: ez Wideband Modulation Techniques 1 Spread Spectrum Techniques (Single Carrier Modulation) + Chips spread spectrum Chapter Outline This sa diferent ype of modulation scheme in which the spread spectrum efecti¢ achieved with the help of a Unique code. The cede repeatedly becomes pseudo: noise (PN) sequences, which must be known at the recalver side to despread the signal again, The advantage of the syslom is the high level of secure ‘communication, intl started formulary applications Because of very large spectum, teats the interfering signals effcienty ster despreading and also exhibits wijamming chatacerisics, Because of good features, this modulation scheme is. utiized in mulieuser environment in terns of code division multiple access (CDMA), Carefuly signed rake receivers ae required {forthe detection of signal back. Rake receivers exploit rmutipath avers. There are two main schemes for ‘spread spectrum technology, direct sequence, and frequency hopping. There are others but are not so ‘opuiar, The features ofthe spread spectrum modulation ‘a8 described in dota inthis chapter Wideband Madulaton Techniques I: Spreod Specrum Techniques (Single Cari Mediation) 323 8.1 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION (SSM) CONCEPT Spread spectrum (SS) techniques were originated to meet the needs of military ‘communications. They are based on signalling schemes (code or sequence) that greatly ‘expand the transmitted spectrum relative to the data rate, Now, the techniques are used for commercial applications also. There is a growing interest in these techniques for use ‘in mobile radio networks and for both communication and positioning applications in satelites. ‘A spread spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed frequency transmission: 1. Spread-spectrum signals ae highly resistant to noise and interference. The pro- cess of re-ollecting a spread signal spreads out noise and interference, causing them to recede into the background. 2. Spread-spectrum signals ae difficult to interept. A fequency-hop spread-spec- train signal simply sounds like an increase in the background noise to & narrowband receiver 3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum sig- nals add minimal noise tothe namrow-frequeney communications and vice versa. ‘Asa result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently. Spread spectrum techniques also meet ihe following objectives: + Operation with alow-eneray spectral density + Maltipe-access capability without extemal control + Security (difficult for unauthorized receivers to observe the message) + Antijamming capability + Maitipath protection + Ranging ‘One way of classifying the spread spectrum system is given below. Averaging system In this system, te interference reduction takes place because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval Avoidance system n this system, the reduction of interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid the interference over a large fraction of time. ‘Spread spectrum technique is a wideband modulation technique. Here bandwidth expansion factor is very large. In fet, bandwidth expansion doesnot combat white noise 4s it does in FM, PCM, and other wideband modulation methods, because bandwidth ‘expansion is achieved by something tat is independent ofthe message, rather than being, Uuniguely related to the message. 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Sane itn ot han hinting st a etemies throng tsi Example 8.1 if data rate i 32 Kops and SNR is 0.001(-30 dB), then withthe help of ‘Shannon’s theorem, find out the necessary bandwidth for SSM signal. Comment on your result Sotution NC. 32x10°10%0 Las ua Comment For data rate of 32 kbps, operation with lower value of SNR of -304B is achievable by spreading the signal over a bandwidth of 22 MHz. By using a much wider ‘bandwidth than that of the original data is possible to maintain the channel capacity ‘Without increasing the transmitter output power. It isan extreme example of power- bandwidth trade-off We have = 22H assigned fo different uses to differentiate them. Forte identification of unique user the cade must undergo some operations so hat the data may not be diverted to wrong usce 8.3.1 Autocorrelation Autocorelation is introduced in Chapter 2 isthe procedure by which matching of a Signal is done with self. The autocorrelation should be maximum for the DS or PN codes With ite so that correct PN signal canbe identified from the numberof co-existing signals. The autocorrelation function of a typical PN sequence is shown in Fig, 82, Noto that on a nomnalized basi, it has a maximum value of 1 that repeaeitsel $260 period, but in between these peaks, the level sat a constant value of (1). If, ‘sa very large number, the autocorrelation function is very smal in this region, Reo ‘Aoconalten PN cate “ay | kay Fig, 82 Aulocoreatio function (normaizes) forthe codes with respect to tine The autocorrelation of the spreading waveform (PN signal) o() is represented mathematically as Le feoas na “6 ‘asip i the code period and crepresents a time shift variable, 8.3.2 Partial Autocorrelation R= where Toy The partial autocoreation is similar tothe formula given in Eq. (8.7) but integrated only over 8 portion of Tas maybe over a message bit duration, This is done to avoid long brocessing time for matching purposes. If the partial sequence is autocomelated, then obviously th full sequence willbe autocorrelated because of uniqueness of the code. This is the concept behind the partial autocorrelation. 8.3.3 Cross Correlation Cross correlation is also described in Chapter 2. Difterent signals have different spreading codes. 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Checking for the cyclic shift Forone cyclic shift, ie. k= 1 +H AHAH-L-LH SPHLF1-141-1-1=-1 (summing up al he values) ‘With the eye sift, this sequence will have the same autocorrelation properties, ie. it willbe atwo-valued function, With no shift itis No ané for other cases 1 (think Why), Popular periodic code sequences used in spread-spectrum transmission are: *+ Maximum length sequences + Walsh-Hadamard sequences + Gold codes/sequences + Kasami codes, tc ‘The names ‘pseudo-noise’ (PN) and ‘maximal length? are used in some papers ‘synonyinously, while other authors use the name PN sequences to indicate a very broad lass of sequences, including for instance ML and Gold sequences. 8.4.3 Maximum Length (ML) Sequences ‘The ML sequences and method ofits generation is described first. PN cade is generated in a maximal length shift register, which is nothing but a linear feedback shift register (LFSR). PN code generators are periodic in thatthe sequence that is produced repeats Wideband Medtlaon Techniques | Spread Specinon Techriqus (Spe Carer Modulation) 331 itself after a period of time. Such a typical periodic sequence generator is shown in Fig. 83(). The smallest time ierement in the sequences of dation is ap nd is known 48 time chip. The total period consists of W, time chips, where the code is generated by ‘a maximal linear PN code generator. The value of N, is ”~ 1, where pis the number of stages inthe code generator. The short length sequences are N,=7, 18,31, 63,127,255, “The reason for using shift register codes is that the period of the PN’ sequence can casly be made very large by increasing the number of register stages, so that apparently itlooks random to the users. “The LFSRecan be implemented in two ways 1. Fibonacci implementation [Fig 83(6)] 2. Galois implementation (Fig. 8.3(¢)} ‘The Fibonacci implementation consists ofa simple shift register in which a binary- ‘weighted modulo-2 sum ofthe taps is fed back to the input. The Galois implementation consists ofa shift register, the contents of which are modified at every step by a binary- ‘weighted value ofthe output stage. Eo — pe? 1 eal Tees Leper =e @ Fig. 63a) Typical PN eade gonerato wih three shit register slages and its application for data spreading, (b} Fabonaal implementation of LFSR, and (c) Galois implementation of LFSR In genera, shi epster implements primitive polynomial: Mg) #20 + aga Dot yt 69) ‘which isthe generator polynomial fora code. Inthe polynomial (2), the coeicient takes on the binary value 0 (ao connection) or 1 (Feedback or connection), Two exceptions are hy and, which are always 1 and thus always connected. Note that is not realy a feedback connection, but rather is the input ofthe shift register. In short, the coefficients h, determine te feedback connections inthe code generator. ‘Thorough inspection reveals that the order ofthe Galois weighs is opposite to tat oF ‘he Fibonaei weights. 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Clearly, (1, 1) is orthogonal to(1, ~ 1). This matrix can be extended using a recursive technique. For X= "user, the mari ifn rm the code mata for 2) wer, according to few) cay] ay es 9) -cray] a 8.4.5 Gold Codes/Gold Sequences Gold sequences have been proposed by Goldin 1967 and 1968, These are constructed by EXOR-ing wo or more m-sequences ofthe same length with each other Ths, fora Gold Sequence of length N. = 2°, one uses two LFSRz, each of length 2° 1. Ifthe LESRs are chosen appropriately, Gold sequences have better cross correlation properties than ‘iaximum length LSER sequences as showin in Table 8.2. Gold (and Kasami) showed that for certain well-chosen m-sequences, the cross correlation only takes on three possible values, ramtly -1, -R,, or R-2. Two such Sequences are called preferred sequences. Here R, depends soley on the length of the LLFSR used, In fac, for an LFSR with p memory ements, Ips odd, Ramey 13) Ifpiseven, Raz] 14) ‘Table 82 Calcuation of css earrlaton of Sot soquances ‘Thus, a Gold sequence formally isan arbitrary pase ofa sequence in the set G(x) defined by Gs,3)= (5,18 y, x Ty, x OPy, xo 7 (6.15) Wideband MadsavonTechnigues |: Spread Spcrum Technique (Single Caer Moduoon) 335 ier 1 denotes the operator that sis vectors eeliclly to the lef by & places, @ x the exclusive OR operator, and x, are maequences of period generated by afore primitive binary polynomials. eis wo know tha th ‘partial eross colton values can be altered by changing the phase ofthe code sequences. In theory then, its posible to find optimal phases, minimize the interference in the desired data signal. However, for K users, cach employing a sequence of period N, there area toal of NK different sets of suence phases possible. ‘A few other sequences are described below. 8.4.6 Quadratic Residue Sequences (q-r) Sequences These sequences have lengths that are prime numbers ofthe form N,= 49-1 = a prime ‘number, where qs an integer. Since prime numbers are faiely distributed and since half of the prime numbers can form quadratic residue sequences, there are many more sequences ofthis type than m-sequences. Is implementation is somewhat complex as itis not generated directly by using shift registers, There are some values of m for which both a-rand m sequences may exist, N,~3, 7,31, 127, 8191, 131071... However, except N, and 7, q-rand m sequences ae distinct. The g-r sequences have the same correlation properties as m-sequences, 8.4.7 Hall Sequences atl sequences also havea length has pine nunber described by N, = 4g-1= 47+ 27 = aime number, where both and rare integers Since both the conditions we tobe satisfied there ae very few all sequences, Ithas same properties as gr sequences bt there is no particular advantage of using sich sequences 8.4.8 Twin-Prime Sequences The twin-prime sequences are those sequences in which the length ofthe sequence is defined by N, = pplp,*2), where both p, and p,*2 are prime numbers. The only ‘advantage oftwin-prime sequences is that it is possible to achieve some lengths that are ‘not readily achieved by aay of other forms; otherwise the implementation is not simple. 8.4.9 Criteria to Select Code/Sequence In synchronous DS-CDMA, the link peeformance is affected by + Multisuser interference * Asynchronous multipath interference arising ftom the delayed signals from the other users as well asthe user imsel herself As the user capacity ofthe channel is limited by the interference, we would like to ‘make the partial cross correlations of eodes small, ideally zero for alltime shifts. The ‘Values thatthe partial cross correlation functions take depend upon the choice of codes. For example, Walsh codes have the desirable property of perfect orthogonality at 20 phase offset but have poor autocorrelation properties for ther phase offsets. 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It 's clear from Fig. 8.9 that the bandwidth ofthe biphase signal tt. Since the message is binary/square wave it will tae similar spectral density but entred on zero. Thus the message signal spectral density is Witbond Medlin Techgs : Spread Specum Techniques (Single Cater Modsten) 339 =o BE] wn The tanh ofthmesage By tht slr onsications wl Vi enue itiscomay tue ony hepsi een prion a te pst nde Sandi ot 2, = Bandit ofthe SSM or PN signa 23, = Bandit he messge sina The procesing gins defined os ran = Teves the aout of spreading of he signal Ith biphse modlatons ul thn th pcesng xin igen by PG=2fulng 620) Forquadiphase modal te proces exn PG" talsiy Example 8.6 If the chip rate ofa DSSS transmitter is 20 Meps, the message bitrates 10 kbps. Find out the processing gain achieved finaly ifthe biphase modulation is used, Solution 1 20x 10° foie” sppigr SSM bandit 8, = 2g = 402108 Message BW = Iitg = 104 Hence, processing gain = B/By = 2y/taig= 4000 ‘Ind, the processing gain can be represented as 10 logy (4000) = 36 dB Example 8.7 A recorded conversation is tobe transmited by a pseudo-nose spread spectrum system. Assume that the spectrum af the speech waveform is bandlimited 10 3 ‘diz and use 128 quantization levels, (8) Find out the chip rate required to obtain a Processing gain of20 dB. (b) Given thatthe sequence length is tobe greater than 5 hours, find out the numberof shift register stages required Solution () Processing gain = 20 dB = Lology PG = PG=10?=100 ‘Now, 128 quantization levels means that 7bits per saruple will be utilize. ‘Also 3 kHz speech signal means that the sampling rate wll be 6 kHz (Nyquist ertri), ‘Message bitrate = sampling rate x bits/sample =A2 kbpsPonponut st saaio001 oye aap senna los um ap oq we ses tp Nop ua swan aio evden, aceop ‘Homa 3 sst0> Fes poxaoar ay Youunys yaya sano wreetnens uy (even yo HY JO} UNOUS) HSS FYE WAKES OLR BIg i PEEL O ET EE = Feaisen =a sn ee ge eeHe-SH 205 I~ Pun yoajo sum oz 05 ayes uontfanoooyne SH (018 BD (1117-11) p00 ast wBoa] uname tp ‘soueysur ei souanbes 2F0> sy w gi poidatmu ase sjoqudS mip sen yy turns peauds (aAz034 DIva) SNOUVUSCISNOD UBAIZORY HinaLoaaS aves BONED Ie Joma ee ‘ned Ssoooid amp £4 poonpas s sous 94 Jo sar ate Pte $f atedue soley 2301s eis ep 21 J0 Aras0303 Di 2a Budde 6g ‘pamppy 1 wouod sous} mp sovayia pusq soured Pie eetl® ip ein Bupeaisop soy soydoyans ou soye iuap soca 2oea1oap soapy eat 22.04! 9 estou suo20q sauanbos Na 2 ta pypennenn Suoq OO Or+ Qu Ou soun0o9q nino sox dawson ye (see) 10+ Oat) « (ese) 9 (oy + 9 (8s = Oa el uve, onze sano pu uompuoo (= (> wis (2 eouenbas Ng porous oo] np Fado es oatoas ogy Ep fuH2uO.Npxcoara cc) O14 Oot)u= ()s eres) OO Os ‘souateponu jo soussaxd uy “zp pons yp sonpoidas youues sonst 4p Jo douanbas [Nd 9 Busou 01 s4]0001Y worse Supeoidsp ous aap von 'G)'>¢OYON « "ep eu 0 aun se us (toyed 24). 