, the alloys used in
aviation engine construction are rather outdated, and engine wear in the valves
is a potential problem on automotive gasoline conversions. Fortunately,
significant history of mogas-converted engines has shown that very few engine
problems are actually caused by automotive gasoline. A larger problem stems
from the wider range of allowable vapor pressures found in automotive
gasoline; this can pose some risk to aviation users if fuel system design
considerations are not taken into account. Automotive gasoline can vaporize in
fuel lines causing a vapor lock (a bubble in the line), starving the engine of fuel.
This does not constitute an insurmountable obstacle, but merely requires
examination of the fuel system, ensuring adequate shielding from high
temperatures and maintaining sufficient pressure in the fuel lines. This is the
main reason why both the specific engine model as well as the aircraft in which
it is installed must be supplementally certified for the conversion. A good
example of this is the Piper Cherokee with high-compression 160 hp (120 kW)
or 180 hp (130 kW) engines. Only later versions of the airframe with different
engine cowling and exhaust arrangements are applicable for the automotive fuel
STC, and even then require fuel system modifications.

Vapor lock typically occurs in fuel systems where a mechanically-

driven fuel pump mounted on the engine draws fuel from a tank mounted lower
than the pump. The reduced pressure in the line can cause the more volatile
components in automotive gasoline to flash into vapor, forming bubbles in the
fuel line and interrupting fuel flow. If an electric boost pump is mounted in the
fuel tank to push fuel toward the engine, as is common practice in fuel-injected
automobiles, the fuel pressure in the lines is maintained above ambient
pressure, preventing bubble formation. Likewise, if the fuel tank is mounted
above the engine and fuel flows primarily due to gravity, as in a Cessna high-
wing airplane, vapor lock cannot occur, using either aviation or automotive
fuels.
 In addition to vapor locking potential, automotive gasoline does not
have the same quality tracking as aviation gasoline. To help solve this problem,
the specification for an aviation fuel known as 82UL has recently been
developed. This fuel would be essentially automotive gasoline that has
additional quality tracking and restrictions on permissible additives. This fuel is
not currently in production and no refiners have committed to producing it.

The main consumers of avgas at present (mid-2000s) are in North

America, Australia, Brazil, and Africa (mainly South Africa). Care must be
taken by small airplane pilots to select airports with avgas on flight planning.
For example, U.S. and Japanese recreational pilots ship and depot avgas before
flying into Siberia. Shrinking availability of avgas drives usage of small
airplane engines that can use jet fuel.

In Europe, avgas prices are so high that there have been a number of
efforts to convert the industry to diesel instead, which is common, inexpensive
and has a number of advantages for aviation use. However, avgas remains the
most common fuel in Europe as well.

UNIT-4
Schematically explain the following:-

1. Continuous Flow Oxygen System.

 It allows a metered amount of oxygen to continuously flow into
the mask. A rebreather type mask is used with continuous flow system. The
simplest flow system regulates the flow through the calibrated orifice in the
outlet to the mask. It supplies oxygen continuously. As such there are chances
of wastage. The system can be used up to 5500m with a cannula and 7600m
with a mask. The oxygen is carried in the high pressure steel cylinder.

The pressure is reduced from that in the cylinder to 300-400 psi

by the pressure reducing valve. A pressure relief valve protects the oxygen
cylinder from over pressure. If the over pressure condition occurs, the oxygen
will flow overboard. The flow will blow out a green indication disk on the
aircraft fuselage.

Unpressurised aircraft flying at higher altitudes may have

continuous flow oxygen system for the passengers and diluter demand oxygen
system for the flight crew.

The cylinder is common to all systems. It can be made from steel,

aluminum, or composites. The tank pressure is usually less than 2,200 pounds
per square inch (psi). The regulators which step down the pressure from 2200
psi to 20-75 psi can be attached separately from the cylinder(s) or directly
screwed onto the cylinder. Most regulators are of the diaphragm type. They
typically hold a constant output pressure between 20 and 75 pounds, depending
on the manufacturer, from either a full cylinder to one that is almost empty. A
manifold system is built into the regulator for portable systems. For built-in
systems there is a manifold system installed in the aircraft. The manifold system
operates at the 20-75 pound pressure, and not the 2,000+ pounds cylinder
pressure.

The constant flow type provides the same output pressure or flow regardless of
altitude. There is virtually no maintenance required. It is low in cost and well as
low in weight. The regulator output is typically 2.5 to 3.0 liters per minute at a
regulated line pressure of 25 to 75 pounds. The output is controlled by a small
orifice in the regulator itself or most commonly done by the connector going
into the manifold system. The connector orifice can be a hole as small as .012
inches in diameter. Cessna aircraft with factory supplied built in oxygen
systems use a constant flow type of system manufactured by Puritan. Most
portable systems are also of the constant flow type.

The disadvantage of the constant flow system is that there is a waste of oxygen
at lower oxygen altitudes. The system typically provides the pilot a flow of 2.5
liters per minute. This is the correct amount of oxygen at 25,000 feet. However,
if the aircraft were only at 15,000 feet, only 1.5 liters per minute are required.
There is a waste of 1 liter per minute of oxygen. The excess oxygen used has no
serious medical effect other than drying out your nose quickly. Obviously,
however there is an economic disadvantage.

2. Diluter Demand Oxygen System.

 In the diluter demand oxygen system, the oxygen is metered to the
mask where it is diluted with the cabin air by an airflow metering assembly
referred to as diluter demand regulator, which regulates the amount of air to be
diluted on the basis of cabin altitude. The mixture of oxygen and air flows only
when the person inhales through the mask. Thus the wastage is minimum.
Diluter demand systems sense altitude and supply the appropriate amount of
oxygen.

Almost all pressurized turbine engined aircraft have a diluter

demand oxygen system for the flight crew and the continuous flow system for
the passengers. A typical diluter demand oxygen system is shown in figure.

