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Brain size
The size of the brain is a frequent topic of study within the fields of anatomy and evolution. Brain
size is sometimes measured by weight and sometimes by volume (via MRI scans or by skull volume).
Neuroimaging intelligence testing can be used to study the volumetric measurements of the brain.
One question that has been frequently investigated is the relation of brain size to intelligence. The
balance of findings for human brain size, largely based on participants of European ancestry,
indicates an average adult brain volume of 1260 cubic centimeters (cm3) for men and 1130 cm3 for
women. There is, however, substantial variation;[1] a study of 46 adults aged 22–49 years and of
mainly European descent found an average brain volume of 1273.6 cm3 for men, ranging from 1052.9
to 1498.5 cm3, and 1131.1 cm3 for women, ranging from 974.9 to 1398.1 cm3.[2] According to a study
published by Smith and Beals in 1990, based on measurements of approximately 20,000 crania from
87 populations worldwide, East Asians from Taiwan, Japan, Korea and China have the biggest brains
in the world, with an average volume of over 1,443 cm3, followed by Europeans with a smaller average
cranial volume of 1,260 cm3.

Contents
Humans
Development
Biogeographic variation
Sex
Genetic contribution
Intelligence
Other animals
Cranial capacity
See also
Notes
References
Further reading

Humans
The right cerebral hemisphere is typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are
typically closer in size. The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb).[3] In men the
average weight is about 1370 g and in women about 1200 g.[4] The volume is around 1260 cm3 in
men and 1130 cm3 in women, although there is substantial individual variation.[5]

Development

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From early primates to hominids and finally to Homo sapiens, the brain is progressively larger. The
volume of the human brain has increased as humans have evolved (see Homininae), starting from
about 600 cm3 in Homo habilis up to 1600 cm3 in Homo neanderthalensis, which was the hominid
with the biggest brain size.[6] The increase in brain size stopped with neanderthals. Since then, the
average brain size has been shrinking over the past 28,000 years.[7] The cranial capacity has
decreased from around 1,550 cm3 to around 1,440 cm3 in males while the female cranial capacity has
shrunk from around 1,500 cm3 to around 1,240 cm3.[8] Other sources with bigger sample sizes of
modern Homo sapiens find approximately the same cranial capacity for males but a higher cranial
capacity of around 1330 cm3 in females.[9]

In recent years, experiments have been conducted drawing conclusions to brain size in association to
the gene mutation that causes microcephaly, a neural developmental disorder that affects cerebral
cortical volume.[10]

Brain sizes of hominids

Name Brain size (cm3)[11]

Homo habilis 550–687
Homo ergaster 700–900
Homo erectus 600–1250
Homo heidelbergensis 1100–1400
Homo neanderthalensis 1200–1750
Homo sapiens 1400

Biogeographic variation
A number of studies have found that brain size and cranial morphology correlate with geographic
ancestry in humans.[12][13] This variation in cranial capacity is believed to be primarily caused by
climatic adaptation that favor large round heads in colder climates because they conserve heat and
slender heads in warm climates closer to the equator (See Bergmann's rule and Allen's rule).[14]

The largest study done on the subject of geographic variation in brain size is the 1984 study Brain
Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines. The study found that human brain size
varied with latitude of biogeographic ancestry.[12] The relationship between latitude and cranial size is
described in the study as an example of Bergmann’s principle that crania are more spherical in cold
climates because mass increases relative to surface area to conserve core temperatures and behaves
independently of "race".

Sex
Overall, there is a background of similarity between adult brain volume measures of people of
differing ages and sexes. Nevertheless, underlying structural asymmetries do exist. There is variation
in child development in the size of different brain structures between individuals and genders.[15] A
human baby's brain at birth averages 369 cm3 and increases, during the first year of life, to about
961 cm3, after which the growth rate declines. Brain volume peaks at the teenage years,[16] and after
the age of 40 it begins declining at 5% per decade, speeding up around 70.[17] Average adult male
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brain weight is 1,345 gram, while an adult

female has an average brain weight of 1,222
gram.[18] Males have been found to have on
average greater cerebral, cerebellar and
cerebral cortical lobar volumes, except
possibly left parietal.[19] The gender
differences in size vary by more specific brain
regions. Studies have tended to indicate that
men have a relatively larger amygdala and
hypothalamus, while women have a relatively
larger caudate and hippocampi. When
covaried for intracranial volume, height, and
weight, Kelly (2007) indicates women have a Average brain weight for males and females over lifespan.
From the study Changes in brain weights during the span of
higher percentage of gray matter, whereas
human life.
men have a higher percentage of white matter
and cerebrospinal fluid. There is high
variability between individuals in these studies, however.[1]

However, Yaki (2011) found no statistically significant gender differences in the gray matter ratio for
most ages (grouped by decade), except in the 3rd and 6th decades of life in the sample of 758 women
and 702 men aged 20–69.[20] The average male in their third decade (ages 20–29) had a significantly
higher gray matter ratio than the average female of the same age group. In contrast, among subjects
in their sixth decade, the average woman had a significantly larger gray matter ratio, though no
meaningful difference was found among those in their 7th decade of life.

