Aircraft systems and

Instrumentation
 SYLLABUS

UNIT 1

AIRPLANE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Conventional Systems –
Fully powered flight controls –
Power actuated systems –
Modern control systems –
Digital fly by wire systems –
Auto pilot system active control Technology,
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Flying controls are hinged or movable airfoils designed to change the attitude of
the aircraft during flight.

PURPOSE
1.TO ENABLE THE PILOT TO EXERCISE CONTROL OVER THE AIRCRAFT
DURING ALL PORTIONS OF FLIGHT.
2.IT ALLOWS TO MANOEUVRES IN PITCH,ROLL AND YAW.

These can be divided in to 3 groups such as:

(a) PRIMARY CONTROLS
(b) SECONDARY CONTROLS
(c) AUXILARY CONTROLS
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROL SRUFACES
Ailerons, Elevators and Rudder are the primary controls. These
controls are used to maneuver the aircraft about its 3 axes.
1. ELEVATOR
2. AILERON
3. RUDDER
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Flaps, Spoilers, Slats or Leading edge flaps come under this category.
Flaps and slats are the lift augmenting device.
Spoiler again grouped as Ground spoiler and Flight spoiler. Ground spoiler
extended only after the aircraft lands thereby assisting in braking action. The
flight spoiler assists in lateral control by extending whenever aileron on the
wing is moved up
 FLAPS
 SLATS
 SPOILERS

AUXILLARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Tabs come under this category. Tabs are the small airfoils attached to the
trailing edges of primary control surfaces.
Its purpose is to enable the pilot to trim out any unbalanced condition
which may exist during flight.
 FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

STABILATOR:
It combines the function of a
horizontal stabilizer and an
elevator. When the stabilator
moves, it varies the amount of
force generated by the tail surface
and is used to generate and
control the pitching motion of the
aircraft.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

RUDDERVATORS:
These flying control surfaces serve the function of the rudder and
elevators. The surfaces are mounted at an angle above horizontal.
When serving as elevators, the surfaces on each side of the tail
move in the same direction, either up or down.
When serving as rudder, the surfaces move in opposite direction,
one up and one down.
When combined rudder and elevator control movements are
made, a control-mixing mechanism moves each surface the appropriate
amount to get the desired elevator and rudder effect.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

RUDDERVATORS:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

FLAPERONS:
These are the surfaces combine the operation of flaps and
ailerons.
These types of control surfaces are found on some aircraft
designed to operate from short runways.
The flaperon allows the area of the wing normally reserved for
aileron to be lowered and creates a full span flap.
From the lowered position the flaperon can move up or down to
provide the desired amount of roll control while still contributing to the
overall lift of the wing.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

FLAPERONS:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

ELEVONS:
Elevons are aircraft control surfaces that combine the functions of
the elevator (used for pitch control) and the aileron (used for roll
control).
It is found on Delta wing aircraft. On this type of aircraft the wings
are enlarged and extend to the back of the plane.
There is no separate horizontal stabilizer where you would find the
elevators on conventional straight-wing aircraft.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

COMBINATION FLYING CONTROLS :

ELEVONS:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

TABS:

• TABS are small secondary flight control surfaces set into the trailing
edges of the primary surfaces.

• These are used to reduce the work load required of the pilot to hold the
aircraft in some constant attitude by “loading” the control surface in a
position to maintain the desired attitude.

• It may also used to aid the pilot in returning a control surface to neutral
or trimmed-center position.

• It controls the balance of an aircraft to maintain straight and level flight

without pressure on CONTROL COLUMN or rudder pedal.

• Movement of the tab in one direction causes a deflection of the

c/surface in the opposite direction
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

TYPES OF TABS:

FIXED TRIM TAB

BALANCE TAB
ANTI-SERVO TABS
SERVO TAB
SPRING TABS
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

FIXED TRIM TAB:

A fixed trim tab is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the

trailing edge of a control surface.
This fixed tab is adjusted on the ground by bending it to
appropriated direction.
Adjustment is only trial and error method and the aircraft must be
flown and the trim tab adjusted based on the pilot’s report.
Found on light aircraft and are used to adjust rudders and ailerons.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

BALANCE TABS:
To decrease the very high control forces the balance tabs are
used. In this arrangement, when the control surface is moved, the tab
moves in the opposite direction. Thus the aerodynamic force acting on
the tab assists to move the main control surface. .
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

TABS:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

ANTI-SERVO TABS:
 The tab moves along the same direction as the control surface itself
increasing the aerodynamic forces.

 The higher the speed the higher the forces become. For example if the
pilot pulls back the control column, the control surface moves up, so
does the tab. They both create a down force making it more and more
difficult to bring a pitch change.