3. Pressure Demand Oxygen System :-

 The pressure demand oxygen system is used on aircraft that fly at
very high altitudes. Pressure demand systems supply oxygen to the mask at
higher than ambient pressures. The system functions in a similar way as a
diluter demand type until about 12200m (40000 ft) the output to the mask is
pressurized enough to force the needed oxygen into the lungs.

4. Chemical Oxygen Generator System:-

In the chemical oxygen generator system, oxygen is produced by the

chemical generator and dispenser units. The passenger oxygen system uses
chemical oxygen generators to make oxygen. The generators are located in the
passenger service units. Each chemical generator is separate and supplies to
individual masks. The masks are connected to the chemical generators by flexible
tubes. Oxygen from the generators flows through flexible hoses to the passenger
oxygen masks.

The oxygen generators are metal-cased cylindrical devices. A

spring- loaded firing mechanism is at one end of the generator. An output
manifold and the relief are at the other end. The oxygen generators make
oxygen by a chemical reaction. Sodium chlorate mixed with the binding
 material is mounted into a solid block. The block is installed in an insulated
stainless steel case. In the reaction, sodium chlorate and the iron react to make
salt and gaseous oxygen. After the reaction starts, it cannot be stopped. The
reaction continues until all the sodium chlorate is used. The reaction produces
heat which increases the generator surface temperature to around 232 oC (450
o
F). The gaseous oxygen goes through a filter medium and then flows out of the
output manifold. The output manifold ports connect to the oxygen passenger
masks by flexible tubing. A pressure relief valve prevents over pressurization of
the generator.

A chemical oxygen generator is a device that releases oxygen created

by a chemical reaction. The oxygen source is usually an inorganic superoxide,
chlorate or perchlorate. A promising group of oxygen sources are ozonides. The
generators are usually ignited mechanically, by a firing pin, and the chemical
reaction is usually exothermic, making the generator a potential fire hazard.
Potassium superoxide was used as an oxygen source on early manned USSR space
missions, for firefighters and mine rescue.
 Commercial aircraft provide emergency oxygen to passengers to
protect them from drops in cabin pressure. Chemical oxygen generators are not
used for the cockpit crew. In narrow body airliners, for each row of seats there are
overhead masks and oxygen generators. In wide body airliners, such as the DC-10,
the canisters and oxygen masks are mounted in the top portion of the seat backs,
since the ceiling is too high above the passengers. If a decompression occurs, the
panels are opened either by an automatic pressure switch or by a manual switch,
and the masks are released. When the passengers pull down on the mask they
remove the retaining pins and trigger the production of oxygen.

The oxidizer core is sodium chlorate (NaClO3), which is mixed

with less than 5 percent barium peroxide (BaO2) and less than 1 percent potassium
perchlorate (KClO4). The explosives in the percussion cap are a lead styphnate and
tetracene mixture. The chemical reaction is exothermic and the exterior
temperature of the canister will reach 260 °C (500°F). It will produce oxygen for
15 to 20 minutes. The two-mask generator is approximately 63 mm (2.5") in
diameter and 223 mm (8.8") long. The three-mask generator is approximately 70
mm (2.8") in diameter and 250 mm (10") long.

Accidental activation of improperly shipped expired generators

caused the ValuJet Flight 592 crash. An ATA DC-10, Flight 131, was also
destroyed while parked at O'Hare Airport, on August 10, 1986. The cause was the
accidental activation of an oxygen canister, contained in the back of a broken DC-
10 seat, being shipped in the cargo compartment to a repair station. There were no
fatalities or injuries, because the plane contained no passengers, when the fire
broke out.

A chlorate candle, or an oxygen candle, is a cylindrical chemical

oxygen generator containing a mix of sodium chlorate and iron powder. When
ignited, the mixture smolders at about 600 °C (1100°F), producing sodium
chloride, iron oxide, and about 6.5 man-hours of oxygen per kilogram of the
mixture. It releases oxygen at a fixed rate. The mixture has an indefinite shelf life
if stored properly; candles stored for 20 years have shown no decrease in oxygen
output. The oxygen is released by thermal decomposition. The heat is supplied by
the burning iron. The candle has to be wrapped in thermal insulation to maintain
the reaction temperature and to protect surrounding equipment. Potassium and
lithium chlorate, and sodium, potassium and lithium perchlorates can also be used
in oxygen candles.
5. Portable oxygen System:-

Portable oxygen cylinders are used for first aid purpose. Each
portable oxygen cylinder is a separate system. The oxygen is stored in the steel
cylinder under high pressure of 1800psi (124*103 ) at 21oC. The cylinders are
charged with dry aviation grade oxygen. An indicator on the cylinder shows
cylinder pressure (quantity of oxygen available). A shut off valve on the
cylinder head controls the flow of the high pressure oxygen to the cylinder head
assembly. Cylinder head components regulate oxygen pressure and flow to the
attached masks. When the shut off valve is open, the cylinder supplies oxygen
to two constant flow outlets. The outlet fittings have glass cord metering
devices and check valves. The check calves are unseated by the mask connector
to allow flow when a mask is connected. A typical portable oxygen cylinder is
shown in figure.

6. Continuous Loop Detector:-

The continuous loop detector consists of small, light weight,

flexible inconel tube with a pure nickel wire as an electrode. The space between
the nickel conductor and the tubing wall is covered by ceramic beads which act
as insulation. Any voids or clearances are saturated with a eutectic salt mixture
which has a low melting point. The tube is hermetically sealed at both ends with
insulating material and threaded fittings. When heated current can flow between
the center wire and the tube wall because the eutectic salt melts and the
resistance drops rapidly. The increased current flow provides a signal which is
used in the control unit to sound the alarm system. Once the fire is extinguished
or the overheat condition is corrected the eutectic salt increases its resistance
and the system returns to standby mode.
Kidde System:-

