UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF ENGINERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

FEE 560: FINAL YEAR PROJECT

POWER/DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE EVALUATION.

PROJECT INDEX: PRJ005

SUPERVISOR: MR. N.S WALKADE

EXAMINER: DR.ABUNGU

DONE BY: MWANIKI FREDRICK MUKUNDI

F17/2120/04

ACADEMIC YEAR 2008/2009

SUBMITTED IN MAY 2009

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of B.Sc Electrical & Electronics Engineering of the University of Nairobi.

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 DEDICATION

My heartfelt appreciation goes to my parents for their helpful advice and invaluable support all
through my life, my brother and sister who were always there making a call to know how I was
progressing.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project would not have been fruitful without the kind assistance, commitment and
support of many individuals. First, I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. N.S. Walkade for his
very useful technical knowledge and guidance that has shaped the outcome of this project. I also
express my appreciation to Mr.Godfrey G.Ticha, a planning Engineer, Kenya Power & Lighting
Co. Ltd.(K.P.L.C) for his assistance, my friend Musa(5th year Mechanical engineering) for the
insight and all my classmates who were there with me as we brainstormed. I am grateful to all
the lecturers in the Department of Electrical and Information Engineering for their dedicated
teaching.I appreciate my parents and family for their support, encouragement and prayers.

family for their support, encouragement and prayers.

Above all, I thank The Almighty God for successfully seeing me through this period.

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Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 ROLE OF TRANSFORMER IN POWERSYSTEM ................................................................................ 1
1.11 Step-up transformer................................................................................................................................ 1
1.12 Step-down transformer........................................................................................................................... 1
1.13 Special features of transformers for particular purposes.......................................................................... 2
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 STUDY AREA. ................................................................................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................................... 5

2.1 TRANSFORMER PROCUREMENT PROCEDURE ................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1 INQUIRIES ............................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1.2 TENDERS ............................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 TECHNICAL EVALUATION...................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4 COST EVALUATION .............................................................................................................................. 22
2.2 TRANSFORMER TENDER FOLLOW UP ........................................................................................................... 23
2.2.1 TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) DURING MANUFACTURE ...................................................... 23
2.2.2 TRANSFORMER DISPATCH.................................................................................................................... 26
2.2.3 SITE ERECTION AND INSTALLATION. ................................................................................................. 26
2.2.4 COMMISSIONING. ............................................................................................................................... 28
2.3 FAILURES AND MAINTENANCE AFTER INSTALLATION. ................................................................................. 33
2.3.1 TRANSFORMER FAILURES AND THEIR CAUSES. ................................................................................... 35
2.3.2 MAINTENANCE OF THE TRANSFORMER. .............................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER 3: DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS CAPITALIZATION OF LOSSES ........................................................... 41
3.1 TYPES OF LOSSES......................................................................................................................................... 41
Iron loss ....................................................................................................................................................... 42
Copper loss .................................................................................................................................................. 42
3.2 LOSS CAPITALIZATION FORMULA ................................................................................................................ 44
3.3 ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 49
CALCULATION OF LOSSES ON A 24 - HOUR BASIS............................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................................................... 54
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 56
APPENDIX A ......................................................................................................................................................... 57

LIST OF NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS RELATING TO POWER TRANSFORMERS ..................................................... 57

APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................................................................... 58

C++ CODE ........................................................................................................................................................... 58

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A.C- Alternating current

Np – Number of primary coil turns

Ns - Number of secondary coil turns

Vp – Voltage on primary coil

Vs - Voltage on secondary coil

KV – Kilovolt

LV –Low voltage

HV –High voltage

U.P.F – Unity power factor

P.F –Power factor

ONAN –Oil natural air natural

HZ –Hertz

MVA – Megavolt amperes

TOC –Total owning cost

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 ABSTRACT

This project presents a procedure for the selection of transformers for the purpose of tendering
for reduced operational costs after installation. The steps involved in tendering of transformers
are identified.

A brief introduction of transformers is given, then the specifications that the purchaser should
consider for a transformer with reduced costs after installation is also looked at. These include
the technical parameters and the capitalization of losses. The losses considered are the no-load
losses(iron losses) and the load losses(copper losses).Transformer dispatch,installation,testing
and commissioning procedure is also illustrated. The tests include: tests during manufacture,
final tests and British standardized test, all of which are supposed to be done before
commissioning.

Transformer failures in the: magnetic circuit, windings, insulation and structure are analyzed and
transformer maintenance after installation has been considered. Capitalization of losses which
would help the purchaser select the tenderer with the least losses also analyzed. Losses on a
distribution transformer based on a 24 hour load curve have been calculated and a Microsoft
Visual C++ program designed for easier calculation, where the purchaser can only enter the
percentage loss and load values. It is noted that a transformer with low load and no-load losses
calculated over a chosen lifetime of the transformer, say 35 years, is cheaper and provided
reduced operational costs after installation.

Technical information was obtained from the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (K.P.L.C).

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 ROLE OF TRANSFORMER IN POWERSYSTEM

A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of an
a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. By electromagnetic induction,
an alternating current (AC) of one voltage is transformed to another voltage, without change of
frequency. Transformers are widely used in electrical apparatus of all kinds and in particular in
power transmission where high voltages and low currents are utilized. It essentially consists of
two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core.
Depending on the number of turns on each winding, we can have a step-up transformer or a step-
down transformer.