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The DSSS is often claimed to have particular properties that ‘makes it fess vulnerable to multipath reception. In particular, the rake receiver architecture allows an optimal combining of energy received over different path with. It avoids wave cancellation (fades) if delayed paths arive with phase differences and appropriately weighs the signals coming in with different signal-to-noise ratios. In short, ‘the rake receiver is designed to optimally detect a DS-CDMA signal transmitted over dispersive multipath channel. ti an extension of the concept of the matched filter as we ‘mentioned in passive method. Inthe matched filter receiver, the signal is correlated witha locally generated copy of the signal waveform. If, however, the signal is distorted by the channel, the receiver Wideband MediotonTecnigus(: Spread Seamum Techniques (Single Comer Modaion) 343 should coreate the incoming signal bya copy of te expected received signa rather han bya copy of transmitted waveform. Thus, the receiver should estimate the delay pofle ‘of the channel and adapt to its locally generated copy according to this estimate ‘The spreading code is chosen to have very small autocorrelation value fr any non zero time offset. This avoids crosstalk between fingers. In practice, the situation i eos ideal, It is not the full periodic autocomelation that determines the crosstalk between signals in different fingers, but rather two partial correlations with contributions from tro consecutive bits or symbols. It has been attempted to find sequences that have satisfactory partial coreation value, but the crosstalk due to partial (non-peodc) correlations remains substantially more difficult to reduce than the effects of periodic correlations. Tn contrast to the second-generation mobile telecommunications standards, the UMTS/W-CDMA infrastructure is capable of handling a ‘soft’ handover, whereby a ‘mobile terminals in contact with multiple base stations atthe same time. This can occur, for example, when a mobile terminal is at a cell border and the signals from all surrounding base stations have near equal strength. The signals from multiple base Stations differentiate themselves in their scrambling code. Thus, to handle the ‘soft handover scenario, rake receiver in the mobile terminal must be capable of correlating the ‘received signal with the individual scrambling codes ofall the base stations involved. Furthermore, the rake receiver is also capable of collecting and using the energy from ‘multipath components ofa signal Jn addition tothe actual signal reception tasks, the rake receiver must also perform 2 setof timing and synchronization tasks. A path searcher performs a correlation ofa fixed set of pilot signals over a sliding window to detect the paths with the strongest signal\ values i th environment. The offsets ofthese path are stored within a control ‘context and are used to generate the required offsets forthe individual rake fingers that descramble and despread the chip rate signals. The path searcher divides itself into a Coarse and a fine searcher, with differing repetition intervals and accuracies. A path tracker is responsible forthe tracking and the resynchonization of the paths that ate currently being received. In short, like a garden rake, the rake receiver gathers the eneruy received over the various delayed propagation paths. According tothe maximum ratio combining principle, the SNR at the output isthe sum of the SNRs in the individual branches, provided that we assume that only AWGN is present (no interference) and codes with a tine offset are truly orthogonal ‘The order of diversity achieved by the rake receiver depends on the number of resolvable paths Z with round fgudlfg) +1 27, ‘where Ta is the maximum delay spread of the multipath channel as deseribed in Chapter 5. Now coming tothe example signal shown in Fig, 8.12 again, in ith finger of the rake, the incoming signal is multiplied with the code sequence synchronized to the signal arriving over path i. 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When the interference is narrowband, increasing the spreading improves the es ergy efficiency: 2. Whea the interference is wideband, such a white noise, increasing the spreading does not improve the energy efficiency because the interference power J in- ‘creases directly with the signal bandwidth B,. Toobtain the bandwidth utilization efficiency B/R, BL B RoR, where Ris the message bitrate ‘The term B/2 is used since this is the equivalent energy bandwidth of the signal. Itis portant o note that B/R increases linearly with spreacing, thus the bandwidth utilization efficiency becomes poorer with the inerease in bandwidth of the spread spectrum, Ifthe interference is narrowband compared to the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal, (8.42) then combining the resus of Equations (8.41 and(8.2), Bitty sy Jo af, atkale £ [sara tf Nek Fo 643) If the interference is wideband compared to the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal, then Eq, (8.43) can be written as Bit, hb) £ 5 [t+ fe] nme oan) The quantity J, isthe spectral density of the interferng signal, 8.10.4 Near-Far Problem and Power Control ‘Near-far problem in spread spectrum system relates to the problem of very strong Signals atthe receiver swamping out the effects of weaker signals. This problem is Widebond ModuatonTechiques Spreed Spectrum Techniques (Single Coir Modan) 351 From, | Two Detected power fi (A 8 Fig. 8.16 Noar-far problem scenaio Jn.CDMA systems orather ear honefite networks, hi cmmonly solved by 2 1 ‘souonbas-yy ayy, yomsouel opo> Na q uaAlsp S] wun) ut yorys sozysaquuss Kouorbayyredip & jo suxeur q paystydasosce s; Burddoy ouanbay 24,7 J0 Jamod oy paejau axe s2auanbos Nig pub jonved soyeoUaG aouanbas INa 4 poresous? sf asnvsaq snorago st z 30 spaod Soyouenbasy Jo sequin Bunyeut 20} wosea a, wo}sKS wos ut pasn Apuessocou OU Stouanbal asqp ie YROKALE “40 zamod v éiensn st doy Sow yeuStsotp yorya 140 sofouonbey Jo Joquna aq, (ors) eciany =") S¢uonemp diyo om ‘sn *) uoneanp ng afessoxu Aso ut soy Sousnbayy °¥ 318220) Yon 2494 pasaptsuog st ways dog ej &“uoKBUSNA Jo sasodind 10g avjndod Was apeu sey a8eyueape ‘Sep ‘otoys.Cue pane] oq ued speuuuoyasous SRW SSfauA 30} Ne|MOMLeG VNC “SL un aionos ss sy wojqozd sj-arau om ‘iosn souassj ap st qs Sovonboy, sues orp UI yuustRR aus) snbraro, wnidads pooids 5 senbupe) vrionpeyy puogapin, AP Aus 10 yy 9) um 2 Uy Ye Jo pn pus yf sxsw HO HUN YoU FOI aan ave) “yah 44 somo yoes on porean 18 "swore aq aBessour on pus sq aessou yo Joqumm ap“; uoneunp suey 24, 20 tun po}opo tp Sump sma vu poyussuen axe au snotsai ap ut poreauinose su eBessou oi yo ry esas apoo i w Jo sono ka pooojs ss uaa? any ‘osoyo st ny 10] tu seonm a “poxfau W|ApoUaIgBUOSEaL Ku Aq sfessou "ya paejppow sos a ato suo pura aus yore SuLNC2-yy wONMaL aoe {peo pare at sovonbas-u Jo yun paw sos. "ouonboo 0 Wa 30 ops ayo 1569219 uo pap2ep 81 sojs Jo s9qum pra ou, [Ce)ze'g la} os oun py oy Pepumpgns sau yoe> po swear se uo seca oi! poptrp ssw au oy, ‘spovyour ore gus 7785 do xn gus pooS.9pun 9 we s¥aou0o Huddy ou ‘ONIEOH AWLL 218 OUST ue BasSoard iy wp ap OS ag pouibar 7 URI HBR 81H EP EI'Sh = S9LZE = 002,01 x vo'RL = "ad = Da 8 Butsoo0xd 2 Sun} oy sda 19 8. = 0082 x 957 x91 x8 =" ‘Tous wnnoods peouds j44 om Jo pprapueg (a) serouonbay Furddoyjo.oqumi oy «952 = anje pays nous zo mod yy aqetio in, © “wnon = upey = “ny =" cunts Fuyddoy Couonbay og day 6st =00r2 > e291 eoit= "ard = 94 104%] 01 = ap sp me Sussoo0ud non oN ‘ney sdq gore =" (e) soymes Tous tumszoads poo 4424 J0 pape ap mo pug (@) 710 temod v oq on st oquim sp panos sjouonbasyo sequuna sees oy) 0 pay (8) dP Sp = we Buss2000g gwore1}djmu Kouonbang 9) 19 afessou 1d sdopy operas sa, 9st358 WielessCommuntcavon Solution PG = B/B,,= 2M for biphase modulation system = PG =8 x 105200 = 2500 = 2M=33.97 4B > M = 1250=total numberof slots Itis not power of 2 but as bandwidth must not exceed 8 MHz, we shall choose M = 1024 (previous lowest power of 2). Now, Sf= 2° = ¢= 10 bits are required from the code generator to control the ON/ OFF switching time, PG will now be 2M = 2048 =3348 (This value does not differ much from the previous value of PG) 8.13 COMPARISON OF SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION METHODS ‘Table 84 compares the direct sequenee, frequency hopping, and time hopping methods, Table 84 Comparison of spread spectrum modulation methods "Frequency Hopping Method Tine Hopping Wethod Avera type oles pe ‘ire pe Segl-airsyemfratines Difeethoprg cars. oe latino Sing calrbultareite at eret tines Sinplstineeratin Cpl inpleesitiontecausete Inport sinker tan Ft “yeas ered Long eoqston bre Storteogisonte Leng segton te Naat pie Noneo-trption "Narr pclnvedety oper tin sycorizatin ABS ig 2 at eee * astrie andan. * iets anon tapes = Highton fey ofa tee bing perma +s eeatodet + Cantopegannesto svi + Use wn tasnitris average econo speci overeat pean + Best sini gine pat ‘iS a "Reis iditancomelnit = Ntuttlo nase den soaewanent + Fascodeeneatrregied + Erarcameten roid + Leng sequence teatied 2 LS innate! weandrangerste —* Erorcaecion needed " Synceoniaon iver roqed Cante jammed easy anc isnot sed garry 8.14 HYBRID SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEMS ‘The use of hybrid techniques attempts to capitalize upon the advantage of a particular ‘method while avoiding the disadvantages. For example, evaluation of ditect sequence and ‘Wideband Modan Teciniues | Spread Specrum Techniques (Sige Crier Madation) 359 frequency hopping shows that both of those techniques have thir specific advantages ‘and disadvantages. Direct sequence, on one hand, suffers heavily from the near-fer effect, which makes this technique har to apply to systems without the ability of power control. On the other hand, its implementation is inexpensive. The PIV code generators are easy fo implement and the spreading operation itself can be simply performed by EXOR-ports, Frequency hopping effectively suppresses the near—far effect and reduces the need for power control. However, implementation ofthe (fast) hopping frequency synthesizer required for @ reasonable spreading gain is more problematic in terms of hhigher silicon cost and increased power consumption, Applying both techniques allows for combining their advantages while disadvantages ccan be reduced. This results in a reasonable near-far resistance at an acceptable hardware cost, Many different hybrid combinations are possible. Some of them are PNIFH, PN/TH, FH/TH, and PNIFHVTHL While designing a hybrid system, the designer should make the choice of applying either fast or slow frequency hopping, The fast frequency hopping inereases the cost of the frequency synthesizer but provides more protection against the neat-far effect, The slow frequency hopping combines a less expensive synthesizer with a worse near-far ‘ejection andthe need for a more powerful error correction scheme (several symbols are {ost during a ‘hit’ jamming). Such considerations can be applied to other types of systems also. ‘Example 8.13 A PN/FH hybrid spread spectrum system has the following parameters: Message bit rate = 9600 bps after error correction coding PN code rate = 1,53,600 chips per second Chips per hop = 16 Hops per message bit =1 ‘Number of hopping frequencies used = 4096 (@) Find out the processing gain. (b) Find out the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal Solution (@) PN code rate= 153,600 bps, which isthe spacing between the two frequencies [Number of hopping frequencies, M'= 4096 Hopping rate=153600/16 = 9600 hops per second B, = Mf, = 4096 x 153600 = 629 MHz ‘Now, PG = 629 x 10°/9600= 65536 PG in dB = 10 logy PG = 10log9 (65536) 8.16 4B al is 629 MHz without RF multiplication factor.‘S89q Us uo}goud sp yuna 0} jo.qu09 Jemod Jo spo\pow ax 4oipio you 0) ouoSompro ave xieur YspENY ; 280 py sogoudsj-mau 2) 3 EHML “ET gy g uv m Sopeo a my easton“ wanes o 946 00 ans as pose SSS “plone w 1 SS5c1 8 S65 nO wr MOH “Zp. sounbos plop pu apes Peuis dix sou y yrR lg Usaaooes ayer B “eousnbas “py Jo Aygens omy ssnosiqy i lu soyejosi0024p Jo 2ouryrodan amps eA “TY ensued ut Sggcr 10} | ‘tpedoyour -tedard uonejauoooyne paumbas ay ant)“ wojdx> sanssoas axes ayy s20p MOH “OT AWA, soquunu ppo wo st aouonbas {818} 29 wed Buyssoooud ay plnoys Ky, 21p Jo yy ayp ep axs0sqQ s0}BIDU > to futsseooud 26) uonenba amp 2a}19p 9p09 Nd 9B8-2a1y ajquuns Aue UBisoq “p i kip wor pue jeudis uoewoyu! ap pue apanarype 29 uo Bupeaids oy) 1 3 wuts NgJo wnnseds peanatoarp amp Pury “6 “os oe 1g afvssom pur ayes dryp Jo uo, sioedse sy ye yap sans wan 0995 Jo wawrartnbas 24 24 PINOY WHA “¢ -sods peaids eouanbas yeanp paseq won, 42509 YI e]npous ssmyduupenb oyp yeiep ut ssnosiq{ “gut pueworougo éypenoods souiosag wiarsks — “os92 Jo ynsai 2 urnayoods peasds your 40s nox ubo ORY -zZ A unapods peaids din e2'g il soonpord woip Suippe pue opoo sa1p0 ue qumpads yesueHeN O49 4q 2po0 Aue Susidnjaw yop Buoys Aq yo Suypeauds Ky puwysiapun NOK op YAN “Tp ——— NN NOY Hh LL po ‘AN age esr aa Yano: ore ai seovenboy,o sus pnb “soya jc mqun ym opel os @ NA 21a sesndjovaenpou fverbeyeeuy upper Sg oatey cera, nq Egos 9 nized pee dao aw ve Basen =i seSeuesresp use oj pue Sues sy Kg popooE a Bupsens Jo neoee sel coo | UMN fini 84} JO SOBEIUEAPE BYE Oye} 0} eUOP S| SKIL “Suipeauds .0} uowpucd paynbas es! siqy | ‘3we}s/s HL 10 Ha Na J0 oneUQWOD 2X ‘ajenyg 6) 09 Loup sey rus 821 dey Butsn peubjsep oq ues swojeks pughy ay w Seren canna ‘9900 Nd Jo eq 9p 8 uogeanp dug “dio $2 unouy 2 wow 218 Uo Pepep ave sos ey 'Buxsoy au Um sesyewys aeaym aouanbos Wopue! yng Ba, royce waste ou 5] as0dind Bupeards oj posn apao au, fu sayew Yoru "uoyeroue6 Kavenboy Buld Sudip pus ‘poyou punky ‘powsus sua) onrormnarooamgsods “ou Jo} pagnbos ove siomsownuhs 91809 © puuddoy sway sxe SpO\gOUe WES JOM Prauds dau patonyoe s ononpay souosajoiy oqussiyu 2}459p 34 eth on one woged Bsoyy poem 812660 -pegous Gutow, KovonbO}, PUP Bone S250 aos pu opempou ovonbay BUN ssn} Qe04 O54 Ades No 219 "powiou Gudéon fousnbey ow VL a souenbos ayy a2 spoUaL NSS Of OA, $1 ue Buyscooxd agp ‘ese sp upon sf Aouonbay xp yy 1240 ppUApuN amp us gpelas oo NE UWE ‘Suapeoids winsoeds ep sonawoe ‘sna S14 pure uuoaxea ous waA18 © Jo woNeanp amp st, Yor Ul pz'g Bi Ul uMoys sou Duiensbrenomin mS SSSd mL & ot tp acne ome we ain pue Aowonbay ay wooo dnsuonops ai, suo}A UonrUMUD w pose ose ‘uy eeu ‘2781 J04By Jo epo0 a1y sean y esnede $13 os sepes ut anbrayoay uouroo es] 3 BOWL, “yppraputeg axp peasds 9 puns Pounbos 81 Jono Mod pue_wiasts 350 wou soe 26s evouentco wo 100) “uss zope ne 1 YBNOULL YP 1 waroMd srouse © 81 wojgad Jee w yp 21 ueNDe uogeMpow wnnoods ponds a 2p Jo wonenpou ouanbaty koa sayin ways wnsnoads peaide dnp yee Sq ‘ssoys sy umseyp weys4s ayy, unayods peaids diyo sasnwps1-Z0§-A.a PHepUmS 94, WNALDIdS CVa4dS AIH SLB o a i Se 19E (veaeynpowy won aus) sanbuapay wnmads poasds:)sonduipey uonoppoyy puqepNA veceoumuuey se QE362. Wireless Communication 14, What are the stops of receiving the spread spectrum signal atthe receiver? 15, What do you mean by partial cortelation? Why is pata corelation important forthe take receiver rather than full correlation? 16. Comment on the SNR of DSSS system, Can you say that enti-amming character- istics of DSSS depend upon the available SNR? How can the SNR be improved in that case? 17. Compare the DSSS and FHSS types of systems with thei pros and cons. Find out the existing systems/Standards in which these schemes are utilized. 18. Draw te block diagram of a PNIFH hy brid sytem and compare it wth the block diagram of FHSS system, Why are hybrid methods suitable many times inspite of their complexity? 19. In FHSS systems, what are the param eters ufon which the processing gain de. pends? 20, Why is ime hopping not much used prat- cally? 21, Explain that FHITH type systems are nothngbut chirped spread spectrum. —K NN POEL; LL 1. T£48 Kbps data stream isto be transmitted Using spread spectrum modulation method, find out the channel bandwidth required When SNR=0,1, 0.01, and 0.001, 2. Show that the periodic PN signal normal- ized autocorrelation function correspond ing tothe binary case with equal probabil ity of I's and 0's (+1 and~1) and with N= is ofthe form as shown in Fig, 8.25 a Fig, 8.25 3. 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Loss information signals and degradations Communications ~ Many common multiplexing schemes (described in the next chapter) are inherently orthogonal. Time division multiplexing (TDM) allows transmission ofthe multiple signals ‘over single channel by assigning unique time slots foreach ofthe information signals Daring each time slo, one and only one information sigral is transmited, thus preventing any interference between the multiple interference sources. Because of these, TDM is «thogona in nature. Ofcourse, time synchronization problemi the Jimi Inthe frequency doniain, most FDM systems are orthogonal inthe sense that each of the separate transmission signals is well spaced out in frequency, preventing the ~ Although the above tvo methods preserve orogonaliy with compromise, te teem OFDM reserves a special feature. Iti orthogonal FOM in whieh the subcarriers are spaced 28 close a is theoretically possible maintaining orthogonality between then, Here, saving of spectrum is achieved. The OFDM arranges the subcartiers in the frequency domain by allocating partly the information = gnels onto diferent subcarriers. ‘Single information streani oF Fame is split into multiplz symbols and each symbol or a srouy of symbols wil. be astigaed a separate carrier. All the split information is then ‘eansmited in paral through multiple caries eomanaea There are two ways in which The-subarrers are assigned. Consider one OFDM frame dnd ast of subcarriers assigned tit ring between these 1. Read the btslsymbol and assign one scarier it. Then ead another group of bits per symbol and assign another carrier that is orthogonal to the previous one and continue. 7, willbe the uration of symbol inthis case. Do this in parallel 2. Read the bitsord ofthe whole OFDM ame and then form « matex in which cach element fit represents one word. The whole fare is represented i ems oftime vs frequency plot (a2 D lice in which each point of atic represents word. (Sometimes, word is also referred toes symbols and there i diference between symbol and OFDM symbol—symbols athe elements of OFDM sym bol) Frequency axis wil suport the otal number of carters to be assigned othe ‘OFDM symbols and time axis will represent OFDNT Smbol duration tat is formed by breaking the OFDM frame into blocks and each block prolonged to OFDM symbol duration 7, These blocks contsinone or more symbols Th, the statement that “OFDM isa block modulation scheme’ willbe ue. Figure 9.1 represents atypical case of carrer esignment according to this method. The block duration willbe er theSerao-pralelonveson proce Ths he efetve bit duration and hence the duration between to consecutive pulses on? al parle fines is prolonged. Bis/symbo areas per the mapping scheme wed) ‘The OFDM signals are made up ofa sum of sinusoids. each representing a modulated subcarrier. Figure 9.1 shows a typical case of 4 subcactiers and 3 symbols/carrier (a block of 3 symbols will be assigned one subcarrier). ie. 3 symbols modulating 8 subcrre. Hence, the bit/symbol and sybolsarrerisnecessary to pre-dcide or pln, Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Muldcarier Medulotion) 367 Froqunsy (ssa 6s 595) Osi oe ; BP ra | | Sie a ad jlo Jno @ % pr l a 7 OF tock 8, Ste weeny Sect, So peel orn at ‘ Sereg oan matos 5s panenin j Seite cer Tee Symbol or 8 PSK Fig. 9.4 (@) Late representation and caer assignment planning and (b) concept of cari fequenay allocation tothe sybels atypical case which tree ym bols are assigned toa cari), seril-o-paralll conversion, ad mapping info ‘fequency domain components after meduaton such thatthe total OFDM fame can be bron up appropriately matching the total number ofsubcates tobe assigned to it , 9.1.1 Orthogonality and Subcarrier Setting in the Spectrum ‘wopioic signal are orthogonal whe the integral oftheir product, overone prio is qual o zero and they have itepal number of eles nthe fundamental peiod 1 he Peak fhe next camer must occur atthe null of he previous eat. 