The kidde system is also a continuous loop system. It utilizes an

inconel tube with two internal electrical conductors. The conductors are
embedded in a thermistor or thermal resistor material, which prevents the two
conductors to touch each other and the casing. The thermistor material has an
electrical resistance, which decreases with the increase in temperature. One
conductor is grounded to the outer shell at the end of the tube and the second
conductor is a positive lead. When heated, the resistance of the thermistor
material drops. The change in resistance is sensed by the electronic control
circuit monitoring the system and sends a warning signal to illuminate the fire
warning light and activate the aural warning. When the condition is corrected
the system returns to standby mode. The sensing element in the kidde system is
unique because it consists of two wire conductors. The wire conductors are on
two different circuits and allow for complete system redundancy.
Systron- Donner (Pneumatic system) :-

It is a continuous loop pneumatic system. The sensing element

consists of a stainless steel tube containing two separate gases and a gas
absorption material in the form of a wire inside the tube. Normally the tube is
filled with helium gas under pressure. The titanium center wire which is the gas
absorption material contains hydrogen gas. The wire is wrapped in a helical
fashion with an inert material tape for stabilization and protection. Gaps
between the turns of tape allow for rapid release of the hydrogen gas from the
wire when the temperature reaches the required level. The sensor acts in
accordance with the law of gases. If the volume of the gas in the tube exerts
pressure, which closes a pneumatic switch and operates the warning system.
After the situation is corrected the titanium wire reabsorbs the hydrogen and the
system returns to a standby mode.
7. Thermal Switch System:-

A normally closed thermal switch adapted to open at temperatures

above the closing temperature, is exposed to a temperature above the closing
temperature sufficient to maintain the switch open in an atmospheric
environment, but insufficient to maintain said switch open in a liquid
environment, wherein the switch is caused to close. Closing the switch
introduces additional heat which is sufficient to open the switch while in such
liquid environment, but capable of affecting a fast operating of the switch upon
subsequent removal of the liquid environment and exposing the switch to the
initial atmospheric environment. The switch is present in assemblies. And this
switch assembly, when employed in a sump pump system, will reduce the
continued running of the pump following completion of a pumping operation,
to protect the motor against heat up damage, and economize on power
consumption.

This is simply a circuit in which one or more thermal switches are

connected in an aural alarm unit to warn the pilot or flight crew that an overheat
condition exists in a particular area. If more than one thermal switch is in the
circuit, they are connected in parallel, so the closing of any one switch will
provide a warning.

A thermal switch also called the ‘spot detector’ works by the

expansion of the outer case of the unit. When the detector is exposed to heat the
case becomes longer and causes the two contacts inside the case to be drawn
together. When the contact meets, the electrical circuit is completed and the
alarm activates.

8. Thermocouple Detection system:-

A select high multiple thermocouple probe circuit includes a

plurality of operational amplifiers, each operational amplifier being associated
respectively with an individual thermocouple. Each thermocouple is resistively
coupled across the input terminals of its associated operational amplifier so that
the operational amplifier generates an output signal which is proportional to the
temperature at which the thermocouple is exposed. The output terminal of each
operational amplifier is connected through an associated diode to a circuit
output terminal so that only in the highest operational amplifier output voltage
appears at the circuit output terminal.

The operational amplifier feedback circuits are arranged so that a

thermocouple becomes either open or shorted; the output voltage from the
operational amplifier becomes abnormal. This abnormal voltage is sensed
through the further diode network to indicate that a thermocouple failure has
concerned.

Also called a ‘rate of rise detection system’ this utilizes one or more
thermocouples connected in series to activate an alarm system when there is a
sufficiently high rate of temperature increases at the sensor. The thermocouple
is made of two dissimilar metals such as chromal and constantan, which are
twisted together and located inside an open frame. The frame protects the
sensing wires from damage while allowing the free floe of air over the wires.
The exposed wires make up the hot junction. A cold junction is located behind
insulating material in the sensor units. When there is a difference in temperature
between the hot and cold junctions, a current is created. When a sufficient
current is being generated, a sensitive relay in the relay box closes, activating
the slave relay, and in turns the alarm.
9. Vapour Cycle Cooling System:-

The vapour cycle air conditioning system is used in reciprocating

engine powered aircraft and in smaller turboprop aircraft. The operation of
vapour cycle machine is controlled by pilot and may incorporate automatic
cutout or interrupt system, which are used to damage the refrigerant compressor
during demand for high engine powered output.

Principle Used:-

As liquid changes to gas, it absorbs heat which is called latent heat

of vaporization. Heat transfers only from a material having a given temperature,
to a material having a lower temperature.
System Operation :-

The cooling process starts at the compressor, which pushes the

refrigerant under pressure through the entire system. As the gas enters the
condenser heat is drawn from the refrigerant and passed to the atmosphere. The
cooling of the refrigerant causes it to condense into the liquid. The pressurized
liquid is then metered into tiny droplets by an expansion valve. Then the
droplets enter into the evaporator. As a result of heat being drawn from the air,
its temperature is decreased. It is this cooled air that is introduced into the cabin
for cooling.

The refrigeration cycle beginning with the compressor, involves the

compression of the refrigerant gas which is comparatively cold and at low
pressure as it leaves the evaporator and flows to the compressor. The
compressor is the source of energy required for the operation of the system. The
gas leaving the compressor is at a high temperature and pressure. In a typical
range of operation, the pressure of the gas leaving the compressor may be as
high as 180 psig or more.

From the compressor, the hot high pressure gas flows into the
condenser; this is the heat radiator through which cool air is passed to remove
heat from the vapour. On an airplane in flight the airflow to the condenser coils
may rely on the through inlets in the wings, or the coils may be mounted on the
structure that is lowered into the airstream during flight. On the ground the air
must be caused to flow through the condenser by means of a blower or some
type of an ejector. As the vapour is cooled in the condenser it becomes a liquid
and flows to the receiver-drier-filter. It is a reservoir containing filter and
dessicant. A sight glass is usually located on the top of the receiver to allow
observation of the fluid flow through the unit. If bubbles are seen in the fluid,
the system refrigerant is known to be low and requires replenishment.