1.11 Step-up transformer

This type of transformer has more turnings on the secondary coil than on the primary coil and
therefore the voltage induced in the secondary coil is larger than the primary coil voltage. If the
number of turns on the primary coil is NP and the number of turns on the secondary coil is NS,
and the respective voltages are VP and VS, then NS/NP = VS/VP. For example, if there are 200
turnings on the primary coil and 2,000 turnings on the secondary coil, then the voltage induced in
the secondary coil is ten times larger than the primary coil voltage.

1.12 Step-down transformer

This type of transformer has more turnings on the primary coil than on the secondary coil and
therefore the voltage induced in the secondary coil is smaller than the primary coil voltage. The
same formula applies as for a step-up transformer, so if there are 2,000 turnings on the primary
coil and 200 turnings on the secondary coil, then the voltage induced in the secondary coil is ten
times smaller than the primary coil voltage.

There are two basic types of transformers categorized by their winding/core

configuration: (a) shell type and (b) core type. In a shell-type transformer the flux-return paths of
the core are external to and enclose the windings.

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Core-type transformers have their limbs surrounded concentrically by the main windings.

a) shell-type transformer b) Core-type transformers

Figure 1.1 Examples of core and shell type transformers

1.13 SPECIAL FEATURES OF TRANSFORMERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES

1) GENERATOR TRANSFORMERS

These are taken to mean those step-up transformers directly connected to generator output
terminals in large generating stations. Generator transformers frequently have a wide voltage
ratio.

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 Figure 1.2 Core and windings of single phase 267 MVA, 432/23.5 kV generator transformer.
View of HV side.

2) TRANSMISSION TRANSFORMERS

Transmission transformers are used to provide bulk supplies and to interconnect the separate
EHV transmission systems

3) DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

Distribution transformers are normally considered to be those transformers which provide the
transformation from 11 kV and lower voltages down to the level of the final distribution
network.

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 Figure 1.3 Three-phase 750 kVA, 11 000/433 V, 50 Hz transformer with a mitred core. HV
windings in delta, LV in star. Crossover HV coils; spiral LV coils. HV windings fitted with
tappings brought up to an externally operated tap selector (ABB Power T&D Ltd).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Transformers are never manufactured and stored as they are very expensive. They are thus manufactured
on order. This order should thus be done carefully so that a quality transformer with minimum operational
costs after installation is purchased. This thus calls for suitable specifications when tendering that will
lead to fewer failures and hence maintenance costs .Both load (copper) and no-load (iron) losses of the
transformer will have to be considered while tendering to ensure that they are at minimal once the device
is installed.

1.3 OBJECTIVE

To develop a procedure for the selection of power transformers for the purpose of tendering for
reduced costs after installation.

1.4 STUDY AREA.

The field of study has been the Kenya Power and Lightning Company(K.P.L.C).The company
tenders all types of transformers from different manufacturers all over the world.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 TRANSFORMER PROCUREMENT PROCEDURE

2.1.1 INQUIRIES
In the initial stage of an enquiry for a transformer there is nothing so important as a full and
explicit statement of the total requirements that, from the user’s point of view, have to be met
and, from the manufacturer’s standpoint have to be considered. This statement generally
constitutes the technical specification, guarantees and schedules, which, together with the
commercial and contractual conditions, will form the basis of a contract between the user and the
supplier.

When issuing transformer inquiries, the following general information should be given where
applicable:

• Power factor of the load if this is to be taken in to account.

• Highest system voltage for the purpose of selecting the insulation level of both h.v. and l.v.
windings.

• Limits of variation of supply voltage and/or frequency.

• If any point of the transformer windings or system will be permanently earthed ,and if so
whether solidly earthed through a current-limiting device or arc-suppression coil.

• Whether the windings are to be fully insulated or designed for graded insulation.

• Any oneous duty, for instance, frequent direct-on-line starting of motors.

• Altitude

• Whether the transformer is to be installed in an electrically protected or exposed situation.

• Special conditions with particular reference to the installed location, atmospheric pollution,
increased bush clearance necessary to avoid flashover from birds and vermin.

• Any transport limitations of weight, dimensions, or access to site.

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Water-cooled transformers

• Source and nature of cooling water supply.

• Head of water supply(it is recommended that the water cooler should discharge to
atmosphere)

• Temperature of the cooling water if in excess of 25C

• Full details of the auxiliary electricity supply for oil and pump motors.

• External pipework, waterpump, motor and starting gear are not normally included in a
quotation unless specified. If more than 100% cooler capacity is required, this should be
specifically stated (e.g.,two 100% or three 50% coolers).

Auto-transformer starters

• Rated output of apparatus to be started.

• Normal line voltage.

• Starting tappings required.

• Estimated starting kVA at different starting tappings.

• Whether to be started at full load or no-load.

• Duty cycle

High voltage testing transformers

• Whether one end only of the h.v. winding will be earthed.

• Whether the center point of the h.v. winding will be earthed permanently.

• Whether the h.v. winding will be operated unearthed.

• Apparatus or material to be tested.

• Voltage tests- magnitude and duration.

• If to be used with a rectifier or similar specialized equipment.