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Since the system i inet we can integrate the result by taking the integral of each frequency component separately and then combining the results by adding the two sub-inteprals. The two fequen:y components after the mixing fave an integer numberof eycles over the period and so the sub-ntegral over each component willbe zero, asthe integral of a sinusoid overt entre period is zero. Both the subintogral are ero and so the resting addition of thetwo will also be zero. Thus, we have established tat the fequency components are orthogonal to each other Another way to view the orthogonality property of OFDM signals isto look tits Spectrum. tis known tat time limited signal isnot bandliited and vce versa Whea ie main pulse shaped signal is mapped in Frequency doin, isa sinc shape, which compresses wien mul-bit symbols are modulating wih each larger size of OFDMT symbol, then a better spectrum wilizai ‘sbearrets can Be placed nearer asthe peak Of a narvow subearr that channel decides the subcarrier spacing. E has a peak at the ¢ frequency and us evenly spaced wih a frequency gap equal tothe car shown inFig.93,—— —— Fig. 25 Orthogonal signals inthe frequency detain: peak of one ‘signal ocous a he nul of nearer subeaier The sine shape has a narrow main obe that decays fastand many sidelobes. Becéuse ‘he Subshannels are vrymarow, they act as samples ofthe pecru, Tis willbe shown in the mathematical part. When the spectrum sting is done for IDF stage, the speetrum snot teated as continuous as shown in Figures). and 9S buts considered in Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Multcarer Modulation) 371 terms of discrete samples. The sampled spectrum is shown with ‘o's in Fig. 9.4(a). Ifthe DFT is time synchronized, the frequency samples of the DFT correspond to just the peaks of the subcarriers, Thus, the overlapping frequency region between subcarriers does not affect the receiver, itis very helpful to interpret subcarrier signals as vectors in the signal space. Vector signals can be added, multiplied by a scalar, ‘expanded into a base, and many more properties can be considered. sxample 9.1 A 64 Kbps voice frame is to be modulated by OFDM scheme. The uration of OFDM symbol is 1000 ps. Total of 32 subcarriers are to be assigned to this frame, Find out (a) themull-to-nul subchannel bandwidth assuming square signal, (b) the total bandwidth occupied, and (©) the number of bits in OFDM frame. ‘Solution (a) T,= symbol duration = 1000 ps So, Af subcarrier spacing = VT, = 1/1000 ys = 0.001 MEz= 100 k#z = Null-to-tull subchannel bandwidth =200 KF (sine shape) (b) N= number of subcarriers = 32 = ‘Transmission bandwidth = (N, + 1) x Af= Nx Af 32% 100 5200 KH (©) Bitduration= 1/(64 x LO") =15.625 ps > No. of bits per frame = 1900/15.625 bits 9.1.2 FDM vs Orthogonal FDM ‘Some difference’ between FDM and orthogonal FDM are as follows: + The OFDM signals must be time and frequency synchronized, which isnot neces- sary in case of FDM. + FDM isa single-carier oriented system while OFDM is mulicarir system. + FDM transmission signals need to have a large frequency guard-band between channels in comparison to OFDM to prevent [CI interferencety voy ‘05 “C'y/t = %Z) aes wp puogaseg oy Jo aionuy 9) st poled joquiss aij ‘uonuoju ees 24) 205 s3H0YS Keane 99 pou logan ‘sore ep wy 4 Wonmuuoyur ase e YppHApUBA PE ome spung pre aayy, EUAN sto jusoefpe wv oienuen uso soy v alayys aonds # apracud oy waptapug J91e9 Y>e9 ‘aang peood 99 isnt pueg pron’ ‘sonvexd ul uny2ods jo woryzin Wuta4}o 305 “imoqyfiou 901 1uasepe oq toys J1zeo Ya pm pariosse yap a ‘Se2Pf “ursaldnmur woisayp Ausnboy ps [| Sussnes omg ag|Ss0N se oso] se SLID pargnpou Suroojd sopnjou suoyskssoures-oj2us ut innoeds oypes jo osm UO! suueyshg s0uID-e/6UIs LZ" su] woueoqunOD 2Pomau e w siasn souuo-a|fuls [euoHUAAKIO ay) smOUS. 1 voneaoqe Aovenbary xomer-aGus 16 B14 5 aang ~Aassonip ayy iojdxa Karp se ‘sjaye [auueyD ayy puristpiar ueo sompazor srayseo ojdninyy “uorporidde owt WAIO. ‘9 s990| pur oNe|Na|e LAA 40} unAHOAE ip patuasaud &ayny, pur 5]005 ‘961 ‘uy "Uap aajos oF afaissod you ozo yoy 4 “LEAL Jo wonmuame;dut peydip oy a Sim eoroaypr or anp paseep sex voneiuowojdius woysés op yng “anbruysoy WOW w2faiye ue se 5,09 pur S,05 21 UF pumore Kpeaue sex WIGIO Jo ajdiound fa, Yong siea6 map ASNl PYCLEO Ws PaaMpOnI Sea ‘po Atos st plaouoD zxsTeDA AD ip qBnotpyy -ad4) says0o-o/8uys Jo are swoysKs uorpeoruMUWeD feUOKUDANOD Ty SWHISAS UARUVOILIN SA TIONIS 2°6 "ADI OO SPHNpHNG Jo BUIAES eH, “7101 00€ = 0¢ + 057 = 05 +055 94 1 MpvapaER perdnaoo jos am “0g 24 0g Sasuxaxdde 9g IM SIouNeD feuD#oxpIO ep 22H ‘uroeds ap “ptapueg JousBSqNS Se ZF OOT JO MipLMpuRR oUNE ap HUN.pIstOC siaaio> pouotioysi0 107 TeAsoyo pen mows ZH 005 = $% O91 94 TM sHPEpUEG potdnooo FO 4 suoyst doyano-o}Suns 407 (Cuosuoduos ayunvoxdde ys ajdurea Sronyge we sft] OUP ous synsax a asueo1go ‘Passio Jou are Seuayps Uo}e|NpoUHFSAdS aio :310N) omnes “aos Joe} 0} an yppospueg wy Tses ap yo pug pu sse>. om Hq {ut pprmpueg pordnano ayn redo “aipo yea 09 Aeuodoyuo pened axe state any ‘aus aif “store asap any ps auiayas saLLRo-ofIs eq FOREMPoUL 240 YoED caveat paoerd are sjouueyo zp 0} any ‘909 foods ip FmBopIwOD 7 aduTEN ELE (uonampoyy sousenny) waxO 7 Sanbpay vonorpory puogapAN sonbyuoe si 0} paseduos wanye Ayeneds Quo (a) Joquepqna 0} snp Bukas (9) pve wonenpou sPRPAY | anp Dukes wnRZeE |e) ove fepods a OURALUES-NQUO =A ROY $6 Bly was Wray = sermretes UL Ue ge meen YUL i womne T se 06s Suvi 6q umacods ap Burdeys sosswon “npHpueg [ouLeEyS 240 ut pyar ae ro fy A Tren comoonnunon scam zg374 Wirtess Communion increases, T,. must decrease and vice versa. Ina multipath environment, a shorter symbol period leads to a greater chance of intersymbol interference. This occurs when a delayed Yersion of symbol arrives during the processing period of syanbol n+1, Mcary schemes with higher value of M provides better spectral efficiency and data rate atthe cost of SNR. 9.2.2 Multicarrier Systems ‘The OFDM, a multicerier system, addresses both the problems of single-carier system ‘mentioned above. The basic idea of OFDM is to divide the available spectrum into Several subchannels (or subcarriers). By making all subchannels narrowband, they experience almost flat fading, which makes equalization very simple, The OFDM Provides a DSP-based technique allowing the bandwidths of modulated carriers to overlap without interference. Bandwidth and spectral efficiency is achieved compared to single-carrier systom. To obtain a high spectral efficiency, the frequency responses of the subchannels are overlapping and orthogonal. This orthogonality can be completely maintained, even though the signal passes through the time-dispersive channel, by introducing cyclic prefix as described later on. I also supports a high data rate due to Serial-to-parallel conversion of symnbols acquiting long symbol duration, thus helping ¢liminate ISI, Time and frequency synchronization i te main limitation of multicarier systems, 9.2.3 Data Transmission in a Multipath Environment by Single-carier and Multicarrier Systems Multipath environment means a time-dispersive channel. In typical radio channels, maltipath propagation occurs because of multiple reflections of the transmitted signal ‘The various propagation paths are characterized by different delays and this leads to a time dispersive behaviour of the channel. Intersymbol interference is caused and has to be taken care of in radio transmission systems (refer to Chapter 8). As far as single-carie digital transmission is concerned, ifthe data rate is low and the ‘symbol duration is large as compared to the maximum delay ofthe channel, it can be Possible to cope up withthe resulting ISI without any ecuaization, As the distance range oF the data rate of the system increases, IST becomes more severe and channel equalization has tobe provided. To have equalization inthis situation, complicated tasks {ike channet estimation, filter coefficient calculation, ec, are required with computational complexity. Adaptive equalizers were the better sclution till now. The altemate transmission technique using mukicarier modulation (MCM) with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing is better than the above approach, The idea of OFDM is to convert the high-rate data stream to many low-rate data streams that are transmitted ina parallel ‘way over many subchannels. Thus, in each subchannel, the symbol duration is large as ‘compared to the maximum delay ofthe chanel and ISTcan be handled. ‘The common representation of the multipath channelis the channel impulse response (CIR), which is the response at the receiver if a single narrow pulse is tran ig, 9.8). Indteetly itis the power delay profile, which we have described in Chapter 5 ‘Widebond Moduloton Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicorier Modulation) 375, coding 1 Figures 9810910, T= rata wih Pad Rivas porpesely fo represent single carer and ‘me’ for multicarrier), Rye = symbol rate, and if ) tea ely ofthe get pth ih eget to the earliest path. | = 2 recived symbol can theoretical be influenced bY Tya/Tre previous symbols. eee This infuene his fo be estimated =4 go cr hen ge pu vrais compenstedfrin the eee: For singe : ree on sons nan IS fal ~ ve are vals. 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This is done by extracting the pilot subcariers, Pilot information ean be set in time domain rin froqueney domain an accordingly time or frequency domain methods are utilized to estimate the channel. | Ench ofthe important stages are explained in deal inthe next few sections. Figure | 9.14 represents all thse stages 9.3.1 Serial-to-Paralle! 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In Addition, also note that the frequency separation between each pair of delta is Proportional to inverse ofthe symbol duration 9.3.3 Guard Period Te IStisaommon problem ound inhigh ata ate commtiation osu whe the anomisson interferes with ita and the receiver cant decode te tenomssion corey Thi is bemase asthe data rat increases, the ine ration betwee te consective pulses decease ForavoiingISh te ube tne aon old be peer than the maximum delay of the channel The IS is one of he major debe of pt sngle-aeansmissionasiscse enon To wo ir gud nals Provided along wt edt pti sot the Ite! ceve inte gu eral cin be removed aera and he dt can be reve. Ore ofthe mot ino ropes of OFDM esis igh elo business pst nlp dl spread Tis sere every lng sol parol tse compte path dey, whish innizs the intsymbainefrence, The el of !uipat busines canbe ater inreasd by etn af gud prod beeen the tans sym The gl peroallows time formal sgn fom te ono sombolodicavay before theinfnmaion om thcuent symbol sare. Peet Syrtel aries at Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarier Meduaton) 383, fective guard period to use isa cyclic extension ofthe symbol. Ifa mirror in time atthe end ofthe symbol waveform is put atthe start of the symbol asthe guard perio, his effectively extends the length ofthe symbol, while maintaining the orthogonality ofthe ‘waveform. Using eycli extended symbol, multipath immunity as well as symbol time synchronization tolerance canbe achieved. ‘Transmitting a eyelic prefix ofthe data during guard interval transforms the linearly convoltive chanel into circularly convolutive channel. enc, the channel equalization problem is simplified. Specifically, chaanel equalization i the frequency domain can be done using one tap filters. This is because cylicprefixing makes the channel matrix circulant, whichis diagonalized by the IDFT and DFT operation. “The added guard interval and its effec in reducing IST are shown in Figures 9.17 and 98, ‘As long as the multipath delay echoes stay within the guard period duration, thre is strictly no limitation regarding the signal level ofthe echoes: they may even exceed the sional level ofthe shorter pth. The signal energy from all paths add up atthe input the receiver, and since the FFT is energy conservative, the whole available power feeds the decoder IF the delay spread is longer then the guaed interval, then they begin to cause inter symbol interference, However, provided the echoes ar suficiently small they do noteause significant problems, Ths i true most ofthe time, as multipath echoes delayed longer than the guard period they wil have been reflected from very distant objec 1 embod duaton tore aya ‘usin Das per eet [SR = ‘loa Reccies SN | ‘Setiearfornce ih cyte roc Fig. 47 Concept of removal of muligath effect due fo guard interval aon in each symbol bck by padding copy of part af he symbol (Phase errors ae main in guard intewval)jeg obs 138 618 Sid unos 0) 4 es oy Guy 6s vosianwood é ee we sg reufis nao pimeoses dO sue verbo ou, WaLHO emp ‘Kj2anrewoyyy “sporpou uorsionuos Aouanbayj Zojeue Husn Kouanboxy mse [euNy ofp 0} posea.oU! 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Ether wy, the selsted techni: would have oivolv some form of near AM or QAM (possibly implemented with amine). RF Modulation ‘The ouput of the OFDM modulator generates a baseban¢ signa, which must be mixed Po the reuied tansmision fequnes. This can be implemented using an analog (cng or ial up converters shove in Figures 920 and 921 Beth echniues Perform the sane operation. However, te perfomanof te digital medlaon wil end ‘more accurate du to improved matching between the processing ofthe I and channels and the phase a ase accuracy of the digital 12 modulator, In both the figures, the Jevels are shown mentioning whether the signal isin analog form or digital form. ‘Andes feats areal Digit | Anaiog Fig. 920. RF modulation of complex BF meson of complex basoard OFOM snug entogtcigus Ike Wary {cos ‘ao Compe s ‘roi Slat ——_ {+g JP 00% es Ea & ” Dos brea Fin 821 mtn lone OFM sna sy da cnn Wideband Moduloton Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarier Moduatn) 387 ‘The role of interpolation filter isto increase the sampling rate for better analog conversion. In digital techniques direct digital synthesizer (DDS) is used that can onerate the required discrete RF cartier by controlling the phase of samples and then ‘converts into an analog form. Most of the latest ASIC designs use DDS for RF carrier ‘generation that can generate very high carrier frequencies. ‘After RE conversion and transmission, the transmitted signal will get corrupted by the various channel effects and then it will be received by the receiver, 9.3.8 OFDM Signal Reception and Demodulation ‘The reesived RF signal is down-converted and also converted into digital form. The guard period is removed in case of eyclie prefix. Demodulation is done to get back the required setting in the frequency domain (jst as transmitter). For that the offset removal is requited. The subcarrier offset condition is shown in Fig. 9.22. The receiver basically does the reverse operation to the transmitter. The FFT of each OFDM symbol is performed to find the original transmitted spectrum, The phase angle of cach transmission cartier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by demodulating the received phase (demapping). The data words ae then split back to the same pattern as the original bits to have the serial data again by parallel-to-serial conversion, camer of yo Dope ect ‘OFDIK ombegena swears sutcariedpacing vers of OFDM sybeldraton Fig 8.22 Carr offset condon athe ecsver end (oss of ehagonay) ‘The following steps may be taken to demodulate the OFDM: + Partition the input stream into vectors representing each symbol period + Take the FFT of each symbol period vector. + Extract the carrier FFT bins and calculate the phase of each, + Calculate the phase difference, from one symbol period to the next, for each car + Decode each phase into binary dat. + Sort the data into the appropriate order,pea pues apousie ones anya EL jy ung geuop Kuna a uae ‘aqp pu saizmoqns pawooye ye swuod compe] sod se poyusuen axe sjoquiks wep ox, 201407 0} Burpsoooy sBuyjes wosjoeds weysks WAI (ose pues) star pyctgo = 99 (w) sq ped. 29) woneinpoU asyed = " aastiq Lal = sou ado =H ayduesaum= «ay oe (co*sazz)*™ & to own at uoypjuesesdey uowog ew Was0 “spreauye paquosops1 pur maysAs icy Jo ansst we vod west Buddy somod yea “Aouayogy9 sessed ood Aina wl Bupnsas yuauino surg yBAy 1ueysUO> WL JOYCE oH ‘sy ynsar an] “syvad amp Bupuorsyp prone oy afues syueudp a8rn] 6 axsy 1 sey JOU seauyf a4 eR) suboU ST "BH sf of oMod oBeID4e-o1-yBOd a Os ‘dn our sprostuts 2 oy wo Buypuadop sno00 Sew sad apna dure 9830} 19a “uomIppe uf "woneorg de eau, Sosmmbad af Je 1B] IBS HAY Jo sYPeGMEAP am JO 2uD 210M 20} 2q Kew woneynpou amp pue 'sonsta}eerey> Sounbayy yeusSu0 ayy UE Msa sfuo] ou prom eusis tp jo 14 We own ‘Payrpou 30 pada steprajdwe otp Juss 2p Jo tuatuoa o4p ouyp Aexp Se eu ydoy oq suoNeLEA opaytue avg yeyp weodw ‘toa st aude xvod wou Jo au ax Ssox9 Ao fess pungaseg PLO wewoP ‘un Jo apmyjdure at sjouueyogns om [840 wormppe yy “apraydive SuLCzwa sey jeudts AO 9 VN 9q>s1 9 sfouEyaqns oy je Buyppe Aq ueIOp au axp Ut porsad joquuss WO au0 oyes0U98 on pouuoyod st 1441 ue ‘pay st Suddews joquiss op soy (Cain yun, Sjiezedss pougap are w pus y sqqeHsea ows amp 9H) ‘snewsujew ueN® yon poyjuco Gomes ug 3s) 6 Bld suo Wag 364 0115 = 2 (01 yonbo 2g ou Ses 30 Sout "y) 24g La = W Awana 91009 WL JO Wl = ayduespuod (J 00) fauonbay = 3 uot 68. 