Refrigerant liquid flowing from the receiver is under high

pressure and has been cooled by the condenser. In some systems the liquid
refrigerant at this point is passed through a sub cooler. It is a heat exchanger
through which the refrigerant liquid flowing to the expansion valve and the cold
vapour flowing from the evaporator are passed through separate coils in the sub
cooler. Since the fluid is warmer than the vapour, heat from the liquid passes
through the vapour. This effect is to sub cool the fluid and superheat the vapour.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant, after leaving the drier, passes
through the thermal expansion valve. This valve consists of a variable orifice
through which the high pressure liquid is forced. Low pressure exits at the
outlet side of the expansion valve, through the evaporator and to the inlet of the
compressor. The process continues as before.

10. Air cycle cooling system:-

Modern large turbine powered a/c makes the use of air cycle
machines to adjust the temperature of the air directed into the passenger and
crew components of this large a/c. The large aircraft utilizes air cycle cooling
because of simplicity, freedom from troubles and economy. In these systems the
refrigerant is air. Air cycle cooling system utilizes the same gases involved in
vapour cycle systems.

Principle Used:-

The principle of cooling is when the gas is compressed, it becomes

cooled. If the pressure cylinder is connected to an air compressor and
compressed air is forced into the cylinder, one can observe that the cylinder
becomes warm or even hot, depending upon the level of compression and the
rate at which the air is compressed. If the cylinder filled with highly
compressed air is then allowed to cool to ambient temperature, the pressure in
the cylinder is reduced to certain degree. As the air expands the pressure returns
to the ambient value. This cold air can then be used as a cooling agent. In the
air cycle system, the air is continuously compressed and then cooled by means
of heat exchanger through which ram air is passed, then the pressure is reduced
by passing the air through the expansion turbine. The air leaving the expansion
turbine is at low pressure and temperature. The cooled air is directed through
ducting with control valves to regulate the amount of cooling air needed to
produce the desired temperature.

Working :-

Modern large turbine aircraft make use of air cycle machines to

adjust the temperature of air directed into the passenger and crew cabins of
these large aircraft. These large aircraft utilize air-cycle cooling because of its
simplicity, freedom from troubles, and economy. In these systems the
refrigerant is air. Air cycle cooling systems utilize the same principles of
thermodynamics and the same law of gases involved in the vapour cycle
systems. One principal difference is that the air is not reduced to liquid, as is the
refrigerant in vapour cycle system.

The turbine-compressor unit by which the air is cooled is called an

air-cycle machine. Hot compressed air from the compressor of one of the
turbine engines flows through the primary heat exchanger. The heat exchanger
is exposed to ram air, which removes heat from the air. The cooled but still
compressed air is then ducted to the compressor inlet of the ACM. The
compressor further compresses the air and causes it to rise its temperature. The
air is then directed to the secondary heat exchanger which being exposed to ram
air, removes heat from the compressed air. The compressed air is then directed
to the expansion turbine. It absorbs energy from the air and utilizes this energy
to drive the compressor. As the air exits the turbine, it enters the larger chamber,
which allows the air to expand and causes a reduction in air temperature. The
great reduction in moisture is removed by means of a water separator. The dried
cooled air is then routed to ducting to be utilized as required to provide the
desired temperature in the cabin.
 11. Pneumatic De-Icing System:-

These systems use rubber de-icers called boots or shoes, which are
attached to the leading edges of the wing and stabilizers. The de-icers are
composed of a series of inflatable tubes. During operation the tubes are inflated
with pressurized air, and deflated in an alternating cycle.

This inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack and break off. The
ice is then carried away by the air stream. De icers are installed in sections
operating alternately and symmetrically about the fuselage. In some aircrafts
cement is used for attaching the de-icer boots to leading edge surface. The
control of the pressure and suction is accomplished by means of a distributor
valve, which rotates, periodically changes the flow of air to or from the
different section of the boots, and this section cracks off any ice that has formed
on the boots.

The pneumatic system installed on one model of a twin engine

aircraft provides a good example of an application of such a system. Either
aluminum or rubber air connections called air connection system is provided on
backside of each de-icer. Each stem projects from the underside of the boot into
a leading edge through a round hole provided in the metal skin. These provide
for connection to the de-icer pneumatic system.

For many years, various airplanes have utilized mechanical de-icing

systems consisting of Inflatable rubber boots formed to the leading edge of the
wings, struts and stabilizers. The de-icing boots are attached to the leading edge
of the aerofoils by means of cement and fasteners such as rivnuts also called
“bootnuts”. The inflatable boots are usually constructed with several separate
air passages or chambers so that some can be inflated and alternatively others
can be deflated.

12. Thermal Anti- Icing System:-

Thermal anti-icing uses heated air flowing through passages in the

leading edge of wings, stabilizers and cowling to prevent the formation of ice.
The heat source is normally the combustion heater or engine bleed air. From the
source the hot air is distributed along the leading edge of the item being anti-
iced by the use of perforated air duct called a piccolo or spray tube. The skin is
heated or ice is prevented from forming.

Thermal system used for the purpose of preventing the formation of

ice or for de-icing aerofoil leading edges, usually use heated air ducted span
wise along the inside of the leading edge of the aerofoil and distributed around
its inner surface. There are several methods used to provide heated air. These
include bleeding air from the turbine compressor, engine exhaust heat
exchangers and ram air heated by the combustion heater.
 The heated air carried through the ducting is passed into the gap. This
provides sufficient heat to the outer skin to melt the layers of ice next to the skin
or to prevent its formation. The air is then exhausted to the atmosphere at the
wing tip or at points where its formation could be critical, for example, at the
leading edge of the control surfaces.

When the air is heated by combustion heaters, usually one or more

heaters are provided for the wings. Another heater is located in the tail area to
provide hot air for the leading edges of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers.
When the engine is the source of heat, the air is routed to the empennage
through ducting which is usually located under the floor.

The ice protection system air temperature is maintained between 450

and 490 C by controls placed in pneumatic system. When either or both airfoil
o

switches are placed in ON position, the ice protection pressure regulator and the
shut off valve will open and allow engine bleed air to flow into the system. The
same switches will cause the right, left or both pneumatic system augmentation
valves to open and admit the amount of thirteenth stage engine bleed air
necessary to raise the temperature of the air to 450 oC. The ice protection air is
supplied to the wing ands the stabilizers through drilled ducting within the
leading edge “D” duct. Chem-milled skins form the chord wise double skin
passages in the leading edges.