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It is imperative that the following exact details be supplied with an order when h.v and/or l.v.
cable boxes are specified:

• Type of cable box filling medium.

• Number of cables and cable cores to be terminated

• Shape and section of each core, whether copper or aluminum.

• Type of core insulant, i.e. paper, etc

• Type of sheathing, together with the inner and outer sheath diameters.

• Details of servings and armoring.

• Direction of cable entry to the cable box: i.e. whether the cable approaches the box vertically
upwards or downwards, horizontally from left or right, or normal to the transformer tank.

2.1.2 TENDERS
Submission of comprehensive and informative tenders is obviously so extremely desirable from
all points of view that it behoves all parties concerned to facilitate the duties of others to the
greatest possible extent. In addition therefore, to price, manufacturing period, terms of payment
and of maintenance, and essential data and extras as specified in the inquiry, quotations should
also give the following particulars regarding the specification and performance:

• Type of transformer

• Type of tank

• Type of cooling i.e. self cooled, water cooled, forced oil cooled, etc.

• Core loss at normal voltage and frequency.

• Copper loss at rated load.

• Percentage regulation at u.p.f.

• Percentage regulation at 0.80 lagging p.f.(or at any other specified p.f.)

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• Percentage impedance and reactance.

• Efficiency at u.p.f. at 5/4,1/1,3/4,1/2, and ¼ full load.

• Performance reference temperature, i.e. 75C

• Ambient air temperature or assumed temperature of cooling medium.

• Maximum temperature rise by thermometer and resistance at rated load.

• Permissible overloads- magnitudes and durations.

• Oil quantity, and if included in the price.

• Net overall dimensions.

• Net weight of core and windings, tank and oil.

• Shipping specifications.(for export tenders)

• Insulating medium between windings and tank i.e. air or oil.

Tendering of transformers involves three stages:

1. Compliance with the specification-This is where the manufacturers legal documents are
inspected. It is verified that the manufacturer is legitimate and has the license to design the
transformers. The manufacturer shall submit information, which confirms satisfactory service
experience with products, which fall within the scope of the specification. Manufacturerswho
seem dubious are dropped at this point.

2. Technical evaluation-This is where the tenderers designs are inspected and ratings checked
whether they match the specified ones. Requirements for windings and connections, tapping,
core and flux density, losses, regulation and impedance, terminals arrangement and bushings,
insulation levels should be as specified by the customer. The manufacturers not meeting
these also are not likely to get the tenders.

3. Cost evaluation-At this point, the costs of different manufacturers is put into consideration.
Here the evaluation criteria is not only based on the cost of transformer but also on losses,
both load and no-load losses. This is referred to as capitalization of transformer losses.

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It is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure adequacy of the design and good
engineering practice in the manufacture of the transformers for a customer.

2.1.3 TECHNICAL EVALUATION

A technical specification has three objectives:

• To provide the tenderer, or manufacturer, with all that technical information necessary to
carry out his design and which will vary from unit to unit, for example rating, voltage ratio,
type of cooling, etc.

• To provide the tenderer, or manufacturer, with an indication of the strategic importance of

the transformer and the value to be placed on reliability, maintainability and long service life.

• To provide the tenderer, or manufacturer, with information which will ensure that the
transformer will satisfactorily interface with its associated plant and equipment and that
installation and commissioning will proceed smoothly and without undue delays.

Preparation of the technical specification

The first step in the preparation of the technical specification is to draw up a checklist of
important technical parameters. This checklist may well take the form of a schedule of technical
particulars which can ultimately form part of the enquiry document. If the user is in the habit of
buying transformers at fairly frequent intervals the form of this schedule can provide the basis
for a standard company document.

When all the information for the schedule of technical particulars has been decided this can then
be compiled for inclusion in the enquiry document.

Scope

The narrative part of the technical specification should commence with a descriptive outline of
the overall scope of the works. For example, it might say:

This Specification details the requirements for the supply, delivery to site, off-loading onto
prepared foundations, erection, preparation for service, commissioning and maintenance for the

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maintenance period of an ONAN cooled oil-immersed three-phase double wound generator
transformer for the connection of an 11 kV gas turbine generator to the 33 kV network. The
transformer shall be supplied complete with the first filling of oil.

Standards and conditions of service

The narrative should then identify the main International and National Standards which are to be
applied and the extent to which these are to apply.

This may be followed by a detailed description of the service conditions, for example:

The transformer shall be suitable for outdoor installation under the normal service ambient
conditions set out in IEC 76 except as modified by the requirements with regard to rating set out
below.

1. Service conditions

The narrative should then identify the main International and National Standards which are to
be applied and the extent to which these are to apply.

This may be followed by a detailed description of the service conditions, for example:

The transformer shall be suitable for outdoor installation under the normal service ambient
conditions set out in IEC 76 except as modified by the requirements with regard to rating set
out below.

The climatic conditions of the region the transformer is to operate at is outlined. This helps the
manufacturer to be aware of the working environment of the transformer once installed. For an
outdorr transformer to operate in a tropical country like Kenya,we can have atmospheric
conditions such as:

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2. Rating

The rating of the transformer required will be determined by the magnitude and the nature of
the load. Since all except the smallest transformers are designed specifically for a particular
contract, there is no reason why the rating specified should not be exactly that required, after
making due allowance for any future load growth, where appropriate.