 We see these type of tabs in airplanes that uses stabilators instead of

tailplane and elevator combination.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

ANTI-SERVO TABS:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

SERVO TABS:

 It reduces the stick force. Here, the pilot controls the tab not the control
surface.
 The movement of the tab makes the control surface move. The tab
moves in one direction, while the control surface move in the other
direction.
 Servo tabs are mostly used as a backup in large airplanes in case the
hydraulics fail. As the control surfaces of these airplanes are quite
heavy and the forces they generate are also incredibly large, a servo
tab is essential to reduce the stick forces.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF TABS:

SPRING TABS:

 A control surface may require excessive force to move only in the final
stages of travel.
 When this is the case, a spring tab can be used. This is essentially a
servo tab that does not activate until an effort is made to move the
control surface beyond a certain point.
 When reached, a spring in line of the control linkage aids in moving the
control surface through the remainder of its travel
POWER ASSISTED & POWER OPERATED

FLIGHT CONTROL
 POWER ASSISTED

• Movement of the control column will move both the flying

control and the pilot valve
 POWER OPERATED
• Movement of the control column only moves the pilot
valve.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
METHODS:

1. PUSH-PULL CONTROL ROD SYSTEM

2. CABLE AND PULLY SYSTEM

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS OR COMPONENTS OF

MECHANICAL LIKAGES FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM:

1. CABLES
2. PULLEYS
3. TURNBUCKLES
4. PUSH PULL RODS
5. BELL CRANKS
6. TORQUE TUBES
7. CABLE GUARDS
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
COMPONENTS OF MECHANICAL LINKAGES

1. PUSH PULL ROD:

• Many airplanes and almost all helicopter use push pull rods rather than
control cables for control system.
• Made of heat treated aluminum alloy tubing with threaded ends riveted
to its ends.
• End fittings which have a drilled hole are screwed on to these threads
and to be sure that the rod ends are screwed far enough in to fitting a
safety wire when inserted in to the hole it should not pass through the
fittings.
• A check nut is screwed on to the rod end and when the length of the
push pull rod is adjusted the nut to be screwed up tight against the end
fitting.
• Push pull rods are extensively used along with bell cranks to change
direction and to gain or decrease the mechanical advantage of control
movement.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
PUSH PULL ROD:
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TORQUE TUBE:

Torque tube is a hollow shaft by which the linear motion of

cable or push pull rod is changed to rotary motion.
A torque arm or horn is attached to the tube by welding or
bolting and imparts motion to the tube as the arm is moved back
and forth.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
BELL CRANK:

 A lever with two arms which have a common fulcrum at their junction.
 It is used to transmit force and permit a change in direction of force.
 Normally a push pull rod is used with bell crank lever.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

FAIRLEADS

• It serves as a guide to prevent wear and vibration of a cable.

• Made of phenolic material, fiber, plastic or soft aluminum.
• It is of either split or slotted to install a cable.
TURN BUCKLE
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

BLOWN FLAPS
KRUEGER FLAP
PLAIN FLAP
SPLIT FLAP
FOWLER FLAP
SLOTTED FLAP
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

BLOWN FLAPS:
Systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of the flap at certain
angles to improve lift characteristics.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

KRUEGER FLAP :

 They are lift enhancement devices that may be fitted to the leading edge of an
aircraft wing.
 Unlike slats or drooped leading edges, the main wing upper surface
and its nose is not changed. Instead, a portion of the lower wing is rotated out in
front of the main wing leading edge.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

PLAIN FLAP: It is attached to the trailing of main plane and rotates on a

simple hinge.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

SPLIT FLAP:

It is hinged at the bottom part of the wing near the trailing edge. The lower surface
operates like a plain flap, but the upper surface stays immobile or moves only
slightly.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

FOWLER FLAP:

It slides backwards on tracks before hinging downwards, thereby increasing both

camber and chord, creating a larger wing surface better tuned for lower speeds. It
also provides some slot effect. The Fowler flap was invented by Harlan D. Fowler.
 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
TYPES OF FLAPS:

SLOTTED FLAP:

A slot (or gap) between the flap and the wing enables high pressure air from below
the wing to re-energize the boundary layer over the flap. This helps the airflow to
stay attached to the flap, delaying the stall.
ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS
• To allow the engine to perform at maximum
efficiency for a given condition
• Aids the pilot to control and monitor the operation of
the aircraft's power plant
• Originally, engine control systems consisted of simple
mechanical linkages controlled by the pilot then
evolved and became the responsibility of the third
pilot-certified crew member, the flight engineer.
• By moving throttle levers directly connected to the
engine, the pilot or the flight engineer could control
fuel flow, power output, and many other engine
parameters.