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Thus, within the symbol duration following signal of the nth OFDM symbol block is formed: l= Fae E Susele- mt) 10 ‘The total continuous-time signal consisting of all OFDM bloeks is Meck 3 Tie & S Ssaetem eu) Wideband Moduoton Tecviques 2: OFDM (Multcarer Modulation) 391 ‘Thus, by modulation, a rectangular symbol blocks are applied to each OFDM carrier ‘The shaping is applied to each symbol block. ll shaping functions differ by one symbot period, Due tothe rectangular pulses applied to subcarriers, the spectra ofthe subcarriers are sine-functions, eg. forthe Kh subcarrier: GCA) = T sine (RTF kA) where sine x = 9.12) “The spectra of the subcarrier overlap, a shown in Figure 9.5 OFDM spectrum, but the subcarrier signals are mutually orthogonal and modulation symbols S, can be recovered by a correlation technique as shown in Eq. 9.13). Correlation between the two consecutive shaping functions g(t) and g() = (ees) = Jee d= ies 0.13) or Sue FE (at a) @.14) where (0 is the conjugate of g,0). In practical applications, the OFDM signa (is generated ina first step asa diserete time signal inthe digital signal procesing par of the transmitter. Since the bandwidth of an OFDM system is H”= 1, Af the signal must be sampled withthe sampling time d= VIV= UN.Af Lets introduce one more ter ior th sample. The samples ofthe signal are writen a8 Sy, 0, Le N-l Vis equa incase of IFFT bin of N-pint Without zero peding and can be easulsted as sun Fe DSc @.13) “This equation describes exactly the inverse diserete Fourier transform (IDF), which is typically implemented as an IFFT. After IFFT, futher signal processing can be applied toavoid out-of-band radiation, Out-of-band radiation can oocur if amplitude peaks ofthe ‘OFDM signal are limited by the power amplifier and can occur to the side lobes of the subearrier spectra. Finally, the signal is D/A converted and transmitted. The efficiency 1) ‘of the system depends upon delay spread and symbol duration. delay spread. 19 Symbol duration ‘The effect of the number of subcarriers and the guard time duration on the system performance is summarized as follows, + Fora given number of subcariers, increasing guard time duration reduces ISI due to the decrease in delay spread relative tothe symbol time, but reduces the power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency. + Fora given signal bandwidth, increasing the number of subcarriers increases the power efficiency but also increases the symbol duration and results in a system ‘mote sensitive to Doppler spreadsnoyaoad us pasapisuion s1 adeys sup Ai st yey, youueyp Upe2 40j asuodsar Aovanbay, poxinys-sus poutsap © uy synsor sosynd ponjuismen omp jo Surdays asjnd ysmbsy amy, 96 Sig wt wOYS se 2oyeor21p ponarype SI BuNyas ‘wnnzods py Teo ses du oe yeuBts nd o} pond st Burdeys asjnd srabANQ ‘sjouueyo soguroqns moureu 40g -pazmmntuyw 2 ued sjuauodio9 pueg-Jo-sn0 yy OS pedeyso9 sn tpoq “ppropueg uoisstusten jer2A0 se ffam sBippr joutEy> o44Teaqns Tenpuagpuy yous ‘Coulonge wnyseds ayy Surroxduy 404 WYGIO 2ueu oxy oouDH euoBompi0 pu Suyddeyoxo axe sjauueyoqns oxy ‘ouajoy reujoods ysiy wergo oI, AONAIOHA TWLO3dS GNV TYNOIS NGJO NI ONIVHS 38INd 9°6 162192, uaF Swope Rope a YH pasoud 9q uns yd Jo Kourouyoronoods a “0g 21 Byep > ape 190: ououodosd Spoaupur st stout ai yo Suoeds Kovanbay ‘ou 31g oxp oy uorsodaud st “7 sy Uasv ays WN = at "pong aygeEAe rro1atp Burg ys swoyty se 2U0p 29 URD LTO 2 APHID NORRIE UO uogenbo axoge ai 0 yodsas yp Uostedwton ayy yunsa4 ax “0S “Patunsu09 54 Seu ona 0d ypspueg uasayyp‘spoqou wopsspusuen Hoye Epp euSipA-py Aue 40 sae 04 9 J sr99j Burdoys asqed sy auS09 poster =D pu ops ig = y a4 “poydde st uoyyy oursoo pastes uoym Go + Tar = Hae 2q |W) pauinbas yrprmpueg ‘unuun “uons9j9s oues-2/8us yuo pashs} aways vonejapou ssedpueg ® J] SINAINAUINOI HicIMaNva ERTCENE) ‘uomeanp joquuds a4 sasea.Su! uur ut you ‘suaasPagns ‘omy uoanyaq Burseds Aouonbay a1p seseosoap srauueaqns Jo soqumu ayy Suseazou voi ‘paxy st wppunpueg (eudis WLIO 24 PuEY 90 947 UO "YNPIAE pug yeudis ¥C.gO 24 u aseazou a Sodus sty sau se soseaioapsoydures ‘om taemyaq uoHeinp xp ‘ures amp surewias uoremp jogs HCHO 28 J] ‘seseazbuy uorveanp Joquics ayy ey {dur yressa00u yOu S20p 1 aAaMoH oqusss WO 324 sojdures jo zoqumnu xp saseasou sioxaieaqns Jo oquunu aup FuseaLoN] “Z "pprspueg fouls a4 sasearoap uorremp joquiss 19 Buisearouy ‘srouueoqns Jo 29quun uenE? 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0.0018 ee = 180 see = FFTsze AT, Blige = (Net MFT te, 00+ tteoD uae = 6.1K Also, < 1800800 = latfang ad reduced 9, (adng guar pad conta ronoves 8) ‘Thus, OFDM 2% mars bandwith ecient or his example, 865 lay spread Fig, 8.28 Overlapping subcarcrs with recangulrpulse staping and orthogonally description also. Tus, the power spectrum of the OFDM system decays as In some ‘cases this isnot sufficient and methods have been proposed to shape the spectrum. If'a raised cosine pulse is used, the roll-off region also acts as aguard space. Ifthe flat pat is the OFDM symbol, including eylic prefix, both ICI and ISlare avoided. The signal with this kind of pulse shaping is show in Fig 9.27, when itis compared withthe rectangular pulse, spectrum response is as shown in Fig, 9.28. The overhead introduced by an extra ‘guard band witha graceful roll-off can be a good investment for ISI elimination, since the spectrum falls much more quickly and reduces the interference to adjacent frequency bands. Choice of roll-off plays an important rll as fa as spetal efficiency is concerned. mete Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarer Modulation) 395 Te Relative power density ($8) preveerr | Nrmatzed tequency 21 Pulse shaping using raisedcosine faction Fig, 8.28 Spectrum shape wit rectangular pulse (The grey part of te slgnal shows the rol (sold nes) and raised cosine pulse oft) (dashed tines) ‘Synod raion wih guard val Rotestrgion 9.7 WINDOWING IN OFDM SIGNAL AND SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY TE the overall spectrum of OFDM is concemed, because of the sinc shape of each narrowband channel, the side lobes ‘with main lobe will appear. These are unwanted components and are to be eliminated from the final transinission bandwidth, This ean bbe achieved by applying the ‘windowing function to final OFDM baseband signal in which effect of all the subcarirs is present. For example, Hamming window, Hanning window, Bartlet window, Keiser window, ete, are defined by specific mathematical function. Passing OFDM baseband signal Fig. 829.Apiing the windowing function to the OFDM ‘through the windowing block will baseband signal perform the task of removing out of band components. Hence it can be considered a8 Shaping filter also. Dack lines in Fg. 9.29 represents the concept of windowing, This will allow designing nex transmission bandwidth closer to the previous one and maintaining the orthogonality 9.8 SYNCHRONIZATION IN OFDM ‘One ofthe drawbacks in OFDM is that is highly sensitive to synchronization errors, in particular, to frequency error. Hence, three synchronization problems arise—symbol, sampling frequency, and carer frequency synchronization. 9.8.1 Timing Errors and Symbol Synchronization ‘A great deal of attention is given to symbol synchronization in OFDM system. 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Several choices are possible forthe implementation of a receiver depending onthe modeling ofthe channel and complexity invested in each tas. The nature ofthe OFDM enables powerful estimation and equalization veehniques. Jia communication system, the estimation is generally performed using th received signal and applying some kno ledge about the transmittecsequence/known symbols ot hannel statistics, eg, block-based estimation methods (explained later on)use a batch of received symbols to estimate the average channel in an interval where the channel is ‘weatedas time invariant, We can say that snapshot of the channel is obtained from each estimation interval The continuous impulse response ofthe channel is thus sampled, not only in delay to form a discrete FIR channel butalso in time, resulting in snapshots ofthe ‘time-varying channel. The estimated samples may have an estimation ero hat depends on the measurement nose the transmited symbols, the properties ofthe channel, the estimation algorithm and the deviation from atime invariant channel inthe estimation interval tis well understood thatthe phase nose effect on OFDM signal reception consists of ‘two components: an ICI term that can be modelled as additional Gaussian noise, and @ ‘common phase eror (CPE) that rotates all the sub cre squaly The plo signal will also undergo the same effects. While the II is difficult to remove due tots nose like characteristics, the CPE can be easily corrected by estiating such rotation through continuous pilot tones embedded in OFDM symbols, However, some CPE compensation schemes assume fxown channel states ot at least static channel, allowing the CPE tbe separated from actual channel effects, Such a assumption does not hold true for time varying chanuels. Reversly the Wienet filtering chanel estimation approaches may not be diectly applicable the presence of severe phase noise (se of Kalman filter may be mor suitable), Only joint consideration of CPE and channe| estimation can address these problems, although in practice the two ifs ate often dealt with separately. The effect of phase vise on channel etimation shouldbe ist analysed based on which the existing ime domain LSE or MMSE channel éstimators can be modified to accommodate the CPE. A new CPE estimator suitable for fast fading channels that requires no explicit CSTs then developed based on continuous pilot tones, 9.9.1 Basics of Channel Impulse Response Estimation In general, channel processes are WSSU. Conceptually, on stationary channel, ifan impulse is transmitted, then at the receiver ‘multiple delayed versions of impulses wll be received at different instants of time that are non correlated and with reducing amplitudes with time, They ae us like delayed samples and hence a differential equation with coefficient values can be correlated with this concept, inthis work, the radio channel is described by a discrete tine transfer function, tha is, ‘discrete time impulse response. Ths impulse response h,(nistime varying andthe goal ofthe identification procedure iso estimate the time-dependent parameter in {(n)) as accurately as possible. For the linear time-varying diserete systems (see Appendix A) the Widebond Moduloon Techniques 2: OFDM (Muticarier Modulation) 399 received time domain OFDM signal »() is function ofthe transmitted signal x(n), the channel transfer function and AWGN w(n).Itcan be expressed as Yn) = haya + w(o), OS mS NL (0208) y(n) = hylnyen-B) + wn) 0.20) 40 = Say stort) + wn) (0.206) where Mas tobe chose large enough io encompass ll significant contributing paths ‘By expressing using in the unit delay operator g"', q°"x(n) = x(n), we obtain Xn) = AG") x(n) + () (9.204) where HG") = Sh. This mode is valid approximation for ine segments ha are short related to the channel variation. ham dani wineah For the time-varying channels, ths whole scenario will become dynamic and in ea snapshottate, the CIR will be different. The next state ofthe channel can be estimated by previous impulse responses. The channel model for time-varying channel ean be approximated by autoregressive (AR) model alo (explained in Chapter 6). For the next, state estimation based on the present stat condition, one can write Mn+ 1) =a hr) + w(n) 21) vinere ais the coefficient value to estimate the next channel state, Simi, many delayed components will make the diferential equation with a’s coeicients One method of sending additonal information for channel estimation purpose is sedi te pilosa be eed in ie domain cn feuesy dome fag channel requires constant racking, so pilot information i tobe transmitted more o less continuously. {As far as multicarrier system like OFDM is concered, carriers are transmitted anning the otognaity among thom Over he chane,here maybe aie iin the equny tats ofst 8 mentioned previously and itis be cone athe receiver end, Pilot carries help in ths. 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WelessCommunicoton {raining symbols in one OFDM symbol. If we use fixed filters for implementation ‘where the maximum dispersion fo be assumed is given by the length ofthe guard interval this ifupies that for short guard intervals the ciannel can be estimated with ahigher accuracy than with a larger guard interval Interpolation increases the number of estimated pilot samples in comb and scattered type arrangements to estimate the channel in a better way. This is not very critical issue in block-type arrangement. Various interpolation techniques areas follows. Linear Interpolation (LI) The method performs better than piece-wise constant interpolation, where the channel estimation atthe data subcarrier between two plots is the average of two pilot strengths. Second Order Interpolation (SOI) The SOI method performs better than LT ‘method, where the channel estimation at the data subcarrier is obtained by weighted linear combination ofthe three adjacent pilot estimates. Spline Cubic Interpolation (SCI) The SCI method produces a smooth and continuous polynomial, fitted to given datapoints “Low Pass Interpolation (LPI) ‘The LPI method is performed by inserting zeros into the original estimated pilot sequence and then applying & low-pass finite impulse response (FIR) filter, which allows the original data to pess through unchanged, This ‘method also interpolates such that the mean square error be-ween the interpolated points ‘and their ideal values is minimized, ‘Time Domain Interpolation (TDI) ‘The TDI method is a high resolution interpolation based on zero padding and DFT/IDFT. I firs: converts estimated pilots to time domain by IDFT and then interpolates the time domain sequence to NV points with simple pieve-wise constant method, Finally, the DFT converts the interpolated time domain sequence back to frequency domain. ‘The performance amongst the various interpolation techriques usually ranges from the best to worst as follows: LPI, SCI, TDI, SOI, and LI. The LPL and SCI best performs ‘almost samte in the low and middle SNR scenario, while LPL outperforms SCI at the higher SNR scenario. In terms of complexity, TDI, LPI and SCI have roughly the same ‘computational complexity, while SOT and LI have less complexity. ‘The use of pilot signals forthe purpose of channel estimation in multicarrier systems does not only consume bandwidth but also signal power thet could otherwise be invested in the information symbols to be transmitted. There must be optimal transmitter power distribution between the pilot and information signals mainvaining the good performance of the system, There will be some impact of pilot power to signal power ratio on the channel estimation, Indirectly, speaking power invested in the pilot symbols is power deducted from the information symbols. The optimal pilet to signal power ratio (PSR). varies with respect to the ratio of pilots to subcarriers. Itc also evident thatthe optimal performance can be obtained irrespective of the ratio of pilots to subcarriers so long as ‘the Nyquist criterion is met and the optimal PSR is selected. Wideband Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicorier Modction) 403 9.10 AMPLITUDE LIMITATIONS IN OFDM ‘An OFDM signal is the sum of many subcarir signals that are modulated independently by different modulation symbols. As the amplitude of the OFDM signal is stochastic process, according to the central limiting theorem, it obeys a complex Gaussian Uistribution ifthe numberof subcarriers is large. Thus, OFDM signals have a very large peak to average power ratio In the transmitter, the maximal output power ofthe amplifier therefore limits the peak amplitude of the signal. Tis effect produces interference both ‘within the OFDM band and in adjacent frequency bands. The amplitude threshold is show in Fig 9.33; few peaks of OFDM signal cross that limit. \ re | 7 rl _——* ‘OFDM signal Fig, 9.83 Continuous time OFDM baseband signal exceeds the amplitude threshold result lppig by ampifier Hence, we propose a modification of the OFDM signal to remove the signal peas that exceed a given amplitude threshold. The out-of-band interference produced by these ccomections can be kept within clearly defined limits while minimum interference within the OFDM band is obtained, ‘Approaches fo Remove the Amplitude Limitations In mos ofthe literatures about amplitude limitation of OFDM signals itis assumed that theliitaton an be achieved by pre dition ofthe signal that the api bsbaves tke an ideal iter Tis means thatthe signal sampled linearly up toa maxims input ampli dy and large amplitudes re limited toy The input power ofthe ampier as compared othe thresholds described bythe input bck of BO 10 og), where P, isthe average power othe baseband OFDM signal‘jaissod sv qu se pouspporq st wud yous op wtp os wewop fouanbay} omy UL mouse 29 o5|e pinoyssf-parenuane st yeudis ofp Jo aru jes duo ey os wrewop ow ayy UL MOUTH 29 pinoys UoRoeL00 ayn 4of posn uoraUNy ueISsNED ayy, “,owZT = Zo eouELIA OM ‘pis worouny messmo Bo wppls a4p 6g wnsysods ous op suopeeug uoHD=1I00 a, (0)3 wonouny ustssne o4p Jo souELEA oN St -O PE fuop Couanbelj ui! 