3. System characteristics

• The primary and secondary voltages are specified, the number of phases and the frequency
of operation.

• The fault levels should be specified, e.g. for K.P.L.C, the present fault levels at Juja sub
station are 1926MVA at 132kV and 1420MVA at 66 kV. These are expected to increase
to 2311MVA and 1704 MVA respectively in the year 2014.

• The loading factor at which the transformer will be operated at should also be specified.

4. Winding and connections

The mode of winding should be specified which should be with respect to power windings
and according to a vector reference being considered.

Below is a suitable sample of windings and connections specifications derived from

K.P.L.C:

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 I. The transformer shall be capable of operation without danger on any particular
tapping at the rated MVA when the voltage may vary by of the voltage
corresponding to the tapping.

II. The windings and connections as well as the insulating material shall not soften ooze,
shrink or collapse during service.

III. No strip conductor wound on edge shall have a width exceeding six times its
thickness. The conductors shall be transposed at sufficient intervals to minimize eddy
currents and equalize the current and temperature distribution along the windings.

IV. The windings and connections shall be properly blazed to withstand shocks during
transportation or transient conditions during service.

V. Adequate pre-shrinkage of the coil assembly using pre-compressed pressboard

material having low moisture content for radial spacer blocks shall be ensured by the
manufacturers so that there is no displacement of the radial spacer blocks due to
frequent short circuits on the transformers.

VI. All windings after being wound and all fibrous hygroscopic materials used in the
construction of the transformer shall be dried under vacuum and impregnated with hot
oil.

VII. The coil clamping rings wherever used shall preferably be of flat insulated steel
laminations.

VIII. The radial spacer blocks must be made of pre-compressed pressboard material, which
will not soften while in contact with oil or fray out into fibers or edges. The slots
should be dimensioned that the blocks will not come out of the slots.

IX. All joints shall be blazed/crimped considering the vibrations due to short circuits and
load fluctuations.

X. The purchaser shall be at liberty to inspect built-up winding for its quality, weight of
copper, insulation and overall weight of coil assembly. The size of conductor used for
different windings shall also be checked during stage inspection.

5. Tapping

This is for the transformers to be provided with an on-load tap changer. The tapping range
should be specified. An example of a tapping range would be:

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 6. Core and Flux density

It is also very important that the tenderer is given sufficient information to determine the
nominal flux density for his design. Alternatively, it is often simpler to specify the maximum
permissible nominal flux density to be used. This latter alternative might be considered by
some as no longer an acceptable practice since it is tantamount to telling the tenderer how to
design the transformer.

An example to show the difficulty of ensuring that the designer is made aware of the most
adverse condition which can occur in operation can be appreciated by considering the
following typical clause which it would be necessary to include in a specification for the
generator transformer.

The HV nominal system voltage is 33 kV. It will normally be maintained within ±6% of this value
but may occasionally and for short periods reach a level of plus 10% above nominal.

The nominal LV terminal voltage is 11 kV. This will be maintained by the action of the generator
automatic voltage regulator within a band of ±5% of the nominal value.

The nominal system frequency is 50 Hz.

The transformers shall be capable of exporting full generator output to the 33 kV system and of
operation without damage at the loadings indicated above, over the range of power factors from
0.85 lag to 0.95 lead and frequency 47 to 51 Hz under the following conditions:

i. Frequency range 49.5 to 51 Hz: at rated MVA and with rated applied voltages, continuously.
ii. Frequency range 47 to 49.5 Hz: the decrease in transformer throughput MVA shall not be
more than prorata with the change of frequency.

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Operation below 47 Hz down to 40 Hz during extreme emergency system conditions will be for
periods not longer than 15 minutes at or about no-load with the voltage adjusted pro-rata with
frequency.

7. Losses, Regulation and impedance

The impedance voltage at extreme tapping and at principle tapping should be stated and
should be subject to tolerance in accordance to the standards being followed.

Voltage regulation, which is the arithmetic difference between the no-load secondary voltage
and the secondary voltage expressed as percentage of no-load voltage, should be stated.

The manufacturer is required to state the losses of the transformer. The fixed losses are
required to be as low as possible as is consistent with good design, reliability and economical
use of materials.

8. Terminals-Arrangement and Bushings

Bushings provide mechanical support and insulation to the terminals.The purchasers should
properly indicate how they want the terminals arranged and bushings fitted. An example of
such specification with reference to a K.P.L.C tender document of 60 MVA
transformer,132/66kv looks as below:

14


9. Air clearances

The manufacturer should ensure that once the transformer is totally assembled,as in service,
electrical clearance in air shall be adequate to withstand the assigned impulse withstand test
voltages.He should also ensure that care is taken to make sure that all fittings are suitably
positioned so as not to interfere with the external connection to the bushing terminals. The
minimum external air clearances should be included in the tendering document by the
purchaser.

10. Insulation levels.

It is usual to quote insulation levels in terms of power frequency and impulse withstand tests
so the wording of the appropriate clause would typically be:

The winding insulation levels shall be:

LV windings power frequency 28 kV, lightning impulse 75 kV peak

HV windings power frequency 70 kV, lightning impulse 170 kV peak.