Total cerebral and gray matter volumes peak during the ages from 10–20 years (earlier in girls than
boys), whereas white matter and ventricular volumes increase. There is a general pattern in neural
development of childhood peaks followed by adolescent declines (e.g. synaptic pruning). Consistent
with adult findings, average cerebral volume is approximately 10% larger in boys than girls. However,
such differences should not be interpreted as imparting any sort of functional advantage or
disadvantage; gross structural measures may not reflect functionally relevant factors such as neuronal
connectivity and receptor density, and of note is the high variability of brain size even in narrowly
defined groups, for example children at the same age may have as much as a 50% differences in total
brain volume.[21] Young girls have on average relative larger hippocampal volume, whereas the
amygdalae are larger in boys.[1]

Significant dynamic changes in brain structure take place through adulthood and aging, with
substantial variation between individuals. In later decades, men show greater volume loss in whole
brain volume and in the frontal lobes, and temporal lobes, whereas in women there is increased
volume loss in the hippocampi and parietal lobes.[1] Men show a steeper decline in global gray matter
volume, although in both sexes it varies by region with some areas exhibiting little or no age effect.
Overall white matter volume does not appear to decline with age, although there is variation between
brain regions.[22]

Genetic contribution

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Adult twin studies have indicated high heritability estimates for overall brain size in adulthood
(between 66% and 97%). The effect varies regionally within the brain, however, with high
heritabilities of frontal lobe volumes (90-95%), moderate estimates in the hippocampi (40-69%), and
environmental factors influencing several medial brain areas. In addition, lateral ventricle volume
appears to be mainly explained by environmental factors, suggesting such factors also play a role in
the surrounding brain tissue. Genes may cause the association between brain structure and cognitive
functions, or the latter may influence the former during life. A number of candidate genes have been
identified or suggested, but they await replication.[23][24]

Intelligence
Studies demonstrate a correlation between brain size and intelligence, with larger brains predicting
higher intelligence. It is however not clear if the correlation is causal.[25] The majority of MRI studies
report moderate correlations around 0.3 to 0.4 between brain volume and intelligence.[26][27] The
most consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the
hippocampus, and the cerebellum, but only account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ,
which suggests that while brain size may be related to human intelligence, other factors also play a
role.[27][28] In addition, brain volumes do not correlate strongly with other and more specific
cognitive measures.[2] In men, IQ correlates more with gray matter volume in the frontal lobe and
parietal lobe, which is roughly involved in sensory integration and attention, whereas in women it
correlates with gray matter volume in the frontal lobe and Broca's area, which is involved in
language.[1]

Research measuring brain volume, P300 auditory evoked potentials, and intelligence shows a
dissociation, such that both brain volume and speed of P300 correlate with measured aspects of
intelligence, but not with each other.[29][30] Evidence conflicts on the question of whether brain size
variation also predicts intelligence between siblings, with some studies finding moderate correlations
and others finding none.[25] A recent review by Nesbitt, Flynn et al. (2012) point out that crude brain
size is unlikely to be a good measure of IQ, for example brain size also differs between men and
women, but without well documented differences in IQ.[31]

A discovery in recent years is that the structure of the adult human brain changes when a new
cognitive or motor skill, including vocabulary, is learned.[32] Structural neuroplasticity (increased
gray matter volume) has been demonstrated in adults after three months of training in a visual-motor
skill, with the qualitative change (i.e. learning of a new task) appearing more critical for the brain to
change its structure than continued training of an already-learned task. Such changes (e.g. revising
for medical exams) have been shown to last for at least 3 months without further practicing; other
examples include learning novel speech sounds, musical ability, navigation skills and learning to read
mirror-reflected words.[33][34]

Other animals
The largest brains are those of sperm whales, weighing about 8 kg (18 lb). An elephant's brain weighs
just over 5 kg (11 lb), a bottlenose dolphin's 1.5 to 1.7 kg (3.3 to 3.7 lb), whereas a human brain is
around 1.3 to 1.5 kg (2.9 to 3.3 lb). Brain size tends to vary according to body size. The relationship is
not proportional, though: the brain-to-body mass ratio varies. The largest ratio found is in the
shrew.[35] Averaging brain weight across all orders of mammals, it follows a power law, with an
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exponent of about 0.75.[36] There are good reasons to expect a power law: for example, the body-size
to body-length relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.33, and the body-size to
surface-area relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.67. The explanation for an
exponent of 0.75 is not obvious; however, it is worth noting that several physiological variables appear
to be related to body size by approximately the same exponent—for example, the basal metabolic
rate.[37]