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°Y pray aq pacoxa You Soop ()s teuis WLIO peruse ag rey amsua yon pareBnsaaul 9g ue saxpoaude om, wommunue S34 pop406 Wiles Communicton With this scheme, we can limit the amplitude of the over sampled signal without causing out of band interference, except in a narrow frequency band adjacent to the OFDM band. However, ifmany amplitude peaks have to becorected, the entre signal is attenuated and the peak to average power ratio ofthe signal cannot be improved beyond ‘a certain limit. This scheme of correcting the OFDM signal can be realized for any umber of sub carriers and it does not need any redundancy Itcauses interference ofthe ‘OFDM signal, but this is of secondary importance in 2 fading environment in which ‘OFDM is typically applied. The polar plot shown in Fig. 9.14 gives the typical results of| applying clip compress. Here QPSK mapping i used for modulation, 08 @ ® Fig.8.4 Pol plats showing recived phases for OFDM signal afte clip compress is apled(2) with maximum ep compression—meximum phase error ané maximum bit error and (8) ith tlerabie lp compress appled—minimum phase ere ard minimum bit error 9.11 FFT POINTS SELECTION CONSTRAINTS IN OFDM ‘As far as hardware implementation is concerned, the more the FFT points the more the processing power consumed that can be taken cae of by the fast processors but in seneral more umber of FFT points increases the resolution of the OFDM signal tht ives better results, especially ifthe SNR is ofthe oder of 12 4B General-purpose DSP-based implementation ‘There are several processing stage required to generate and receive an OFDM signal However, mos of the processing is required in performing the FFT and IFFT. ‘The complexity of performing an FFT is dependent on te size ofthe FFT. The larger the FFT, the greater the number of calculations required. However, since the symbol petiod is longer, the increased processing required is less than the straight increase in rocessing to perform a single FFT. Table 9.2 shows the number of calculations required for an FFT (radix-2) of size N, and also the relative processing for various FFT sizes. It Widebond Meduiaion Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicorer Modulation) 407 ‘can be seen that because the symbol period increases with a larger FFT that the extra processing required is minimal. The equations for the number of calculations for an ‘Nepoint FFT according to Fig. 9.35 areas follows: ‘Number of complex multiplications =. 31) opi N. Toeio2 Total numberof calculations = M+ A 033) ‘Number of complex additions = 4= 17 032) ow ae "0, hy =O). 2g x14) = = wor te Wy") ox) =) = — Soe wtihls PEK = WEP — wie ITN te om 2, aes eee Table 9.2. FFT calculations “Toll Mamber of Complex Caeuation 20 & 578 0 ou 6 sore sn sore ‘02s 1380 aus same 98 718 ‘The processing efficiency of a DSP processor depends on the architecture of the processor. However, for most single instruction DSPs, the number of cycles required to calculate an FFT is twice the total number of calculations shown in Table 9.1. 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It is guaranteed thet there is no MAI in the synchronized downlink in collin slow frequency selective fading channels 2. MC-CDMA (multicarrier CDMA) In this scheme, multiple copies ofthe same data symbol each multiplied by one chip of user specific spreading code are ‘transmitted on different sub carriers in parallel maintinin the orthogonality in frequency domain, Since the replicas of the same data symbol are transmitted on different subcarriers, frequency diversity can be achieved to eliminate frequency selective fading but MAL may oceur especially in the downlink. 3. OFCDM (orthogonal frequency code division multiplexing) It is originally ‘based on MC-CDMA scheme. It comprises many multipath interference occur- ring in such broadband channel by employing many low symbol rate subcarriers and by making full use of the frequency diversity effect using the spread and coded signals over parallel subcarriers. Although OFCDM achieves better throughput performance in a broadband channel, it suffers from the degradation caused by intercode interference due to loss of orthogonality among code multi plexed channels. So, despreading the signal in fequency domain isa key technique in order to compensate forthe destruction of orthogonality However, if multipath snot eliminated propery, equalization and despreading in the rezzver lea to noise amplification. For this reason, the pure OFDM system performs butter at fow cade rates where sufficient frequeney diversity is provided by the code. However, the performance of OFDM-CDM systems eat be improved with more sophisticated detection methods like iterative despreading and decoding. A major disadvantage of OFDM-CDM systems i the fact that coherext detection is required. So, the channel estimation and equalization eannot be avoided. IF a Fourier matrix is used for spreading in an OFDM-CDM system, then spreading and the IFFT at the transmitter cancel each other, resulting in the single-cartier transmission system with a guard interval results. tthe receiver, the signal processing canbe interpreted as frequency domain equalization, with te additional vantage that the transmited signal does not have the typical amplitude peaks of an OFDM signal. ‘Thus, it seems tobe reasonable to use the Fourier matrix for spreading if spreading isto ‘be applied atall Finally, OFDM is found to perform very well compared with CDMA, with its out- performing CDMA ia many ares fora single-cell and mulell environment. The OFDM {is found tallow up to2~ 10 times more users than CDMA ina single-cell environment an from 0.7 ~4 times more users ina muli-cellular environment. The difference in uset capacity between OFDM and CDMA is dependent on whether cell setorzation and vice activity detection is used Twas found that CDMA performs well only in a multicellular environment where & ingle frequency is used in all ells. This inreases the comparative performance against cater systems, which require acellular patter of frequencies to reduce intercellular interference. 1 this a block modulation techriaue 18 The OFDM combats {Si by nsering the guard «use information and ence orthogonal Wideband ModuovonTecnigues 2: OFDM (Muticorer Moduaton) 415 (One important thing that needs to be mentioned here isthe problems that may be encountered when OFDM is used in a multiuser environment. One possible problem is that the receiver may require a very large dynamic range in order to handle the large signal strength aration between the users. However, COFDM with forward error ‘omection may solve many problems improving the BER. 9.14 OTHER VARIANTS OF OFDM Flash OFDM _Thisis variant tht was developed by Flarion and is a fast hopped form ‘of OFDM. Ituses multiple tones and fast hopping to spread signals over a given spectrum band, VOFDM (vector OFDM) This form of OFDM uses the concept of MIMO technology. It is being developed by CISCO systems. The MIMO stands for multiple ‘nput-multiple output (described in Chapter 15) and it uses multiple antennas to transmit and receive the signels so that multipath effects can be utilized to enhance the signal reception and improve the transmission speeds that can be supported. WOFDM (wideband OFDM) The concept ofthis form of OFDM is that it uses a degree of spacing between the channels that is large enough that any frequency errors between the transmitter and the reesiver do not affect the performance. It is particularly applicable to W-Fi systems. ‘Adaptive OFDM While communicating, the wireless channel effects on the OFDM received signal differ due to selection of different parameter values as wel as existing SNR condition at that time, Different allowable bandwidths with same number of subcarriers, different number of subcarriers with same bandwidth, different modulation mapping schemes, diferent FFT points, variation in plot power and pilot positions, variations in eyclie prefix interval, et. are considered as important OFDM parameters requiring critical selection, whose effect is directly reflected in the performance due to ‘various reasons. These parameters can be made adaptive with SNR conditions of the channel, The SNR variations may arise due to distance variations between the transmitter and the receiver and fast or slow mobility, exhibiting time varying channel. Indirectly, by making the whole system adaptive in terms of such parameters, effective ‘and efficient transmission control can be achieved. Such control can be adopted in frame: based systems with a least half duplexty between the transmitter and the receiver. This results in quality reception. 18 The OFDM is a wideband scheme for wie- . 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If there are 256 symbols in a frame to be (c) increase the spectral efficienc ees by 16 subcarriers, each (d) eliminate ‘St esta eiency ‘ubeae wll modulate 7. Adton ofits wl be el Go) egmins 0) 2565mins Oy topcoat (©) 4symbols (@ 8symbols (®) synchronization 5. For which of the following modulation (©) channel estimation oe SNR im be highest to main- (@ allofthe zbove a (0 OPSK aa 8. owe of the following types of pilot ar- = il i «ose (@ 160M ronal ari Wt Multiplexing and Multiple User “yclic prefix is added to c i om ne Access Tech oom —_ (0) eliminate bit errors. a on . '& Mtiplxing and rutile 200288. efcionty when iis shared by many users because al 9: FDM.TOM, COM. and SOM ° 5 rave to play within the limited allocated spectrum and | EDMA, TOMA, COMA, and SOMA: also the wireless channel i commonly shared by many applications, where interference is tkely to occur. The cficienoy may be in terms of efficient tization of fvalable spectrum and all the usors must be treated equal. Multiplexing and multiple access schemes a ? provide effcient ways to design communication systems. ‘The spectrum can be shared on fme-sharng o kequency-shaing basis or any ther bass as described in is chapter of which any one or combination can be selected. For examele, GSM system uses TOMA FFOMA as a combination of two multiple acess schemes, “est allocation of youre 10.1 INTRODUCTION TO MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE ACCESS Multiplexing schemes are used when multiple users signals are to be combined and to be sent on a single channel asa single input stream. The multiplexing deseribes how several ‘users can share a medium with a minimum or no interference in the same communication Tink, All the incoming signals are upeonverted or downconverted simultaneously afterwards being a single stream and transmitted together as one signal. For siteless ‘communication, multiplexing can be carriod outin four dimensions: frequency ime, code, ‘and space. 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These systems als allow carriers to change gain settings to expand or contract coverage in highly localized areas, all without climbing a tower or mounting another custom antenna, The wireless carriers can then tailor a cell’s coverage to ft its unique traffic distribution. If necessary, the carriers can modify a cell's operation using smart antennas based on the time of day or the day of the week, orto accommodate heavy trafic Usually, colocated with the base station, a smart antenna system combines an antennas array witha digital sigal-processing capability to transmit and receive in an adaptive, spatially sensitive manner. nother words ths type of system can automatically change the directionality of its radiation pattems in response to its signal environment. ‘They can inerease the performance ofa wireless system dramatically. An analogy can be ‘sed to explain how smart antenna systems operate. Imagine you ae in a room sitting in achair-Someone inthe room is talking to you and while speaking he or she begins moving around the room. Your ears and brain have the ability to track where the user's speech is ‘originating from as they move throughout the room. This is very similar to how smart antenna systems operte; they locate users, track them and provide optimal RE signals to them as they move through a base station's coverage area ‘The terms that are‘commonly associated with various aspects of smart antenna system technology include phased aray, SDMA, spail processing, digital beam forming, adaptive antenna systems, and others. The smart antenna systems fll into two main categories: switched-beam systems and adaptive-anay systems. Generally speaking, cach approach directs @ main lobe (or radio beam) towards the individual users and attempts to reject interference or noise from outside ofthat iain lobe. 15.3.1 How MIMO Differs from Smart Antenna ‘The MIMO and ‘smart-antenna’ systems may look the same on first examination: Both employ multiple antennas, spaced as far apart as practical. But in fact these are fundamentally different. The smart antennas enhance conventional, one-dimensional radio systems. The most common smartantenna systems use beam forming or transmit diversity (Fig. 153) to concentrate the signal energy on the main path and receive the combination (Fig. 15.4) to capture the strongest signa at any given moment. 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WeessCommurication [Lets first understand the spatial multiplexing ané then the difference between spatial multiplexing and spatial diversity in the next few Lines, 15.6.1 Spatial Multiplexing “The patil multiplexing (SM) delivers parallel streams of data by exploiting multipath. It can double 22) or quadruple (4% 4) capacity and throughput. I gives higher capacity ‘when RF conditions are favourable and the users are closer tothe BTS. The concep is already introduced in Fig 15.7 In spatial multiplexing different infomation is ransmited simultaneously over transmit antennas increasing the data rate at sort distance and providing high spectral ficiency similr to inreasing the constellation siz, but without suffering from a power penalty The spatial multiplexing s sometimes also refered to as direct ransmission or simply MIMO, The receiver has to decouple the NV spatial streams to recover the transmitted information. Optimal detection tends tobe complex and several suboptimal low-complexity detectors have been devised, ranging from the simple zero forcing to complex sft posterior probability detection. Anexample of spatial matiplexing s shown in Fig 15.13, which improves the average capacity behaviour by sending as many independent signals as we have antennas fora specific eror rate. In the uplink scenario, a base station employs multiple receive antennas and beam forming to separate transmissions from the different mobiles. More recently, transmit beam forming/precoding for tnut-user dovrnink transmission is drawing increasing attention. es vs zw aa yw (Transmiting sybols) ae —_ Fig. 1513 Example of spat! mtipexng Layered space-time architectures exploit the spatial multiplexing gain by sending independently encoded data streams in diagonal layers (D-BLAST) as originally proposed ar in horizontal layers, which isthe so-called vertical layered spacetime (V= BLAST) scheme, depicted in Fig 15.14, originally invented by Bell Labs. The receiver ‘must demultiplex the spatial channels in order to detect the transmitted symbols. Various estimation and equalization techniques are zer0-forcing (ZF), which use simple matrix. inversion but give poor results when the channel matrix sill conditioned, minimum mean ‘square error (MMSE), more robust in that sense but provides limited enhancement if knowledge ofthe noise/interference is not used, and maximum likelihood (ML), whichis ‘optimal inthe sense that it compares all possible combinations of symbols but can be too ‘complex, especially for high-order modulation. Indo Stems 651 ial Fig. 16.44 (e) DSLAST and (b) V-BLAST 15.6.2 Spatial Multiplexing vs Spatial Diversity thas already been deserbed. In contrast to spatial multiplexing, spatial diversity is used to increase the diversity order of an MIMO link to mitigate fading by coding a signal across space and time so that a receiver can receive the replicas of the signal and ‘combine those received signals constructively to achieve a diversity gain. The trade-off exists between the spatial multiplexing and the spatial diversity. Pure spatial multiplexing allows for full independent use ofthe antennas. However, it gives limited diversity benefit and is rarely the best transmission scheme for a given BER target. The possiblity ofa linear capacity growth with a number of antennas is good, especially knowing that increasing power (SNR), coding the symbols within a block can resultin additional coding and diversity gain, which can help improve the performance and robustness, even though the data rate is kept at the same level. It is also possible to sacrifice some data rate for more diversity. Tn genera, it can be shown that the throughput grows linearly with « number of eigenmodes ofthe channel and that is the fundamental for MIMO. The throughput can be improved by more spatially multiplexed channels optimally selected. 