This clause should also indicate whether it is required to make measurements of partial
discharge during the induced overvoltage test and whether or not the lightning impulse
withstand test is to include chopped waves.

11. Onload tap changer.

If an on-load tap changer is to be provided, the purchaser should fully describe it.It shoul be
ensured that the tapchanger is internationally reputable manufacture and proven reliability in

15
 service.The purchaser should ensure that the manufacturer provides adequate means to
safeguard the transformer and its auxiliary circuits from damage should a failure of the
auxiliary supply or any other mal-operation occured during the progress of tap changing that
may prevent it from completing its task.

The manufacturer should provide a detailed documentation of the tap-changer for the
purpose of tender evaluation.

Remote Tap Changer Control Panel

The purchaser should ensure that the manufacturer provides for the following by indicating in the
tendering document:

• Voltage regulating relay

• Off/Manual/Automatic switch for the relay

• Raise/lower switch

• Raise/lower and tap change in progress indication lamps,Tap change position indicator.

• Local/Remote switch

• Heater switches ON/OFF to control anti-condensation heater.

• KV meter.

Some theory on the tap-changer is as below:

Tap changing

Off-circuit designs (DETC)

In low power, low voltage transformers, the tap point can take the form of a connection terminal,
requiring a power lead to be disconnected by hand and connected to the new terminal.
Alternatively, the process may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch.

16
Since the different tap points are at different voltages, the two connections cannot be made
simultaneously, as this would short-circuit a number of turns in the winding and would result in
an excessive circulating current. Consequently, the power to the load must be physically
interrupted during the switchover time. Off-circuit or de-energized tap changing (DETC) is
sometimes employed in high voltage transformer designs, although for regular use, it is only
applicable to installations in which the loss of supply can be tolerated.

In power distribution networks, transformers commonly include an off-circuit tap changer on the
primary winding to accommodate system variations within a narrow band around the nominal
rating. The tap changer will often be set just once, at the time of installation, although it may be
changed later during a scheduled outage in order to accommodate a long-term change in the
system profile.

On-load designs

Figure 2.1.4 Tap changer

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For many power transformer applications, a supply interruption during a tap change is
unacceptable, and the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive and complex on-load tap-
changing (OLTC, sometimes LTC) mechanism. On-load tap changers may be generally
classified as mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully electronic.

Mechanical tap changers

A mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection before releasing the old using
multiple tap selector switches, but avoids creating high circulating currents by using a diverter
switch to temporarily place a large diverter impedance in series with the short-circuited turns.
This technique overcomes the problems with open or short circuit taps. In a resistance type tap
changer, the changeover must be made rapidly to avoid overheating of the diverter. A reactance
type tap changer uses a dedicated preventive autotransformer winding to function as the
diverter impedance, and a reactance type tap changer is usually designed to sustain off-tap
loading indefinitely.

In a typical diverter switch powerful springs are tensioned by a low power motor (motor drive
unit (MDU)), and then rapidly released to effect the tap changing operation. To reduce arcing at
the contacts, the tap changer operates in a chamber filled with insulating transformer oil, or
inside an SF6 vessel. Reactance-type tap changers, when operating in oil, must allow for with the
additional inductive flyback generated by the autotransformer and commonly include a vacuum
bottle in parallel with the diverter switch. During a tap-change operation, the flyback raises the
potential between the two electrodes in the bottle, and some of the energy is dissipated in an arc
discharge through the bottle instead of flashing across the diverter switch.

Some arcing is unavoidable, and both the tap changer oil and the switch contacts will slowly
deteriorate with use. In order to prevent contamination of the tank oil and facilitate maintenance
operations, the diverter switch usually operates in a separate compartment from the main
transformer tank, and often the tap selector switches will be located in the compartment as well.
All of the winding taps will then be routed into the tap changer compartment through a terminal
array.

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One possible design (flag type) of on-load mechanical tap changer is shown to the right. It
commences operation at tap position 2, with load supplied directly via the right hand connection.
Diverter resistor A is short-circuited; diverter B is unused.

In moving to tap 3, the following sequence occurs:

1. Switch 3 closes, an off-load operation.

2. Rotary switch turns, breaking one connection and supplying load current through diverter
resistor A.

3. Rotary switch continues to turn, connecting between contacts A and B. Load now supplied
via diverter resistors A and B, winding turns bridged via A and B.

4. Rotary switch continues to turn, breaking contact with diverter A. Load now supplied via
diverter B alone, winding turns no longer bridged.

5. Rotary switch continues to turn, shorting diverter B. Load now supplied directly via left hand
connection. Diverter A is unused.

6. Switch 2 opens, an off-load operation.

The sequence is then carried out in reverse to return to tap position 2.

Thyristor-assisted tap changers

Thyristor-assisted tap changers use thyristors to take the on-load current while the main contacts
change over from one tap to the next. This prevents arcing on the main contacts and can lead to a
longer service life between maintenance activities. The disadvantage is that these tap changers
are more complex and require a low voltage power supply for the thyristor circuitry. They also
can be more costly.

Solid state (thyristor) tap changers

These are a relatively recent development which uses thyristors both to switch the load current
and to pass the load current in the steady state. Their disadvantage is that all of the non-
conducting thyristors connected to the unselected taps still dissipate power due to their leakage

19
current and they have smaller short circuit withstand capacity. This power can add up to a few
kilowatts which has to be removed as heat and leads to a reduction in the overall efficiency of the
transformer, in exchange for a compact design that reduces the size and weight of the tap
changer device. Solid state tap changers are typically employed only on smaller power
transformers.