Probe Anti-icing:-

Aircrafts are equipped with several sensors and devices that are
exposed to the slipstream. These devices are required for the safe operation of
the a/c. and must be kept free from ice. Starting with the smaller aircraft, the
items that need protection from ice include the pitot mast and the stall warning
indicator. Large a/c require static ports to be kept clear along with angle of
attack indicators. These probes are normally kept free from ice by electric
heaters which are controlled by switches at the pilot’s station. The heater may
be operated by ac or dc power.

Windshield ice control:-

The control of ice building up on windshields may be accomplished

by one or two basic methods :
- By heating the windshield
- By spraying the fluid on the windshield to prevent the formation of
any more ice and to remove ice.

The heating is more common method and may involve the use of
heated panel over the windshield surface, or a flow of heated air
between the surfaces.
UNIT-5
1) EXPLAIN ALTIMETER

 The altimeter is a special form of aneroid Barometer [a barometer without

liquid] that measures the pressure of the atmosphere.
 It is concerned to the static pressure source through an outlet in the back of
the case.
 The outlet services as a vent to allow static atmospheric pressure to move
into & out of the altimeter case as the airplane climbs or descends.
 The atmospheric pressure at any section at any point is due to the weight of
the overlying air above, which decreases as the height above the sea level
increases.
 Hence the instrument can be calibrated to read in terms of height .
 Under standard air conditions of 15 ‘C, the weight of a column of air, one
square inch in area is 14.7 1b., at sea level.
 It exerts a pressure of 14.7 1bs per square inch.
  The pressure recorded on the barometer as 29.92 inches of mercury & by an
altimeter as 0 feet.
 At 10,000 feet the weight of one square inch air column has decreased to
10.11 1b., the corresponding barometric pressure to 20.58 inches, and
altimeter records 10,000 feet.
 The decrease in pressure is sensed by the altimeter and registered as an
increase in height.
CONSTRUCTION
 The basic components of the altimeter are a sack of aneroid capsules located
inside the case.
 These capsules are sealed and contain standard sea level pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure admitted to the case through the static pressure system
causes these capsules to expand & contract.
 The expansion & contraction of the capsules transmits motion directly to
gears and levers, which rotate hands on the face of the altimeter.
 A large hand records altitude in units of thousands of feet, a smaller hand
records altitude in units of thousands of feet, and the third still smaller hand
records altitude in units of thousand feet.
 The altimeter is depicted in figure is showing 10,400 feet.
WORKING
 As the aircraft climbs, the outside barometric pressure decreases and air
moves out of the case through the static pressure system.
 As a result, the aneroid capsules expand, causing an increased altitude
reading.
 As the aircraft descends, air moves into the altimeter case and the capsules
contract, causing a decreased altitude reading.
Note :
 Pressure altimeters are calibrated during manufacture to indicate a true
altitude in standard atmospheric condition.
 The maximum allowable tolerance is plus or minus 20 feet at sea level.
 If, having set the current altimeter setting on the subscale and having
compared the altimeter reading to the unknown airport elevation, there is
and error of more than plus or minus 50 feet, the instrument should be
cheeked by maintenance.
2) EXPLAIN THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR [VSI]:

 The vertical speed indicator [ vertical velocity, or rate of climb] shows the
rate, in feet per minute, at which the aircraft is ascending or descending
 The principle on which it operates is the change in barometric pressure,
which occurs with any change in height.
 This instrument is contained in a sealed case and is also connected to the
static air pressure system.
  Atmospheric pressure is led from the static pressure source directly into an
aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, contained within the case of the instrument.
 Air is also permitted to leak at a relatively slow rate through a capillary tube
into the case of the instrument.
 The difference between the quick change in pressure, which occurs within
the aneroid capsule, and the relatively slow rate at which this pressure is
equalized within the case causes the capsule to expand or contract.
 This movement is amplified and transmitted by linkage to the pointer on the
dial of the instrument.
WORKING ;
 When the aircraft loses altitude, pressure within the capsule increases almost
immediately, while pressure within the case changes slowly.
 The capsule therefore expands and the pointer indicates DOWN in feet per
minute.
 When the aircraft gains altitude, the process is reversed and the pointer
indicates UP.
 When the airplane remains level, the pressures equalize and the pointer
indicates 0.
 Note that the vertical speed indicator registers the rate of climb or descent,
not the attitude of the aircraft.
 An aircraft may gain height in a vertical up current of air when it is flying
perfectly level.
 The vertical speed indicator should be closely co-coordinated with the air
speed indicator.
 Corrections for the altitude gained or lost in cruising flight should be made
by nosing the aircraft up or down [by use of the elevators]
  Intentional change in altitude should be made by increasing or decreasing
power at a given airspeed [by use of the throttle].

3)EXPLAIN THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR [ ASI]

 The airspeed indicator tells the pilot the speed at which he is traveling
through the air [not over the ground]
 The dial is calibrated in knots and miles per hour.
CONSTRUCTION;
 The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pilot & static pressure
sources.
 To give a reading of speed through the air, the instrument measures the
difference between the pressure in the pitot pressure system and the pressure
in the static system.
 When the airplane is standing on the ground, the pressure in the two systems
is equal and the airspeed indicator registers 0.
  When the aircraft is in motion, the pressure in the pitot pressure system is
increased by dynamic pressure due to the forward motion of the aircraft
through the air [pitot pressure is therefore the sum of atmospheric pressure
and dynamic pressure]

Working ;
 The airspeed indicator senses the total pressure in the pitot pressure system,
subtracts the pressure in the static system and gives reading of the dynamic
pressure, the measure of the aircraft’s forward speed.
 This reading is displayed on a graduated scale on the face the instrumented
and is called indicated airspeed.
 The pitot pressure source is connected to the interior of a thin corrugated
metal expansion box called the aneroid capsule and admits pitot pressure
into the capsule.
 The static pressure source connected to the inside of the instrument case and
maintains the air in the case at the prevailing atmospheric pressure.
 Change in dynamic pressure inside the aneroid capsule cause it to expand or
contract.
 This movement is transmitted through a system of linkage to a hand that
rotates around a dial calibrated in knots and / or miles per hour.