15.7 ANTENNA CONSIDERATIONS FOR MIMO Multiple-antenna systeins can improve the capacity and reliability of radio communication. However, the multiple RF chains associated with multiple antennas are costly in terms of size, power, and hardware. The antenna selection isa low-cost, low ‘complexity alternative to capture many of the advantages of MIMO systems. It can reduce hardware complexity and cos, achieve full diversity and, in the case of transmit antenna selection, achieve capacity. The MIMO signalling can improve wireless ‘communication in two different ways as we-showed previously diversity methods and spatial multiplexing, which are again dependent upon the antenna selection. Thus, its called antenna selection diversity. 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I is assumed thatthe channel matrix is random, the receiver has perfect channel knowledge, andthe channel is meriorylss. General entropy of the channel matrix is denoted by {fy}. This represents the complex gain of the channel between the jth transmitter and the ith receiver. For an MIMO system, the channel fo hw a) Paes hw) +B Complex representation) Ia rich scattering environment with no LOS, the channel gins [fy are usually Rayleigh distributed, Where or and are independent and normally distributed random variables. According to Fig. 15.8(b), the M-oloment receive arfay samples this field and senerates the Mx | signal vestor (0) atthe aay terminals. Noise inthe system is typically generated in the physical propagation chamel interference) and the receiver fiontend electronics (thermal noise). To simplify the cscussion, we wll mp all additive ‘cise into a single contribution represented bythe MI vector (0), which is injected at the receive antenna terminals. The resulting signal plus noise vector y4() is then (assy Fig, 15.15 Model for daring the (23) channel matic MIMO Systems 655 lownconverted to produce the M 1 baseband output vector). Finally, (is passed through a matched filter whose output is sampled once per symbol to produce (ater ‘which the space-time decoder produces estimates ofthe originally transmitted symbols, (the variables y's are arbitrarily selected to represent the differences between the stages.) “This topic focuses onthe characteristics ofthe channel In some eases, We wish 10 focus onthe physical channel impulse response and use it to generate a channel matri relating the signalsx() andy). Acommon assumption wil be that al scattering inthe propagation channel sin the far field and that a discrete numberof propagation ‘pats’ Connect transmit and'reeeive arays. Under this assumption, the physical channel response for L paths may be written as from Eq, (15.1: Ht 5 eben 6) = LArd(e~ 1801 ~ Ord) X 5(Gr— 8,06(Ge ~ 9,5(8p ~ Fe) 05.6) whete 4s the gain ofthe Ah path with angle of departure (AOD) (@7, 1, F, Dy angle of nval (AOA) (OR, 1 RD, and tm of aval (TOA) The term 3() represents the Dirac delta faneton. The time variation ofthe channel i included by making the parameters ofthe moltipaths(L, Ay yO 1...) kine dependent “To use this response to relate (0) toi is easier to proveed inthe frequency domnin, We ake the Fourier transform of he relevant signals to obtain x), y((0 and ‘a, and taketh Fourier transform of fi) with respect to the delay variable tt obtain T (4 @ Oy Pp 07, ©) where «is the radian frequency. Assuming singe-polarization aay element, the fequeney domain radiation patterns of the nth transit and mah receive array elements are ¢74(@ Oy, @7) and ena dt Op Dp), respectively. We must convolve these patterns with f in the angular coordinates to obtain 340) = Ho) x4(0) + m0) as) where Prep nl, Oe 96.) Eras Gr.» Or.) (158) aud 2, = Ajexp{-0t is the complex gin ofthe th path, 1(0) i refered toa the Chamel transfor matric or simpy channel mati in frequency domain. Although ths representation is usually inconvenient for he elosed-form analysis of spacetne code tehaviour, explicitly uses the antenna properties in constructing the channel mati and therefore, feitates examination of variety of antenna configurations for a single physical propagation chanel, Also, bocaus itis based onthe physica channel impulse Fesponae its appropriate for wideband or frequency selective chanel fr which the Clement of He) vary significantly ove th bandwidh of interest ‘While the physical channel mode! in Eq. (154) is useful for certain eases, in most signal processing analyses, the chanel is aken fo relate the input othe pulse shaping tHock £0 othe output ofthe matched fiery. 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So, itis the short-term behaviour of the MIMO channel achieved by coding within fading interval. I'he channel capacity falls below the outage capacity, there is no possibilty that the transmitted block of information can be decoded with no errors, ‘Whichever coding scheme is employed. 15.11 CYCLIC DELAY DIVERSITY (CDD) In CDD, delayed replicas ofthe message are transmitted over different antennas. In 2 ay, itis like deliberately creating asingle-antenna intersymbol interference channel from ‘an otherwise perfectly frequency flat multiple antenna channel. The upside is tht all, ‘transmitted symbols benefit from the full spatial diversity. From the transmit matrix given for V=2, constellation symbols is transmitted from antenna | attine instant 1, and from antenna 2at time instant 2, the constellation symbol 2 is transmitted from antenna 1 at time instant 2, and from antenna 2 at time instant 3, and so on. This can be extended to ‘any number of transmit antennas, corresponding to a rate 1/N repetition code. The downside is that detection at the receiver is stil rather complex, applying conventional ‘methods known from equalization of II channels, suc as optimal Viterbi equalization Of course, any of the SMX detectors will do the ob as wel, So, we have suffered a rate loss, giving up some spectral efficiency to cllect some more spatial diversity but have not ‘ot simpler detection in return, Does this pay off? Can we not get both—the benefit of ‘transmit diversity and simple detection at the receiver? Another space-time technique ‘comes to the rescue, commonly referred to as space-time coding, which is discussed next. 15.12 SPACE-TIME CODING A space-time code (STC) is a method employed to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems using multiple transmit antennas. The STCs rely on transmitting multiple, redundant copies ofa data steam tothe receiver in the hope that at least some of them may survive the physical path between the transmission and the reception in a good enough stateto allow reliable decoding ‘A pioneering work in the area of space-time coding for MIMO wireless channels has been done by Trokh, ca, in which two code design siteria have been proposed for fiat fading channels with coherent receivers and high-performance space-time trellis codes, have been designed. However, these codes suffer from rather high deeoding complexity In the same year, Alamouti proposed his celebrated space-time. block coding (STBC) scheme for two transmit and multiple receive antennas, The maximum likelihood (ML) decode for Alamout's code has very low complexity. ‘The space-time codes may be split into two types: space-time trellis codes and space- time block codes. Space-time trellis codes (STTC) disteibute trellis code over multiple antennas and ‘ukipl time slots providing both coding and diversity gains. This scheme transmits ‘multiple, redundant copies of atellis (or convotutiona!) code distributed aver ime anda ‘number of antennas (‘space’). These multiple ‘divers’ copies ofthe data are used by the MIMO Systems 659 receiver to attempt to reconstruct the actual transmitted data. For an STC to be used, there must necessarily be multiple transmit antennas, but only a single receive antennas is required; nevertheless, multiple receive antennas are often used since performance ofthe system is improved by doing so. Space-time block codes (STBC) act on a block of data at a time and provide only diversity gain, bt they are much less complex in implementation than STYCs. ‘The STTCs rely on Viterbi decoder atthe receiver whereas STBCs require only linear processing. ‘The space-time codes can also be subdivided according to whether the receiver knows ‘channel impairments as discussed below. In coherent STC, the receiver knows the channel impairments through training or some other form of estimation, These codes have been studied more widely because they are less complex than their non-coherent counterpart. Tn non-coherent STC, the receiver does not know the channe! impairments but knows, the statistics ofthe channel. In differential STC, neither the chennel nor statistics of the channel are available to the receiver. These STCs are usually based on space-time block codes and transmit one block code from a set in response to achange in the input signal. The differences among the blocks in the set are designed to allow the receiver to extract the data with good relisbility. From Fig 15.16, for each input symbol from the information soure, the space-time ‘encoder chooses the constellation point and it simultaneously transmits i fom different anlennas at different time slots giving coding and diversity gains. For STC, both coding and diversity grins can be obtained, but for STC, only diversity and some coding gain depending upon the code rte can be obtained. oN al LIN JUS Fig. 15.18 How to incorporate spacetime coding in MINO Inthe model, i ther are transiting and Mrecciving antennas, then the channel is made up of Vx Mf sub-chanels snd in each channe, fading effects are there. At any time slot, Nsignel re transmitted simultaneously, one from each transmit antenoa. The transmitted signals inthe sub-channels undergo independent fading andthe fading ‘coeiiens ae esumed tobe fixed during a fixed time slot and ae independent from one soto another. The transmited code vector is S= fs, sy] and any channel can be modelled as nutiptcation by complex number hi, vhich i called the fade coefficient. 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Wiles Cormuncoion up constellation symbols sand s,. This is shown inthe form of a block diagram in Fig. 15.19, ant Ant » | a rite te 2 Sina >. ene, ie a pT? 5 Fig. 15.19 An example of STBC encoler model for Alamout's code Decoder The STBC receiver linearly processes the received symbols and uses ‘maximum likelihood decoding. The received signal isthe linear superposition of the ‘transmitted elements corrupted by AWGN and channel fading. The receiver model for ‘Alamouti's code can be shown asin Fig. 15.20 oT ” Fig. 15:20. An example of STBC receiver model for Alamout's code As shown in Fig, 15.20, The two transmitters Tx I and Tx 2 transmit the signals simultaneously. Als, itis assumed tha the fade coefficients ofthe channel are constant throughout one time slot. Independent noise samples ere added to the transmitted signal in ‘each timeslot. Thus, the received signals r, andr, can be written as 7 whys + has tm, asa nya hy rt hai my (15.18) Inthe combiner aided by the channel estimator, which provides perfect estimation of the diversity channels in this example, simple signal processing is performed in ordero separate the signals sands, Specialy, the maximum likelihood detector minimizes the Aecision metre MIMO Systems 663 yay hase + ry + yy Ad (15.19) far al received code words overall posible values of ands Expanding the above metric an deleting the terms independent of code words, we get [n+ +n + habs ibys +s +Fahai) + (Is? + byl + Hag?) (15.20) hich can be futher decomposed into two parts ~ [nisi Hitay tras +i] + | UP + Veh as21) which is a function of s, only, and the other part ~ [has +Fitasa—rohiba—Falnba] + Noa? (Ul? + a) (15.22) which isa function of only. Minimizing the two pars separately, we have iti bed +O YP + HagPDIs (1523) for detecting 5, and for 5, we have nF —fahdmsaP 4 + a? + Pasa (1524) Using the above two values, the optimum soft values of code words , ands are: (aha ti) = 5, (45.25a) (nhtiph) = 5, (15256) “Thus, wehave separated signals, and s by simple mukiplicatins and additions. Due toorthogonality of the codes is cancelled out inthe expression of sand vice vrs. The combined signal is then pessed through maximum likelihood detector. The most likely transmitted symbol is determined by the maximum likelihood detector based on the Euclidean distances between the combined signal and all possible transmitted symbols. The simplified desision ule for chosing, symbol is ist, 5) dist, 5), Vie j (1526) where dis(a ) isthe Buclidean distance between the signals a and b and the index j spans all possible rasmitted signals. Thus, the detected symbol is the one having rinimum Euclidean distance from the combined signa. ‘Advantages of Alamout' scheme ate given below: + No feedback is required from receiver to transmitter. 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"VSH “3 ‘smonKs a1qou D¢ Woraud or souraounyua se Aerdodo “sin Suyansp axe Yauofogo winced: pu “aoveuney nd ‘indyBnosy Bumzosdiar wr OM OF ALE\LoWe|dwOD se LDDs “onbIUNJpD eIonog eee ONOARE CNV SW3ISAS SS313UIM OF NI SNOLWONEdY OWI PI’) 699° sums on SRD SAM 899Input = 670 Wireless Communication The performance degradation of the four-ransmitantenna systems is rather obvious for the designed OFDM system in case where the delay spread is large or the mobile speed is relatively high, which may sometimes limiter use. However, the performance of fourtransmit antenna systems may be improved ty using the combination of space- time and space-frequeney coding schemes. If.a broadband wireless connection is desired, the symbol rate must be increased further which at some point will lead to a frequency-slective channel Then, there are ‘wo ways to go—either we employ pre- or post-equalzation ofthe channel or we divide the channe!into many narrowband flt fading subchanoes, a technique utilized by OFDM and transmits our data on these substreams, without the need for channel equalization. Hence its always possible to convert a frequency-selectve channel to many flat fading channels using OFDM and apply the developed flat facing MIMO signalling techniques to cach ofthese subchannels. Figure [5.24 shows MIMO-OFDM transmitter and receiver. Bray Fig. 15.24 MIMO-OFOM transmit and receiver 2. How does MIMO exploit multipath? MuMO Spems 671 ‘The use of OFDM modulation within MIMO-structured systems creates a strong, system that has the ability to suecessully reject fading as wel as ISI and fulfils the need for high throughput. The increased capacity of MIMO channels can be translated into increased throughput provided that proper coding is used prior to transmission. The coding procedure essentially pads the transmitted data with some protection bits that help the receiver decide whether errors occurred during transmission, The LDPC codes are highly efficent (with respect to encoding and decoding complexity) capacity-approaching codes. The upcoming IEEE 802.11n wireless local area networks (WLANS) standard uses MIMO architecture along with ODM and LDPC coding. The standard has the ability to provide a stunning throughput of up to 600 Mbps as opposed to 54 Mbps provided by the older, non-MIMO IEEE 802.1 standard. 1+ There are four types of wireless communica The open loop MIMO technique includes tion systems based on space diversity: SISO, MRC, SMX, CDD, and STAC. ‘IMO, MISO, and MNO. 1» The SNR can be inceased by beam forming ‘The MIMO is @ muliantenna system both at ‘and diversity can be achieved by decreasing the transmiter and the eosiver side. vatation of SRR, ‘The MIMO deals with mutdimensional a There is diference between spatial mutigtex signal Data is de-multiplexed and sent on ing and spat diversity rmuliple transmits, maybe at the same w The MIMO explots multipath, The MIMO ca: carter frequency (except in OFDM with pacity increases wth the amount of mupath mutiple subcariers). ‘© The MMO channel representation is 2 two- Due to matinath, each receive antenna cap- dimensional matic and exhib spacetime tures @ different combination of transmitted prooeszing. stream. The DSP is uted to separate the m+ The HMO difers ftom smart antenna. ‘ple steam 1 Antenna selection ean capture many advan- The MIMO increases speed, range, and ae ee relabity 1 Alamout's STBC code achieves diversity without Ct atthe transmit, ‘The MIMO-OFOM has become 2 popular system for 43 ‘The MIMO is normally open 1p type system ‘and hence sometimes channel state Information is required $I QUT LT 1, How are the various types of communica 3, Give the concept of spatial multiplexing. tion systems classified onthe basis ofthe 4, What do you mean by space diversity? number of antennas used? Deseibe their §. How can we say that ‘MIMO increases mathematical representations for channel speed, range, and reliability"? impulse responses. 