• Following mechanical means of engine control came

the introduction of analog electronic engine control.

• Analog electronic control varies an electrical signal to

communicate the desired engine settings
• It had its drawbacks including common electronic
noise interference and reliability issues

• Full authority analogue control was used in the

1960s.

• It was introduced as a component of the Rolls Royce

Olympus 593 engine of the supersonic transport
aircraft Concorde. However the more critical inlet
control was digital on the production aircraft.
• In the 1970s NASA and Pratt and Whitney
experimented with the first experimental FADEC,
first flown on an F-111 fitted with a highly modified
Pratt & Whitney TF30 left engine
• Pratt & Whitney F100 – First Military Engine

• Pratt & Whitney PW2000 - First Civil Engine fitted

with FADEC

• Pratt & Whitney PW4000 - First commercial "dual

FADEC" engine.

• The Harrier II Pegasus engine by Dowty & Smiths

Industries Controls - The first FADEC in service
 FUNCTIONS

• FADEC works by receiving multiple input variables of the

current flight condition including air density, throttle lever
position, engine temperatures, engine pressures, and many
other parameters

• The inputs are received by the EEC and analyzed up to 70

times per second

• Engine operating parameters such as fuel flow, stator vane

position, bleed valve position, and others are computed from
this data and applied as appropriate
• It controls engine starting and restarting.

• Its basic purpose is to provide optimum engine efficiency for a

given flight condition.

• It also allows the manufacturer to program engine limitations

and receive engine health and maintenance reports. For
example, to avoid exceeding a certain engine temperature, the
FADEC can be programmed to automatically take the
necessary measures without pilot intervention.
• The flight crew first enters flight data such as wind conditions,
runway length, or cruise altitude, into the flight management
system (FMS). The FMS uses this data to calculate power
settings for different phases of the flight.

• At takeoff, the flight crew advances the throttle to a

predetermined setting, or opts for an auto-throttle takeoff if
available.

• The FADECs now apply the calculated takeoff thrust setting

by sending an electronic signal to the engines
• There is no direct linkage to open fuel flow. This procedure
can be repeated for any other phase of flight

• In flight, small changes in operation are constantly made to

maintain efficiency.

• Maximum thrust is available for emergency situations if the

throttle is advanced to full, but limitations can’t be exceeded

• The flight crew has no means of manually overriding the

FADEC
• The full authority digital engine controls have no form of
manual override available, placing full authority over the
operating parameters of the engine in the hands of the
computer

• If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails

• If the engine is controlled digitally and electronically but

allows for manual override, it is considered solely an EEC or
ECU.

• An EEC, though a component of a FADEC, is not by itself

FADEC. When standing alone, the EEC makes all of the
decisions until the pilot wishes to intervene.
 SAFETY
• With the operation of the engines so heavily relying on
automation, safety is a great concern.

• Redundancy is provided in the form of two or more, separate

identical digital channels.

• Each channel may provide all engine functions without

restriction.

• FADEC also monitors a variety of analog, digital and discrete

data coming from the engine subsystems and related aircraft
systems, providing for fault tolerant engine control
 APPLICATIONS
• FADECs are employed by almost all current generation jet
engines, and increasingly in piston engines for fixed-wing
aircraft and helicopters.

• The system replaces both magnetos in piston-engined aircraft,

which makes costly magneto maintenance obsolete and
eliminates carburetor heat, mixture controls .

• Since, it controls each engine cylinder independently for

optimum fuel injection and spark timing, the pilot no longer

needs to monitor fuel mixture.

• More precise mixtures create less engine wear, which reduces
operating costs and increases engine life for the average
aircraft.

• Tests have also shown significant fuel savings

 ADVANTAGES
• Better fuel efficiency
• Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance
operations
• Safer as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides
redundancy in case of failure
• Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings
• Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements
by just reprogramming the FADECs
• Provides semi-automatic engine starting
• Better systems integration with engine and aircraft systems
• Can provide engine long-term health monitoring and
diagnostics

• Reduces the number of parameters to be monitored by flight

crews

• Can support automatic aircraft and engine emergency

responses (e.g. in case of aircraft stall, engines increase thrust
automatically).
 DISADVANTAGES
• No form of manual override available, placing full authority
over the operating parameters of the engine in the hands of the
computer.

• If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails.

• In the event of a total FADEC failure, pilots have no way of

manually controlling the engines for a restart, or to otherwise
control the engine.

• High system development and validation effort due to the

complexity
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS

IT IS ONE IN WHICH WIRE CARRYING

ELECTRICAL SIGNALS FROM THE FLIGHT
CONTROLS BY REPLACING MECHANICAL
LINKAGES.