4)EXPLAIN TURN & SLIP [OR] TURN AND BANK INDICATOR

  The turn & slip
indicator combines two
instruments
in one and is
sometimes called needle & ball.
 The needle indicates the direction & approximate rate of turn of the aircraft.
 The ball indicates the amount of bank in the turn, that is, whether there is
any slipping or skidding in the turn.
 The ball is controlled by gravity and centrifugal force.
 It is simply an agate or steel ball in a liquid filled, curved glass tube.
 In a balanced turn, the ball will remain in the center as centrifugal force
offsets the pull of gravity.
 In a slip, there is not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank.
 The centrifugal force will be weak and this imbalance will be shown by the
ball falling down toward the inside of the turn.
 In a skid, the rate of turn is too high for amount of bank.
 The centrifugal force is too strong and this imbalance is indicated by the ball
sliding toward the outside of the turn.
 The turn needle is actuated by a gyro wheel operated either electrically or by
a venture tube or vacuum pump.
 The gyro wheel is mounted vertically and rotates about its horizontal axis.
 The basic principle, which governs the operation of the turn needle, is
gyroscopic precession.
 The spinning gyro wheel, or rotor, is mounted in a gimbal ring.
  When the aircraft turns to the right or left, the gyro wheel processes about its
turning axis and rolls the gimbal ring.
 The rolling motion of the gimbal ring in turn rotates the turn needle on the
face of the instrument.
 A spring returns the gyro to neutral when the aircraft ceases to turn.
 The turn indicator indicates the rate turn, not the amount of the turn.
 Thus a standard rate, or rate one, turn will give a rate of turn of 3 per
second, or 360 in two minutes.
 The instrument is usually calibrated to indicate a rate one turn when the turn
needle is centered on one of the indexes seen either side of the center index.
1. In a straight & level flight, the ball and needle are both centered.
2. In a correctly banked turn, the needle indicates the rate of turn, the forces
acting on the ball cause it to remain centered.
3. If one wing is permitted to drop, the ball will roll towards the side of law
wing, the needle shows the aircraft to be flying straight , but the ball
indicates it to be right wing low.
4. if the aircraft is not sufficiently banked in a turn, a skid towards the
outside of the turn will occur , the needle indicates a left turn, the ball a
right skid outwards.
5. When the aircraft is over banked in a turn, it will sideslip inwards . The
needle indicates a left turn, the ball a sideslip inwards.
5)EXPLAIN ENGINE INSTUMENTS

TACHOMETER [RPM MEASURING INSTRUMENT]

 The Tachometer or rpm indicator is a device, which shows the speed of the
crankshaft in case of a reciprocating engine & speed of the main rotor
assembly in a gas turbine engine.
 The instrument usually comprises a recording mechanism that keeps an
accurate records of the engine hours.
 Tachometers are of many types, the more common being
1. Mechanical, either centrifugal or magnetic.
2. Electrical, either DC or AC.
 The dials of the tachometer used in the reciprocation engines are calibrated
in rpm, and those used with the turbine engines are calibrated in percentage
of rpm.
MECHANICAL OPERATIED SYSTEM:
CENTRIFUGAL OPERATION:

 Mechanical indicating systems consists of an indicator connected to the

engine by a flexible drive shaft.
 The indicator contains a flyweight assembly coupled to a gear mechanism
that drives a pointer.[ centrifugally operated ]
 As the drive shaft rotates, centrifugal force acts on the flyweight assembly
and moves them to an angular position.
 Movement of the flyweights is transmitted through the gear mechanism to
the pointer.
 The pointer rotates to the rpm of the engine on the tachometer indicator.

6)EXPLAIN MAGNETIC SYSTEM

 The alternator, or transmitter, consists of a four – pole permanent magnet

that rotates inside a stator.
 The stator of the alternator is connected by three wires to the synchronous
motor, which operates the indicator.
 As the engine drives the alternator, the rotation of the permanent magnet
induces current in the stator.
 This current flows through the stator of the synchronous motor I the
indicator and produces a rotating field that turns at the same rate as the
alternator rotor.
 The permanent- magnet rotor of the indicator keeps itself aligned with the
rotating field and hence must also turn at the rate of the alternator motor.
 The synchronous motor in the indicator is directly coupled to a cylindrical
permanent magnet that rotates inside a drag cup.
 As this magnet turns, it causes drug cup to rotate and the drag cup causes the
balancing hairspring to turn the pointer on the dial.
 ELECTRICALLY OPERATED:

 A number of different types and sizes of tachometer generators &

indicators are used in aircraft electrical tachometer systems.
 Generally, the various types of tachometer system operates in the same
basic principle.
  Thus, the system described will be representative of most electrical
tachometer systems.
 The manufacturer’s instructions should always be consulted for details
of a specific tachometer systems.
 The typical tachometer system coupled to the aircraft engine, and
connected electrically to an indicator mounted on the instrument panel.
 A current – carrying cable connects these two units.
 The generator transmits power to the synchronous motor in the
indicator.
 The frequency of the transmitted power is proportional to the engine
speed.
 Through use of magnetic drag principal, the indicator furnishes an
accurate indication of engine speed.
 Through use of magnetic drag principle, the indicator furnishes an
accurate indication of engine speed.
7)EXPLAIN THE OIL TEMPERATURE GUAGE

 The oil temperature gauge is normally located beside the oil pressure gauge.
 It gives a reading of the temperature of the oil in degrees Fahrenheit or
Celsius.
 There is an intimate relationship between the oil temperature and oil
pressure, due to changes in viscosity of oil which temperature change affect.
 In starting the engines with could oil, when the pressure gauge reads high,
the oil temperature gauge will read correspondingly low.
 As the oil warms up, both instrument will approach their normal reading at
about the same rate.
  An abromal drop in oil pressure and coincident rise in oil temperature is a
sure sign of trouble.
 However, even when the pressure shows no marked rise or fall, increasing
oil temperature is a warning of excessive friction or overload in the engine.