6. 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However, one cannot expect 100% accurate results with this approach because it is an estimated equivalent design and response. Accuracy ofthe result will depend upon the accuracy of modelling and associated mathematics. Pravtcal problems of actual hardware implementation may leadto slightly varied performance. There are rapid advances in two related technologies—communications and computers. Over the past few decades, communication systems have increased in complexity to the point where system design and performance analysis can no longer be ‘conducted without a significant level of computer sapport. Many'of the communication systems of ity yeas ago were ether power or nose limited. A significant degrading ‘effect in many of those systems was thermal noise, which was modelled using the additive Gaussian noise channel. Modern communication systems are required to operate at high data rates with constrained power and bandwidth. These conflicing requirements lead to complex ‘modulation techniques, suchas spread spectrum modulation and OFDM, along with an increased level of signal processing at the receiver. Many modem communication systems, suc as wireless cellular system, operate in environments that are interference and bendvwidth limited. In adition, the desie for wideband channels (to accommodate ‘maximim possible users) and their miniature components along with transmission frequencies into the GHz range, where propagation characteristics are more complicated and multipat-induced fading is a common problen: In order to combat these effets, ‘complex receiver structures, sch as those using complicated synchronization structures, symbol estimators, and rake processors, are often used. Even, because of digital ‘communication, coding techniques and error-detection correction schemes are also used inthe systems. The process of making the hardware and testing the above-mentioned complicated systems is totally time consuming because of circuit designing, PCB designing, collecting ‘components, soldering of component, et. and rater impossible to test without known results. Many of these systems are not analytically tractable using non-computer based techniques and simulation is often necessary forthe design and analysis ofthese systems ‘The sane advances in technotogy that made modern communication systems possible, such as microprocessors and DSP techniques (along with the growth of VLSI designs), provided us with high-speed digital computers. The modem work stations and personal computers (PCs)/laptops have computational capabiltics greatly exceeding the ‘mainframe computers used just a few yeers ego. Inaction, they are now inexpensive and, therefore, available a the desktop of design engineers. Asa result, simulation-based design and analysis techniques are practical tools widely used throughout the ‘communications industry as well as for research and development activities. Powerful software packages targeted to communication systems are now easily available with lots of features. Through the use of simulation, one can study the operating characteristics of the systems that are more complex and more real world can be ereated than the traditional analysis, ‘Slaton of Cermunicaton Systems and SoftwareDefined Rocio 675 “The growth in the computer technology and Internet has also been accompanied by a rapid growth in simulation theory. As result, the tools and methodologies required forthe successful application of simulation to design and analysis problems are more accessible tnd better understood than was the case few decades ago. A large number of technical pepers and several books that illustrate the application ofthese tools to design and analyse communication systems are now available. Advantages of Simulation An important motivation for the use of simulation is that itis a valuable tool for gaining insight into the system behaviour. A properly developed simulation is much like a laboratory implementation of a system, Measurements can easily be made at various points in the system under study. Parametric studies are easily conducted, since parameter values, such es filter bandwidths and signal-to-noise ratios, can be changed and the effects ofthese changes on the system performance can quickly be observed. ‘Time-domain waveforms, signal spectra, eye diagrams, signal constellations, histograms, ‘and many other graphical displays can easily be generated and, if desired, a comparison ‘can be made between these graphical products andthe equivalent displays generated by system hardware. System design testing is performed economically to generate predictions about the results In addition, an understanding of simulation techniques supports the research programmes of many graduate and postgraduate students working inthe communications area, Finally students going into the communications industry upon graduation have there required sills needed by industry. The latest communication systems are mainly wireless ‘and optical fibre-based systems. The conventional wired line based systems are not totally obsolete; even in the Internet and also in ISDN, wired line support is needed. The physical layer ofall the above systems can be simulated, ‘There are two basic approaches by which the communication systems can be simulated. 1. By writing codes (and/or fimetions) in C, C++, VC+4, MATLAB, ete, for each ‘and every mathematical relationships available as given below: MATLAB program for AM generation Fs =800; % Sampling rte is 800 samples per second Fe = 3000; % Cartier frequency in Hz 1 [0:1*Fs]/Fs; % Sampling times for 1 second x =sin (20*pi"t); % Representation ofthe signal y =amod (x,Fo,Fs,'amdsb-tc"); % Modulate x to produce y figure; subplot (21,1), plot (¢2); % Plotx on top subplot (21,2), plot(4y); % Plot below F=f figure plot (ab5(0)prenuys 9] szjenbo weg) uosoe ow waco wsddOY ansqo €9 eo UNS 9 “yp srovenbay sroues pue ssveyip snouen ve 2104 ‘nino wauainseaw Buars pp Jo sduore avTLY Bb Bla (wleneeg rte soo ors Jo safduexa 200s wos 9 01 1'9] $2 snows ‘uonpatunimo> ajigow uy sissjeue pu {enyen oo 3 ayaa e906) ‘ame tee aoer (004 6s Lee! Loaeepon. a oro fooenbag (ae DRE NISHINO U1 weLBEIP 9914 poNTUNS y_F-9F “Ets unaade pueasaeg WOON ‘}geyyene aay strays axeaugos somnsvout UABUANS PIPY 204 “rea OS NOIAGEY WISWHO. “ANT TAINIS BUIsneordde wasterp 9014 6a ~Z ‘LLY. %90u paufoa- somos pu swat vonoounwsee9 Jo vonomus voncounauos sa 949678 Wireless Commanicoion | ‘Simulation of Communication Systems and Software-Defined Radio 679 16.2 SIMULATION METHODOLOGY In genera, there are different types of communication systems based on wirelines and wireless. A few of them are listed below and all are using different protocols. + Copper media-based traditional telephone system and modems + Traditional AM and FM broadcasting systems + Satellite systems + Data communication and Internet system + Optical fibre-based various applications, such as B-ISDN LAN + WLL and mobile telephony systems + In general, baseband or broadband systems with many different modu ‘Syotested teaustoy "There is no single approach of system modelling and simulation, At the same time, ‘without deep knowledge, mathematics, or basi theory, even simulation is not an easy task though there are readily available functions or block simulators, because without the knowledge, one cannot decide the appropriate input-output relationships or parameters. It is necessary to understand for which conditions the blocks or functions ae designed. CCategory-wis, three types of communication systems exist 1. Analytical tractable (linear) 2, Analyticelly complex (no-tinear) 3, Analytical intractable “Aniog ‘er docs cue Allcan be simulated ina diferent manner. Their exact simulations may not be possible ‘but maybe with approximations and assumptions, simplified models ean be derived and simulated for tentative results to find out the behaviour of the system, One must try to | identify the system before the simulation category under which it falls. Identification of the system category is very important for deciding the approach of simulation. 16.2.1 Analytically Tractable System The features of an analytically tractable system ate es follows: 3 : 5 g 3 fF Ni syihestnd Fecueney Phase Freqieneydivides | Prise dalector ‘eirence sia 6 quency, 1: VEO quiescent raquancy + This isa simple basic communication system studied inthe first course on commu- nication theory. «+ Data isa sequence of discrete symbols and memoryless source, ie, kth generated symbol is independent of others + The modulator simply maps the source symbols onto other waveforms represent ing the source symbols (like AM, FM, PCM, and PSK). | + The transmitter is simply a linear amplifier inthis case, according tothe desired energy. + Noise is assumed to be AWGN. +The receiver observes and estimates the symbols of the original data signal such | thatthe probability of errors minimized, so: VCO seve, Fig. 164 An exany ‘fe reerone{(G'91 Tig 905) posn osye ave sonbuuyso) uazayyp pure suowenbo Porewayyem sTO}A upjsds orp Bupe]nuys OEYA “suoNDUNY J2ysuEN payeFoosse pue sdiysuon|as yndINO -anduy awos yyy uaai8 are qoige 9019 iuasaNP sey SAS uoneoHUNUIHOD V “Oa | ‘aonendwoo Joy spor eausun Sporyou Tusseoaxd puss ep of Spe Pae|aA | snyjo Jo o8papaaouy amp anny ysnus aw ‘sHo}8Ks uoHorUMUIIOD ap yA BuTeap OTN, NOUWINNIS 4O S1O3dSY ABWNITAIOSIOUIA €°91. ‘mass ajqnroenuy Aqeondjeue uESMoYs [9] out ‘ajqtsoetut ou yBnoxp x aprsap on yoouyp SH = otuonata ‘pediynus pu aouerapsqur yBiy # wi Buyesodo Huy oxper se]np9 sSjaN w SEY ‘uo wey 2H SONOS AxHOU OMI SEAT + waists uoneatunuswos auiores dow-onty 8 fopow vs! + sauaysts ‘ojdutoa ysou ayn wiasAs aygarsen Aeon Ayeur om yeu sosmye9} BuN0}}O} HL, weyshs ejqnjooyul AJOUAIDUY €°Z"9L ‘+ (92peeu ave suoptunsse weyan“Apoiturs 1} exe) JH PLE aged s0n0d yBX yin oUUED € yy WSIS voHeoUMUCD 1 1 ign "ways (énIpa 0) xeuen Kyennue po acre uy sof “Big sano jpoiedpoquis. ean’ Salercy —-"paeene Tam —- Sh saves 7"! 0800099 “Ss Pow uve aed [Pte wessne9 oyu, 62 m0; 0N ‘oss xo] doo dean sour we sisoys 9°91 ani -poreuuxoudde yequouts sy wmisis amp ea stp pus uorenuuts on eme-OS « ‘pormuuarep stseo st Kuugeqoud ous pu unouy six Jo sci “Hasarese pean tue paurauayap 9q weo 4] Jo souetse, “uone|aUTS 20 stot 8 Fun pau .2q Apyoinb uno ¥x Jo uoous ap ways oo uomuod seaut2xp winamp tuo sossed ‘stot aip yup 3 OY“ INO Puy oF ]OULEP SA (PUBKS TBHANN sm ostou snd pols) YW +97 + 4g = 8 pas vayo st uoreynuns exojarayp pe uoH}ouTy -} yoes Jo wuounue ap aye|nope0 oF amnpodoud snoipay ynq preAroy yyBKENS & sear uonouny-d ueyssneg est sanygeqoxd 40M ¥Z 941 JO¥>~ "NOAA'S! 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The art of modelling is to develop the behavioural model because the model cap- Rees ae tures the input output haviour ofthe device under specific condition. “nant | + Models must be sufficiently detailed to maintain the essential features of the sys- tem, otras. } «+ Trade-offs between accuracy, complexity, and computational requirements are, Wy therefore, usually observed because accuracy is totally dependent upon modelling. 1seful to consider analytical models and simulation models inthe work siml- taneously. ans i ~ Figure 16.9 shows how simulation models are developed. Downie isa af = haetscot — eter — Meibea “sober Begs coer me a Fig, 189. Dew thesimiton mds fre tems Fig. 16.7 An example of analytical intatale system wih @ 16.4.1 Modelling Considerations betes of ones compan aa While modeling a system, the following pints shouldbe considered: «The firs and most important step in modelling i o identify those attributes and operational characteristics of the psicaldevie that are tobe represented in the rode «The identification of these essential features often requires considerable engineer- ingjudgementand thorough understanding ofthe aplication fr which he model istobe developed «The accuray equted of ny mathematical analysis or any computer simulation tased on the model is limited by th acuracy ofthe system model Some of the basic concepts ofthe computer science will be useful in simulation as follows + The word length and the format of words used to represent the samples of signals one villimpact simulation accuracy, but this would not be of much importance in float- ing point processors. + The choice of language sis Fig. 188 ites ape of sation as mentoned portant inthe development of commercial simulators. in Figs | + Available memory and its organization will impact the manner in which data end instructions are passed from one part ofthe simulation to anther. 16.4 MODELLING OF THE SYSTEM + Graphic requirements and capabilities will determine how waveforms are dis- . played and will impact the tansportbility ofthe simvlation code from one com- Models describe the input-output relationship or behaviour ofthe physical systems puter platform to another. or devioes. * Models are typically expressed in mathematical form also for cade development. 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The estimated parameters may be E/N, probability of error, ete. 16.7 GENERAL STEPS OF SIMULATION Simulation development is « ‘top-down’ approach, where hardware implementation proceeds from the bottom up’. In Fig 16.13, atypical example of simulation is given, ‘where the first level block diagram includes one ofthe blocks, PLL. In the second level, ‘weccan expand the PLL block diagram, in which one ofthe blocks isa voltage-controlled ‘oscillator. Step by step, we can reach up to the root evel and the whole system can be ‘broken into smallest parts, which can become the modales of the simulation. Figure 16.14 gives the detailed steps forthe simulation process. 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Wireless Communication talkand isten to multiple channels tthe same tne. Today, there are many places ‘where public safety people from one organization cannot tak to those from an- ‘other The locals eannot talk to the emengency crew from the next fown because they have different kinds of radios. Software radio solves this problem as it has slobal mobility. «+ Wecean build now kinds of radios that have never before existed. Smart radios or cognitive radios can look at the utilization ofthe RF spectrum in their immediate neighbourhood and configure themselves for bes: performance. Current digital technologies are too slow to receive typical radio signals, which range from 10 kl¥z to 2 GHz An ideal software radio would have to collect and process samples at twice the maximum frequency at which i isto operate. Real software radios sole this problem by using a mixer and a reference otilator to heterodyne the radio signal to lower frequency. The mixer changes the frequency of the signal. The phase information becomes more iffcultto detect in it. Many digital encoding systems depend ‘on the phase encoding, The classic solution is to mix aad digitize two channels, using & reference oscillator that produces two signals of same frequency. However, one of the frequency outputs lags the other by 90 degrees of a cycle, Thus the two sets of samples provide the needed phase information ‘Another related problem is that the information aboat the bit timing is lost when the frequency changes. The phase information helps revover that as well. The sampling ‘works best if tis ata simple multiple of the protocol’s symbol rate, Since the distant ‘tansmiter and the receiver are linked only by the redo, the sampling speed should somehow adapt othe distant radio's symbol rate. The phase information may, therefore, be used to adjust the effective sampling rate as well. Any signals above the sampling frequency would ‘interfere’ with the sampling, causing spurious signals to appear inthe data stream at a frequency, that is the difference between the signal and the samy frequency. For this reason, a low-pass analog electronic filter must precede the digital conversion step. ‘A good software radio must operate at any symbol rte within a wide range of rates in “order tobe compatible with many protocols and this adeptive controls crucial. Itean be implemented ether with a hardware linkage to the converter or in software 16.11 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE TRANSCEIVER FOR SDR “There are mainly three stages in SDR—a baseband section, an IF section, and an RF section and an antenna, A typical voice SDR transmitter, suchas that used in mobile two- ‘way radio or cellular telephone communication, consiss ofthe following components: + Microphone + Audioamplifier + Analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which converts the voice audio to ASCH (or Aligital) data + Modulator which, impresses the ASCII intelligence onto a radio-frequency (RF) Sulton of Communication Sstems ond Sofwore-Defined Radio 695 + Series of amplifiers, which boosts the RF carrier tothe power level necessary for ‘the transmission + Transmitting antenna (The parts ofthe sytem shown with * represent compute-contoled circuits whose parameters are determined by the programming software.) ‘Atypical receiver designed to inlereept the above-mentioned voice SDR intercept the above-mentioned voice SDR signal would employ the following components essentially eversing the transmitter’ action: + Receiving antenna* + Super-heterodyne system, which boosts incoming RF signal strength and converts ito a constant frequency? + Demodulator, which separate the ASCH intelligence fiom the RF carter * + Digital-o-analog converter (DAC), which generates a voice waveform from the ASCII data* + Audio amplifier + Speaker, earphone, or headset (Azin, the items followed by asterisks represent programmable circuits) Imoder to meet the objectives set fora protected signal and flexibility for the radio platform, we have defined a general structure forthe transmiter and receive. Each application or waveform (existing or under development) can use these general strue- tures The general structure ofan SDR transite is represented in Fig. 16.18, Ifthe trans- miter contains an adaptive antenna ara, it can independently transmit each waveform. to its desired direction (maybe ina multiantenna system); otherwise a single-an- ime } cue tteomiemiert Te agg fT SE ‘waveforms are generated digitally wsingsimu- ASCO! Bac ee 1 8 iaialtecasan eaiemancl cpecaaae i BUS § td dgtal ial poconorprogamming, Posing BIL acces | & Beam fog required in wap antenna f system using software methods; otherwise a Fig. 16.18. Simpifed block dagram of SDR direct Do-A converter converts the digitally ensign snemss geacated signal int the analog form for transiting it through hardware-based RE poner sta Framers hr ee each antena ‘The possible structures of the recive in mukipl-sotean ed singl-antena cases are shown in Fig. 16.19. The general structure at the application level is shown in Fig 16.19(), The Interference cancelles (ICs) used in the single-anenna cae can typically mitigate interference of signals, wich havea narower bandwidth than the desired si nal. The adaptive antennas can typically mitigate both wideband and narowband ‘interference and thus offer enhanced performance. Important, the receiver consists of a matched fier foreach aplication. 