This power law formula applies to the "average" brain of mammals taken as a whole, but each family
(cats, rodents, primates, etc.) departs from it to some degree, in a way that generally reflects the
overall "sophistication" of behavior.[38] Primates, for a given body size, have brains 5 to 10 times as
large as the formula predicts. Predators tend to have relatively larger brains than the animals they
prey on; placental mammals (the great majority) have relatively larger brains than marsupials such as
the opossum. A standard measure for assessing an animal's brain size compared to what would be
expected from its body size is known as the encephalization quotient. The encephalization quotient
for humans is between 7.4-7.8.[39]

When the mammalian brain increases in size, not all parts increase at the same rate.[40] In particular,
the larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Thus, in the species
with the largest brains, most of their volume is filled with cortex: this applies not only to humans, but
also to animals such as dolphins, whales or elephants.The evolution of Homo sapiens over the past
two million years has been marked by a steady increase in brain size, but much of it can be accounted
for by corresponding increases in body size.[41] There are, however, many departures from the trend
that are difficult to explain in a systematic way: in particular, the appearance of modern man about
100,000 years ago was marked by a decrease in body size at the same time as an increase in brain
size. Even so, it is noteworthy that Neanderthals, which became extinct about 40,000 years ago, had
larger brains than modern Homo sapiens.[42]

Not all investigators are happy with the amount of attention that has been paid to brain size. Roth and
Dicke, for example, have argued that factors other than size are more highly correlated with
intelligence, such as the number of cortical neurons and the speed of their connections.[43] Moreover,
they point out that intelligence depends not just on the amount of brain tissue, but on the details of
how it is structured. It is also well known that crows, ravens, and African gray parrots are quite
intelligent even though they have small brains.

While humans have the largest encephalization quotient of extant animals, it is not out of line for a
primate. Gorillas are out of line, having a smaller brain to body ratio than would be expected.[44][45]
Some other anatomical trends are correlated in the human evolutionary path with brain size: the
basicranium becomes more flexed with increasing brain size relative to basicranial length.[46]

Cranial capacity
Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the skull of those vertebrates who have a
brain. The most commonly used unit of measure is the cubic centimetre (cm3). The volume of the
cranium is used as a rough indicator of the size of the brain, and this in turn is used as a rough
indicator of the potential intelligence of the organism. Cranial capacity is often tested by filling the
cranial cavity with glass beads and measuring their volume, or by CT scan imaging.[47][48] A more
accurate way of measuring cranial capacity, is to make an endocranial cast and measure the amount

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of water the cast displaces. In the past there have been dozens of studies done to estimate cranial
capacity on skulls. Most of these studies have been done on dry skull using linear dimensions, packing
methods or occasionally radiological methods.

Knowledge of the volume of the cranial cavity can be important information for the study of different
populations with various differences like geographical, racial, or ethnic origin. Other things can also
affect cranial capacity such as nutrition.[49] It is also used to study correlating between cranial
capacity with other cranial measurements and in comparing skulls from different beings. It is
commonly used to study abnormalities of cranial size and shape or aspects of growth and
development of the volume of the brain. Cranial capacity is an indirect approach to test the size of the
brain. A few studies on cranial capacity have been done on living beings through linear dimensions.

However, larger cranial capacity is not always indicative of a more intelligent organism, since larger
capacities are required for controlling a larger body, or in many cases are an adaptive feature for life
in a colder environment. For instance, among modern Homo Sapiens, northern populations have a
20% larger visual cortex than those in the southern latitude populations, and this potentially explains
the population differences in brain size (and roughly cranial capacity).[50][51] Neurological functions
are determined more by the organization of the brain rather than the volume. Individual variability is
also important when considering cranial capacity, for example the average Neanderthal cranial
capacity for females was 1300 cm3 and 1600 cm3 for males [52]

In an attempt to use cranial capacity as an objective indicator of brain size, the encephalization
quotient (EQ) was developed in 1973 by Harry Jerison. It compares the size of the brain of the
specimen to the expected brain size of animals with roughly the same weight.[53] This way a more
objective judgement can be made on the cranial capacity of an individual animal. A large scientific
collection of brain endocasts and measurements of cranial capacity has been compiled by
Holloway.[54]

Examples of cranial capacity

Apes

Orangutans: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in)

Chimpanzees: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in)
Gorillas: 340–752 cm3 (20.7–45.9 cu in)
Early Hominids

Neanderthals: 1,500–1,740 cm3 (92–106 cu in)

Homo erectus; 850 – 1100 cm3
Australopithecus anamensis; 365-370 cm3 [55]
Australopithecus afarensis; 438 cm3 [56]
Australopithecus africanus 452 cm3 [57]
Paranthropus boisei 521 cm3
Paranthropus robustus 530 cm3

See also
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Brain-to-body mass ratio

Encephalization quotient
Craniometry — includes historical discussion
Neuroscience and intelligence
Human brain

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ww.wired.com/2015/11/how-humans-ended-up-with-freakishly-huge-brains/). Wired. Retrieved
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