THE CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE GUAGE:

 The carburetor air temperature gauge may be installed to indicate the

temperature of the mixture entering the manifold , or it may record the
temperature of the intake air entering the carburetor.
 Its purpose is to enable the pilot to maintain a temperature that will assure
maximum operating efficiency and warn him of inching conditions in the
carburetor that may lead to engine failure.
 The carburetor air temperature gauge is, of course, the pilot’s guide to the
operation of the carburetor air heat control unit.
 Hot air is selected ON OR OFF to keep the mixture temperature , or intake
air temperature, within the recommended limits.
 if the instruments is a installed to record the mixture temperature, this should
be maintain Ned at around 4 ‘C to 7’ C
 If is to record the intake air temperature, this should be maintained at about
29’ C to 32’ C when icing condition exists)
THE CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE GAUGE :
 The cylinder head temperature gauge records the temperature of one [ or
more ] of the engine cylinder heads.
 The instrument gives reasonably good indication of the effectiveness of the
engine cooling system.
 It should be monitored frequently during steep, climbs to ensure sufficient
cooling air is reaching the engine.
 Extremely high cylinder head temperatures are an immediate sign of engine
overloading.
 High head temperatures decrease the strength of metals and result in
detonation, pre-ignition and eventual engine failure.
 When operating the engine on lean mixture, the maximum cylinder head
temperature permissible is lower than that permitted when operating on rich
mixture.
 The engine manufacturer’s recommended limits should be strictly observed

THE OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERAUTE GAUGE:

 The outside air temperature OAT gauge records the ambient air temperature,
that is, the temperature of the free air surrounding the aircraft.
 To ensure that the temperature recorded is true, the element is shielded from
the sun’s radiation and located in a portion of the airflow that is relatively
undisturbed.
 The temperature recorded by the gauge is not, however, entirely accurate.
 The dynamic pressure of the ram air causes a slight increase in temperature
, TAT.
  Knowledge of the true air temperature enables the pilot to select the proper
manifold pressure, to calculate the true airspeed and altitude and warns of
conditions that may cause ice formation.
 At low speeds, the increase in heat is insignificant, about 1C at 90 knots.
 With increasing speed, the temperature rise reaches 4 C at 175 knots and 30
C at 500 knots.

8)EXPLAIN THE AIRCRAFT PRESSURE GUAGE

 Pressure gauges are used to indicate the pressure at which the engine oil is
forced through the bearings, oil passages, and moving parts of the engine
and the pressure at which fuel is delivered to the carburetor or fuel control.
 They are also used to measure the pressure of air in de-icer systems and
gyroscopic drives, of fuel / air mixtures in the intake manifold, and of liquid
or gases in several other systems.
Different types pressure gauges used are
1. Hydraulic pressure gauges.
2. Vacuum pressure gauges.
3. Diaphragm type pressure gauges.
4. Bourdon tube pressure gauges

BOURDON TUBE PRESSSURE GAUGE :

 Bourdon tube pressure gauge is used for measuring high as well as low
pressures.
 A simple form of this gauge is shown in the figure.
 In this case, the pressure element consists of a metal tube of approximately
elliptical cross section.
 This tube is bent in the form of a segment of a circle and responds to the
pressure changes.
 When one end of the tube, which is attached to the gauge case, is connected
to the source of pressure, the internal pressure causes the tube to expand.
 By circumferential stress, that is, Hoop tension is set up.
 The free end of the tube moves and is in connection with suitable layers of
rack, which engages with a small pinion mounted on the same spindle as the
pointer.
 Thus the pressure applied to the causes the rack and pinion to move. The
pointer indicates the pressure over a dial which can be graduated in a
suitable scale.

DIAPHRAGAM TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE:

 This type of gauge employs a metallic disc or diaphragm instead of a bent

tube.
 This disc or diaphragm is used for actuating the indicating device.
 When pressure is applied on the lower side of the diaphragm it is deflected
upward.
 This movement of the diaphragm is transmitted to the rack & pinion.
 The latter is attached to the spindle of needle moving on a graduated dial.
 The dial can again be graduated in a suitable scale.
VACUUM TYPE PRESSURE GAUGES:

 Bourdon gauges discussed earlier can be used to measure vacuum instead of

pressure.
 Slight changes in the design are required in this purpose.
 Thus in this case, the tube is bent inward instead of outward as in the
pressure gauges.
 Vacuum gauges are graduated in millimeters of mercury below atmospheric
pressure.
 In such cases, therefore, absolute pressure in millimeters of mercury is the
difference between barometer reading and vacuum gauge reading.
 Vacuum gauges are used to measure the vacuum in the condensers etc.
 If there is leakage, the vacuum will drop.

9)EXPLAIN THE GYROSCOPE GUAGES

 The gyroscope is a rotor, or

spinning wheel, rotating at high
 speed in a universal mounting, called a GIMBAL so its axle can be pointed
in any direction.
 The peculiar actions of a gyroscope, though they may appear to defy
physical laws actually depend entirely upon Sir Isaac. Newton’s laws of
motion.
 All of the practical applications of the gyroscope are based upon two
fundamental characteristics: gyroscopic inertia [ rigidity in space] and
precession.
GYROSCOPIC INERTIA:
 It is the tendency of any rotating body, If undisturbed , to maintain its plane
of rotation.
 When the rotor is spinning about its axis A-B, the direction of this axis will
remain fixed in space, regardless of how the base of the gyroscope is moved
around it.
PRECESSION :
 It is the tendency of a rotating body, when a force is applied perpendicular to
its plane of rotation, to turn in the direction of its rotation 90 degrees to its
axis and take up a new plane of rotation parallel to the applied force.
THE FOLLOWING IS A SIMPLE ILLUSTRATION:
 Imagine a bicycle wheel spinning rapidly on a broom handle, which is held
horizontally in your hands.
 Attempt to push either end forward and one end will automatically raise in
your hand while the other will drop.
 A push applied in the direction of the arrow at G would cause the rotor in its
supporting ring to tend to rotate around the axis C-D.