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For example, having én expensive ADC capable of more than 85 dB of dynamic range makes litle sense when the dynamic range of RF front endis only 60 dB. Dynamic range isthe key design issue in building RF frontend, since it pevides a measure ofthe highest and lowest level signals that can be simultaneously accommodated by the radio. BY knowing the limitations ofthe analog RF front end, some compensation can be made via digital signal processing. Furthermore, there is a strong tie between the battery consumption and the dynamic range, which is a particularly important trade-off for mobile systems. 16.12.1 RF Front End (Analog) The RE front end is very difficult to erete as itis applicable toa variety of signals with disparate parameters, such as bandwidth and centre frequency. In a transceiver having a transmitter anda receiver, the receiver partis more complex. The purpose ofthe receiver isto isolate the desired signal from interference and noise for demodulation and farther processing Te key isto reject as many undesired signal as possible and condition the desired signa fo digital signal processing. This is done by taking the signal from the antenna, iterng ito remove undesired signals converting the signal to IF with an ampli- tude and frequency range compatible with the analog to-digital conversion process. The transmiter fou end consists of mixer and VCO for the RF conversion along with the power amplifies. The receiver frontend consists of font end band-pass filer (BPE), LENA, automatic gun control (AGC) hardware, and mixer pes VCO for RF-o-F conversion. The bereits of software contol at varius stages area follows |. BPR ‘Thereis flexibility in gan and bandwidth needed for multimode operation. 2. INA. Software-based power management is possible, ie. eycle ON or OFF the ENA orajust bias to lower the power consumption, 3. Miners. biasing can be dynamically adjusted by the software to reduce the dis- teeton. 4, VCO or local oscillator (LO) The software is controlled for tuning. In the teansmitter IF stage, IF voltage-controlled oscillator is software controlled for 8 fast setting time. 5, AGC. Thereceiver noise and distortion can be misimized by software-controlled ‘gin and atenuation, Duplexers and diplexers are similar devices but differ in functions. Normally, a duplexer is used to separate or isolate the transmit anc receive signals-in a common frequency range, which uses a common antenna. A dplever performs a similar but different function—it isolates the transmitted and received signals, which lie indistinct frequency ranges. These are the lossy components. ‘The inital band-pass filtering after the duplexer rejects the ou-of-band interference. It also helps isolate the receiver from the transmitted signal, Very small amount of nose is injected with fow loss and much selectivity i provided without limiting the bandwidth needed to support nutiple modes ofthe software radio. Low-noise amplifier boosts the signal power level into a range compatible with other components in the eicuit without Simulation of Cammunioton Stems and Software-Defned Rado 699 audding excessive noise into the signal. This must be traded for power consumption and dynamic range. Image reject filter is located before the mixer, which reduces noise and protects the mixer from interference, including any signals located at the image frequency, which after IF conversion may lie inthe sare band asthe desired signal. The mixer is used to downconvert the signal and can be @ major source of intermoduation distortions it sa non-linear device. Harmonics due to the mixer can be removed by the IF pass band. The mixer is driven by a local oscillator or VCO, whose frequency Aetermines the channel seletion. The LO should have a good tuning range and good phase stability to minimize the phase noise. The AGC is primarily required to ensure thet the signal has a voltage level that is compatible with the ADC input range. It should be fast enough to account for changing signal levels (du to fast channel fading) and is placed to ensure that minimal noise is injected into the system and also to ensure thatthe signal isnot clipped off by the ADC. 16.12.2 Digital IF Processing Digital IF extends the scope of digital signal processing beyond the baseband domain out to the antenna—to the RF domain. This increases the flexibility of the system while reducing manufacturing costs. Moreover, digital frequency conversion provides greater ‘exibilty and higher performance (in terms of attenustion and selectivity) than traditional analog techniques. Latest FPGAS, with high-performance embedded digital signal processing block, embedded soft processors, memory architecture, and high-speed interfaces, provide a highly flexible and integrated platform to implement computationally {intensive digital IF functions, including digital upconverter and downconverter (DUC and DDC), while reducing the risk involved in introducing new techniques, such as DPD, CER, and smart antennas. Digital Upconverter (DUC) The date formatting, often required between the baseband processing elements and the upconverter, canbe seamlessly added a the ont end ofthe upconveter as show in Fi 1621. This technique provides a fully customizable frontend to the upeonverter and allows for channelization of high-bandwidth input data, which i found in many 36 systems. Custom logic or an embeded processor can be used to contol the interface between the upconverter and the baseband processing element. Indigita upconversion the input dataisbascband filtered and interpolated before itis quadrature modulated with a tunable carter fequency. 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Wireless Communiccton 16.12.4 Co-processing Features Asillustrted in Fig. 16.24, SDR baseband processing ofen requires both rocesSOrs _Pecsst and FPGAs, where the processor handles system control and configuration fanctions while the FPGA implements the Fig. 1624 Co-ocessng architect for SOR computationally intensive signal processing data path and contol, minimizing the Intency in the system. To go between the standards, the processor can switch dynamically between major sections of software, while the FPGA can becompltely reconfigured, as necessary to implement the data pth for the particular standard. 16.12.5 Adaptive Antenna over SDR Platform ‘The antennas peas one ofthe mos important iaksin the over design. Mach of the Tak gin ean be acloved or lost inte selection ofthe ata, Fora software radi, hic is designed to support multiple modes ad tulip bands, the antenna choice fevames an en more era ise. Most antennas supp bandwidths of aout 10— IivGof the ear fequeney. Thus, muliband radio, whch cover the clular ange of 900 Miz and? GHz ae dfcult to support with single ntan, The fom factor of anveanaisver inporant Exploitation of diversity ost intennas can be pefomed at the bands orate bse ator. As mentored previous he dives canbe achieved ty acing lp receiver chains and sptaly separated antenas, antennas with rent polaron characteristics or diferent gain ates. For mobi ein the typeof antenna may be dipole, monopole, lop a pachsiennas ran adie antenna sytem simplemente in est SDR. The advent of powefal ton-out ia signal roesor general-purpose process and ASIC) a8 well as innovative sofware bse sigal processing algorithms have made smart afennas prota! Aviad of varios lgorihms can bused depending he scenario by an SDR implementation platform, Ths lo guaratees easy wpgadng ofthe sytem. The Alerts for bea forming and for esting the number of ipinging gal can be strain programmnablememory. The algorithm diversi depending on th operational scomo, canbe sed. The dil sigel processor wt the selected algorithm to Calne th beamforming weights andthe digi ben oring cn be mad, for ‘sample with n FPGA cet ata FPGA conto) CORREO 16.13 PRESENT TRENDS IN SDR The GNU radios free software toolkit for learning about building and deploying software radios. Being a free softwar, it comes with the complete source code and so anyone can Took and see how the system is built In adition, to support for broadcast and narrowband FMradios, GNU radio has «complete implementation of an ATSC (Advanced Television ‘Systems Committee) digital HDTV transmitter and receive. The GNU software radio is 2 code base of free software that performs digital signal processing using a personal ‘computer and freely available RF receiver front end designs. Since the system utilizes ‘open source software and a standard PC under Linux, the GNU software radio receiver is an ideal platform for learning and experimenting with SDR concepts. Simiavon of Communication Stems ond Sofware-Defned Radio 703 ‘The NCASSR (National Center For Advanced Secure Systems Research) SDR. ‘project at NCSA (National Center For Supercomputing Applications) has extended the ‘GNU software radio receiver design to 2 900 MHz narrowband softwaredefined radio transceiver, that is a radio capable of transmitting and receiving, The project team ‘developed the SDR transceiver to facilitate further research and development of SDR, including new front-end hardware, algorithms, protocols, security, and operational visualization. ‘An ideal SDR can operate in any radio frequency bend, limited only by national regulatory agencies and the characteristics ofits RF ‘front-end’ analog hardware and antenna, The researchers’ current approach to the front-end analog hardware is to support a common IF and design RF hardware to fit between the antenna and the ‘common IF. Dr. Jennifer Bernhard ofthe University of Illinois atthe Urbana-Champaign Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, is leading an effort to design an antenna forthe extensible sensor platform that would cover a wideband from 50 MHz to 2.4 Gl, which would be wider than any antenna commercially available today. (One area of SDR research already underway at NCSA is the SDR operational ‘visualization software that serves as both an educational tool for introducing concepts of | radio communications to novice users and an architectural overview of our SDR system. This teal-time visualization provides a qualitative, high-level block diagram of the opetation ofthe SDR as itrecsives a still image. The visualization software tap into an active SDR, extracts the signal after each stage of reception, and superimposes an image of the signal onto the block diagram, ‘Another new application is a reconfigurable communication protocol stack. Reminiscent of the Unix system V-streams architecture, the transmit and receive data paths are composed of processing blocks that may be dynamically swapped in and out of the flow at runtime, Currently the communication stack elements are discrete blocks that handle the network transport protocol, security processing, end-user applications, and radio hardware management. ‘An example of the flexibility and usefulness ofthis architecture is @ simple security application, The security processing block in the receiver data stream uses the DES algorithm to decrypt the received data. An authenticated command to change to the AES algorithm is received by the radio. The radio management software swaps out the security block implementing DES and replaces it with the security block implementing ‘AES. The data processing continues seamlessly ‘To provide security for SDR, the NCSA SDR project team is developing a voice authentication application that identifies and authorizes SDR users, allowing specific radio capabilities to be unlocked depending on the user. For example, imagine a software- dofined radio for emergency response with this voiee-authentication application—an ‘ordinary citizen could be allowed to use the radio to contact authorities to report incidents, ‘hile an identifier response commander could use the radio to communicate on a number of private bands reserved for the responding teams, such a police, fire, medical, ec. 16.14 FUTURE OF SDR ‘Traditionally different countries and different kinds of units have used non-compatible radio systems. 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Justify this statement. 10. What willbe the role of ADCIDAC eon 3. ‘Sometimes simulation-based system de- __ version time nthe designing of software- sign may not work practically.’ Comment defined radia system? 4. What are the various approaches ty 11. Draw the block diagram of a single an- ‘which the simulation can be done? tenna-based SDR system transmitter and 5. List out the advantages and the draw- receiver. List out the functions of each of buacks/imitations ofthe simulation. the blocks inthe diagram. 6. How does the processor speed sometimes 12. Will it be 2ossible to have very high- affect the simulation ess? frequency communication with SDR do- 7. What isthe importance of modeling in. Vices and urder what conditions? simulation? 13. Whats the role of git signal processor 8. What do you mean by validation of a insotwaredefined rao sytem? model List out the techniques for vidas 14. Whatis thereof FPGA part in software- tion. defined radio system? How ist possible to 9. Assume any partioular communication have flexibility and reconfigurability with FPGA? es MULTE CHOICE QUESTION 1. A QPSK modem without power amplifier (2) Modulator forms (b) ADC/DAC (2) analytically complex system. (6) Beam-ioming controller (6) analytically tractable system (@) Waveform generator, (©) analytically intractable system 5. Thetlexbity and reconfigurabityin SDR. (@ none of the above is dueto 2. The ast tage of simulation is (a) DDC «nd DUC (2) accreditation (b) modeling (b) DSP and FPGA (©) pattoning ——_(@) analysis () abcbac 3. Which ofthe following statementsistrue? __(@)allof tae above (@) Simulation is « bottom-to-top ap- 6, Which of the following statements is in- proach correct? (b) Simulation gives 100% results. (@) An SDR can work with systems with (©) Simulation results are dependent diferent protocols ‘upon the parameter selection. (b) An SDR is some as cognitive radio. ( Simulationis alwaysbasedonthesp- _(€) An SDR performs analog as well as proximation, digiatoprations. 4 wich of the following parts in SDR is (@ An SDR can use MIMO. ardwae? Appendix y Linear Systems Theory linear sytem is given by ah(oe)dt wp ‘where 2() isthe input and 2 i the system weighting function ‘A linear system model (Fig, A.1) isthe model of a linear systems with input-output relationship represented by a transfer function stow inthe box. It is tried to correlate this model with the gener iagram ofa communication system in which the ransmi-receive relationships decided by the channel ‘ransfrfanetion or impulse response. Te whole theory with mathematical equations is described with ‘the help ofthis model Fig. AA Unear sytem model the sytem sine ivariany then Eg (A.1) becomes x9 = fre@xu-ndr aa ‘This typeofinepra is clled comvlain negra Diferential equations involving random processes are called stochastic difereta. A inst stochast difereitil equation a8 a mode! of an RP (andom process) with intl conditions bas the ‘ener form 50) ~FOOH +O) + COM) a3) CO =HOx( + DOH as where [§()= the next state estimation “x(Q)= nat vector (input) ‘MO = 1 1, measurement vector (received output of