TYPES OR THE WAYS OF USING FBW:

• ANALOG FBW
• DIGITAL FBW
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
ANALOG FBW:

In analog fly by wire system operation, movements of the control

column and rudder pedals, and the forces exerted by the pilot, are
measured by electrical transducers, and the signals produced are then
amplified and relayed to operate the hydraulic actuator units which are
directly connected to the flight controls surfaces.

The fly by wire control employed in the Boeing 767 (spoiler) as illustrated in
the figure is appended in the next slide:

The main components involved in this system are as follows:

1. POSITION TRANSDUCER (RVDT)

2. SIGNAL CONTROL MODULE
3. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
4. POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT (PFSCU)
FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
DIGITAL FBW:

• A digital FBW system is similar to its analogue counterpart. However

the signaling processing is done by digital computers.
• The pilot can literally say “fly-via-computer”. This increases flexibility
as the digital computers can receive input from any aircraft sensor.
• It also increases stability, because the system is less dependent on
the values of critical electrical components as in analogue controller.
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL FBW
SL. ANALOGUE FBW
NO.
01 The FBW eliminates the
complexity, fragility and
weight of the mechanical
circuit of the hydromechanical
flight control systems and
replaces it with an electrical
circuit.
02 The hydraulic circuits are
similar except that mechanical
servo valves are replaced with
electrically-controlled servo
valves, operated by the
electronic controller. This is
the simplest and earliest
configuration of an analog fly-
by-wire flight control system,
DIGITAL FBW
This increases flexibility as the digital
computers can receive input from any
aircraft sensor. It also increases
electronic stability, because the system
is less dependent on the values of
critical electrical components in an
analog controller.
The computers "read" position and force
inputs from the pilot's controls and
aircraft sensors. They solve differential
equations to determine the appropriate
command signals that move the flight
controls in order to carry out the
intentions of the pilot.
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL FBW
SL. ANALOGUE FBW
NO.
03 In this configuration, the flight
control systems must simulate
"feel". The electronic controller
controls electrical feel devices
that provide the appropriate "feel"
forces on the manual controls.
04 In more sophisticated versions,
analog computers replaced the
electronic controller. Analog
computers also allowed some
customization of flight control
characteristics, including relaxed
stability.
DIGITAL FBW
The programming of the digital
computers enable flight envelope
protection. In this aircraft designers
precisely tailor an aircraft's handling
characteristics, to stay within the
overall limits of what is possible given
the aerodynamics and structure of the
aircraft. Software can also be used to
filter control inputs to avoid pilot-
induced oscillation.
Side-sticks, center sticks, or
conventional control yokes can be used
to fly such an aircraft. While the side-
stick offers the advantages of being
lighter, mechanically simpler, and
unobtrusive,
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL FBW

SL. ANALOGUE FBW DIGITAL FBW

NO.
-----------------------
05 As the computers continuously "fly" the aircraft,
pilot workload can be reduced. It is now
possible to fly aircraft that have relaxed
stability. The primary benefit for military aircraft
is more manoeuvrable flight performance and
so-called "carefree handling" Digital flight
control systems enable
--------------------------
06 Improves combat survivability because it avoids
hydraulic failure. With a fly-by-wire system,
wires can be more flexibly routed, are easier to
protect and less susceptible to damage than
hydraulic lines.
07 Digital fly-by-wire systems is reliability, even
more so than for analog systems.
 FLY BY WIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS

ADVANTAGES:

1. WEIGHT SAVING
2. REDUCED MAINTENANCE TIMES
3. LESS SPACE
4. IMPROVED HANDLING
5. Fuel saving:
6. Automatic maneuver envelope protection
7. Gust load alleviation (lessening)
ADVANTAGES OF FBW:
1. WEIGHT SAVING
2. REDUCED MAINTENANCE TIMES
3. LESS SPACE
4. IMPROVED HANDLING
AUTOPILOT SYSTEM ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY:

AUTOPILOT IS A SYSTEM OF AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

WHICH HOLDS THE ARICRAFT
ON ANY SELECTED MAGNETIC HEADING AND
RETURNS THE
ARICRAFT TO THAT HEADING WHEN IT IS
DISPLACED FROM IT.

PURPOSE:
TO REDUCE THE WROK STRAIN AND FATIQUE OF
CONTROLLING THE AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT BY THE PILOT.
COMPONENTS:
1. GYROS (TO SENSE WHAT
AIRPLANE IS DOING)
2. SERVOS (TO MOVE CONTROL
SURFACES)
3. AMPLIFIER (TO INCREASE THE
STRENGTH OF
GYRO SIGNALS TO OPERATE
SERVOS)

THREE CHANNELS.
1. RUDDER CHANNELS
2. AILERON CHANNES.
3. ELEVATOR CHANNELS