GYRO INSTRUMENTS :
  Gyro instruments nave made the art of piloting an aircraft more precise.
 They are very useful in VFR flight. In instrument flight, they are invaluable.
 In most general aviation aircrafts, there are three gyro instruments namely.
1. The heading indicator.
2. The attitude indicator
3. The turn & slip indicator or turn & bank indicator.
THE HEADING INDICATOR :
 The heading indicator also known as the “Directional gyro” is an instrument
designed to indicate the heading of the aircraft and, because it is steady and
accurate, to enable the pilot to steer that heading with the least effort.
 The gyro wheel in the heading indicator is mounted vertically and spins
about its horizontal axis at approximately 12,000rpm.
 The spinning gyro wheel is mounted in an inner Gimbal ring that is free to
turn about the horizontal axis.
 The inner ring is, in turn, mounted inside an outer gimbal ring.
 The compass rose card on the face of the instrument is attached by series of
gears to the outer gimbal ring.
 As the aircraft turns, the compass card rotates indicating a turn to teh left or
right.
 A heading indicator in common use today is shown in figure , the compass
rose card turns as the aircraft turns and the heading is read opposite the nose
of the aircraft pointer.
 As in the case of the compass, the figures are printed with the last 0 left off-3
stands for 30, 12 for 120.
THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR:
 The attitude indicator also called the artificial horizon or the gyro horizon
provides the pilot with an artificial horizon as a means of reference when the
 natural horizon cannot be seen because of cloud, fog, rain or other
obstruction to visibility.
 It shows the pilot the relationship between the wings and nose of the aircraft
and the horizon of the earth.
 In the attitude indicator, the gyro wheel is mounted horizontally and spins
about its vertical axis.
 It is mounted in a universal gimbal ring system, free about both the pitching
and rolling axes of the aircraft and is therefore able to remain spinning in a
horizontal plane parallel to the true horizon, regardless of the rolling or
pitching movements of the aircraft around it.
 When the aircraft noses up, the gyro wheel remains horizontal. A relative
down force is exerted on the pivoted arm to which the horizon bar is
attached, causing the horizon bar to sink below the split bar.
 When the aircraft noses up, the miniature aircraft rises above the horizon
bar, indicating a nose high condition.
 When the aircraft noses down, the miniature aircraft sinks below the horizon
bar, indicating a nose high condition.
 When the aircraft banks, the miniature airplane banks on the horizon bar
and the pointer indicates the degree of bank on the index scale.
 When it is necessary to fly the aircraft slightly nose up down, according to
altitude, power and load, the miniature airplane can be adjusted to match the
horizon bar by means of a knob at the bottom of the case.
9)PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
 Three of the most important flight instruments are connected into a pitot-
static system. These instruments are the air speed indicator, the altimeter,
and the rate of climb indicator. Figure A shows these three instruments
connected to a pitot-static tube head.
 Figure A
 The pitot-static system head, or pitot-static tube as it is sometimes called,
consists of two section. As shown in figure B, the forward section is open at
the front end to receive the full force of the impact air pressure. At the back
of this section is a baffle plate to protect pitot tube from moisture and dirt
that might otherwise be blown into it. Moisture can escape through a small
drain hole at the bottom of the forward section.
 The pitot, or pressure, tube leads back to a camber in the SHARK-FIN
projection near the rear of the assembly. A riser, or upright tube, leads the
air from this chamber through tubing to the air speed indicator.

Figure B
 The rear, or static, section of the pitot- static tube head is pierced by small
openings on the top and bottom surfaces. These openings are designed and
located so that this part of the system will provide accurate measurements
of atmospheric pressure in a static, or still, condition. The static section
contains a riser tube which is connected to the air speed indicator, the
altimeter, and the rate of climb indicator.
o HEATING ELEMENTS
 Many pitot-static tubes are provided with heating elements to prevent
icing during flight (figure B). During ice forming condition, the electrical
heating elements can be turned on by means of a switch in the cockpit. The
electrical circuit for the heater element may be connected through the
ignition switch. Thus, in case the heater switch is inadvertently left in the on
position, there will be no drain on the battery when the engine is not
operating.
o TYPES OF PITOT- STATIC HEADS

 The pitot-static tube head is mounted on the outside of the aircraft at a

point where the air is least likely to be turbent. It is pointed in a forward
direction parallel to the aircraft’s line of flight. One general type of tube
head is designed for mounting on a streamlined mast extending below the
nose of the aircraft fuselage. Another type is designed for installation on a
boom extending forward of the leading edge of the wing. Although there is
a slight difference in their construction, they operate identically.
o IMPACT PRESSURE

 Impact pressure is taken from the pitot head (figure D) which is mounted
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and generally in line with the
relative wind. The leading edge of the wing, nose section, or vertical
stabilizer are the usual mounting positions since at those points there is
usually a minimum disturbance of air due to motion of the aircraft.
o

Figure D.

o STATIC PRESSURE

 Static pressure in this type of pitot static system is taken from the static line
attached to vent or vents mounted flush with a fuselage or nose section.
 On aircraft using a flush mounted static source, there may be two vents,
one on each side of the aircraft. This compensates for any possible
variation in static pressure on the vents due to erratic changes in aircraft
attitude. The vents are usually connected by a Y-type fitting. In this type of
system, clogging of the pitot opening by ice or dirt (or failure to remove
the pitot cover) affects the airspeed indicator only.
 A pitot static system used on a pressurized, multi-engine aircraft is shown
in figure E. Three additional units, the cabin pressure controller, the
differential pressure gage, and the auto pilot system are integrated into the
static system. Both heated and unheated flush mounted static ports are
used.

Figure E