12. Parallel operation.

If the transformer is to be operated in parallel, the manufacturer should provide a scheme for
its operation. It should be ensured that in the event of the transformer being disconnected
from the system, its reconnection shall not result in its tap changer failing to operate
automatically due to tapping discrepancy.

13. Auxiliary Supplies.

For any auxiliary power supplies, the equipment should be rated.Some auxiliary power
supplies would include:

a) Cooler control circuits

b) Tap changer control

c) Cooling fan motors

d) Tap changer motor

14. Transformer Tank and Tank Cover

The purchaser should specify specifications of the tank and its cover.

15. Paint Work

Cleaning and painting should be done in accordance with the requirements provided by the
purchaser. Any deviations in methodology should be stated and may only those that produce
demonstrably superior results. A test report issued by the national standard and testing
laboratory should be produced at the time of acceptance testing of the transformer.

20
16. Cooling System.

This is one of the most important systems in a transformer. Specifications should be clear and
elaborate on what the purchaser wants. Details on the radiators should be put in the tender
and how the purchaser wants them to be mounted. It should be ensured that the complete
cooling system and the fittings fully coordinate.

17. Fittings
The technical specification should list the fittings to be supplied with the transformer. The
manufacturer should provide a detailed set of drawings, brochures and instruction manuals
for the fittings.

Some of these fittings include:

a) Conservator- Most transformers used , with the exception of distribution transformers of

around 1.6 MVA or less, are likely to benefit from the fitting of a conservator. If a
conservator is specified it should have a capacity of about 7.5% of the total cold oil
volume within the transformer.

b) Gas and Oil actuated relay

c) Pressure relief device.

d) Winding Temperature indicator

e) Oil temperature indicator

18. Marshalling cubicle

The tenderer will normally be asked to include in his tender for the supply of a marshalling
cubicle to which he should extend connections from all equipment mounted on the
transformer. The specification should identify all items to be included in this cubicle and
indicate whether this is to be separate free standing or whether a tank-mounted cubicle is
acceptable.

21
19. Transformer oil

Some tests governing the physical nature of transformer oil are:

a) Viscosity- The oil should have a low viscosity for efficient cooling of the transformer.

b) Closed flash point - The lowest temperature at which the oil can form an ignitable
mixture in air. At this temperature the vapour may cease to burn when the source of
ignition is removed.

c) Density

d) Pour point -The pour point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or
flow under prescribed conditions. It is a rough indication of the lowest temperature at
which oil is readily pumpable.

The heat generated in the transformer itself is transferred by conduction through the solid
insulation to the oil, which by convection effects, either alone or aided by forced circulation,
flows over the cooling surfaces. The tenderer should provide the physical and the chemical
composition and the replacement cycle over the expected life of the transformer.

2.1.4 COST EVALUATION

The cost of energy losses dissipated in a transformer over its life can be as high as five times its
initial cost. Energy costs are expected to continue escalating at a much faster rate than the cost of
material or labor. Thus, a growing number of buyers are not only giving considerations to, but
also quantifying and evaluating the efficiency of transformers. The purchase decision is based
not just on the initial purchase price but also on the cost of installation, maintenance and the
energy cost over the life of the unit.

Capitalization of transformer losses has been further simplified by applying one formula for the
assessment of total operating costs for all distribution transformers under all service and loading
conditions.

22
2.2 TRANSFORMER TENDER FOLLOW UP

2.2.1 TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) DURING MANUFACTURE

Unlike many items of electrical power plant (for example, switchgear and motors) most
transformers are still virtually handmade, little or no mass production is employed in
manufacture and each is produced very much as a one-off. This means that the user cannot rely
on extensive type testing of pre-production prototypes to satisfy himself that the design and
manufacture renders the transformer fit for service, but must have such proving as is considered
necessary carried out on the transformer itself.

Tests during manufacture

As part of the manufacturer’s QA system some testing will of necessity be carried out during
manufacture. These are:

• Core-plate checks. Incoming core plate is checked for thickness and quality of insulation
coating. A sample of the material is cut and built up into a small loop known as an Epstein
Square from which a measurement of specific loss is made. Core-plate insulation resistance
should be checked to ensure that the transformer manufacturer’s specified values are
achieved. The actual method to be used should be agreed between purchaser and supplier.

• Core-frame insulation resistance. This is checked by Megger and by application of a 2 kV

r.m.s. or 3 kV DC test voltage on completion of erection of the core. These checks are
repeated following replacement of the top yoke after fitting the windings. A similar test is
applied to any electrostatic shield and across any insulated breaks in the core frames.

• Core-loss measurement. If there are any novel features associated with a core design or if the
manufacturer has any other reason to doubt whether the guaranteed core loss will be
achieved, then this can be measured by the application of temporary turns to allow the core to
be excited at normal flux density before the windings are fitted.

23
• Winding copper checks. If continuously transposed conductor is to be used for any of the
windings, strand-to-strand checks of the enamel insulation should be carried out directly the
conductor is received in the works.

• Tank tests. The first tank of any new design should be checked for stiffness and vacuum-
withstand capability. All welds are painted for this test with a flat white paint which aids
detection of any leaks.

Final testing

Final works tests for a transformer fall into three categories:

• Tests to prove that the transformer has been built correctly. These include ratio, polarity,
resistance, and tap change operation.

• Tests to prove guarantees. These are losses, impedance, temperature rise, noise level.

• Tests to prove that the transformer will be satisfactory in service for at least 30 years.These
include all the dielectric or overvoltage tests, and load current runs.

These final tests can be found in BS171.This is an international standard set by the
British.The tests in the British standard include:

a) Routine tests

All transformers are subjected to the following tests:

1. Voltage ratio and polarity.- Measurements are made on every transformer to ensure that the
turns ratio of the windings, tapping positions and winding connections are correct.
2. Winding resistance-The DC resistances of both HV and LV windings can be measured
simply by the voltmeter/ammeter method, and this information provides the data necessary to
permit the separation of I2R and eddy-current losses in the windings. This is necessary in
order that transformer performances may be calculated at any specified temperature.

24
3. Impedance voltage, short-circuit impedance and load loss.
4. Dielectric tests.
a) Separate source AC voltage.
b) Induced overvoltage.
c) Lightning impulse tests.
5. No-load losses and current.
6. On-load tap changers, where appropriate.

b) Type tests

Type tests are tests made on a transformer which is representative of other transformers to
demonstrate that they comply with specified requirements not covered by routine tests.

1. Temperature rise test.

2. Noise level test.
c) Special tests

Special tests are tests, other than routine or type tests, agreed between manufacturer and
purchaser, for example:

1. Test with lightning impulse chopped on the tail.

2. Zero-sequence impedance on three-phase transformers.
3. Short-circuit test.
4. Harmonics on the no-load current.
5. Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors.

The requirement for type or special tests to be performed, or for any tests to be performed in the
presence of the purchaser or his representative, must be determined for particular contracts.

25
2.2.2 TRANSFORMER DISPATCH

For many other large transformers (grid bulk-supplies transformers, power-station and unit
transformers, primary distribution transformers), it is usually only necessary to ship these
without oil to ensure that they are comfortably within the appropriate transport limits, although it
is necessary to check that when mounted on the transport vehicle the height is within the
overbridge clearances. If the tank has been drained for transport, it is necessary for the oil to be
replaced either by dry air or nitrogen, which must then be maintained at a slight positive pressure
above the outside atmosphere to ensure that the windings remain as dry as possible while the oil
is absent. This is usually arranged by fitting a high-pressure gas cylinder with a reducing valve to
one of the tank filter valves and setting this to produce a slow gas flow sufficient to make good
the leakage from the tank flanges. A spare cylinder is usually carried to ensure continuity of
supply should the first cylinder become exhausted. Transporters for the larger transformers
consist of two beams which span front and rear bogies and allow the tank to sit between them
resting on platforms which project from the sides of the tank. Thus the maximum travelling
height is the height of the tank itself plus the necessary ground clearance (usually taken to be 75
mm but capable of reduction for low bridges). Smaller transformers, i.e. primary distribution
transformers having ratings of up to 30 MVA, can usually be shipped completely erected and full
of oil.

2.2.3 SITE ERECTION AND INSTALLATION.

In view of their size and weight, most transformers present special handling problems on site.
The manufacturer in his works will have crane capacity, possibly capable of lifting up to 260
tonnes based on transport weight limit including vehicles of 400 tonnes, but on-site such lifts are
out of the question except in the turbine hall ofa power station where a permanent crane will
probably have been installed for lifting the generator stator and rotor. Site handling is therefore
difficult and must be restricted to the absolute minimum. The transformer plinth should be
completed and clear access available, allowing the main tank to be placed directly onto it when it
arrives on site.

26
A good access road must also be available, as well as the surface over any space between access
road and plinth. Transformer and vehicle can then be brought to a position adjacent to the plinth.
The load is then taken on jacks and the transport beams removed. Then, using a system of
packers and jacks, the tank is lowered onto a pair of greased rails along which it can be slid to its
position over the plinth. The required position of the tank on the plinth must be accurately
marked, particularly if the transformer is to mate up with metal-clad connections on either the
LV or HV side. When the tank is correctly positioned on the plinth it must then be carefully
examined for any signs of damage or any other indication that it might have been mishandled
during transport.

Any special provisions by way of protection applied during transport must be removed. If
additional clamping has been applied to the core and windings for transport, this must be
released or removed according to the instruction manual. The coolers and pipework, if they have
been removed for transport, are installed. Bushings and turrets which will probably also have
been removed for transport are fitted and connected, requiring the removal of blanking plates
giving access to the tank. Such opening of the tank must be kept to a minimum time, to reduce
the possibility of moisture entering the tank; to assist in this, manufacturers of large high-voltage
transformers provide equipment to blow dry air into the tank and thus maintain a positive
internal pressure. If the transformer has been transported with the tank full of nitrogen, it is
necessary to purge this fully with dry air if anyone has to enter the tank.

When all bushings have been fitted, access covers replaced, and conservator and Buchholz
pipework erected, any cooler bank erected and associated pipework installed or tank-mounted
radiators fitted, preparations can begin for filling with oil. Even if the transformer is not required
for service for some months, it is desirable that it should be filled with oil as soon as possible and
certainly within three months of the original date of draining the oil in the factory. If it is being
kept in storage for a period longer than three months at some location other than its final
position, it should similarly be filled with oil.

27
2.2.4 COMMISSIONING.

Examination upon arrival.

Upon arrival, the transformer should be unpacked and thoroughly examined for possible damage
which may have occurred during transit. This should include items such as:

 drain valves

 selector switches

 Conservator tanks

 Buchholz relays

 Winding temperature indicators.

The transformer should be tested for winding insulation resistance and the readings confirmed as
acceptable.

The complete unit should be signed for according to the result of this examination and any
damage found should be reported to the carriers and to the manufacturer as soon as
possible(should be within three days), for otherwise a claim cannot be lodged with the
responsible party.

⇒ When receiving oil which has been dispatched separately in drums, each drum should
first be examined to ascertain if the seal is intact, and if found broken the supplier should
be advised.

⇒ If the oil sent in steel drums cannot be used immediately it arrives, the drums should be
placed in a dry, warm place, in such a position that there is a head of oil on the stopper or
plug to prevent the entry of water during storage.

⇒ Drums should not be stored on end, as moisture would be liable to collect in the dished
ends.

⇒ The seal should not be broken until the oil is required for filling the transformer tank.

28
 ⇒ If between-core tests are required on transformer feeder cables after installation, then a
link box must be provided to disconnect the cable from the transformer windings.
⇒ If transformer covers are taken off to achieve internal disconnection the tools used must
be clean and secured externally by white tape so that they may be recovered if
inadvertently dropped.
⇒ All nuts and washers must be accounted for and all operatives should be asked to empty
their pockets while working over the open tank.
⇒ Water proof covers should be provided during the period when the transformer tank is
open.
⇒ Transformer diagrams should be inspected and the phasing diagram confirmed as correct.
⇒ Before energizing, the voltage selector must be set on the appropriate tapping having
regard to the voltage level of the system.
⇒ Transformers to operate on parallel must be set on the same tapping and should be
checked as having the same impedance.
⇒ Voltage selectors should be locked in their set position and if they are of the “off circuit”
type, they must not be adjusted without the supply first being switched off.
⇒ Earthing arrangement for the tank and the neutral must be confirmed and completed
before testing and commissioning.

The following should also be checked on the particular type of transformer as appropriate:

Oil immersed naturally cooled

It should be ensured that the oil level is adequate and that the breather tubes are clear. Silica gel
units should be commissioned by removing the air tight seals from the canisters and filling the
oil sealing-well to the correct level with transformer oil.

The colour of silica gel must be checked and the filling changed if it shows dampness.(red for
wet, blue for dry).

Dry-type transformers.

Compared with its oil-filled counterpart, installation of a dry-type transformer is a very much
simpler operation. Many of the aspects to be considered are, however, similar. These are more

29
susceptible to external damage thus they should be carefully handled and stored on site. They
should be kept in a dry, warm atmosphere until they are put in service to prevent ingress of
moisture. Satisfactory insulation tests are imperative before commissioning.

The following electrical checks should be made before any connections are made to the
transformer:

• Insulation resistance, between all windings and each winding to earth.

• Voltage ratio on all taps.

• Phasor group check.

They should be checked for any accumulation of dust or dirt which can block the air ducts and
reduce the flow of air since they are wholly dependent on surface radiation and air convection for
cooling. Damp dust leads to tracking (a leakage of current between two insulated points due to
dirt, carbon particles, moisture, etc.) and causes expensive damage hence cleanliness is essential,
particularly where the connection leads leave the windings and at the terminal supports.

Askarel-filled transformers

These are hermetically sealed so that the liquid cannot become contaminated with damp
atmosphere. The light metal foil diaphragm used to relieve pressure must be checked as it can
rupture by surging of the fluid during transit. Any leaks must receive immediate attention.

Site commissioning
It is vital that tests be carried out at site as thoroughly and as carefully as possible. These may
include:

• Ratio measurement on all taps.

• Phasor group check.

• Winding resistance measurements on all taps.

• Operation of tapchanger up and down its range. Check the continuity of tapped winding
throughout the operation.

• Insulation resistance between all windings and each winding to earth.

30
 • Insulation resistance core-to-earth, core-to-frame and core frame-to-earth.

• No-load current measurement at reduced voltage; very likely this will be done at 415 V
and compared with the current obtained at the same voltage in the works.

• Oil samples taken and checked for breakdown strength and moisture content. For a large,
important transformer for which the oil is to be tested periodically for dissolved-gas
content this sample would also be checked for gas content and taken as the starting point.

• All control, alarms, protection and cooler gear checked for correct operation Alarm
settings and protection trips set to appropriate level for initial energisation.

• Tank and cooler earth connections checked as well as the earthing of the HV neutral, if
appropriate.

Insulators outside the tank should be cleaned with a dry cloth. The transformer tank and cover
should be effectively earthed in a direct and positive manner while, in order to comply with any
statutory regulations, the low-voltage neutral point of substation and similar transformers should
also be earthed. In unattended substations it is an advantage to fit each transformer with a
maximum indicating thermometer, so that a check can be kept upon the temperature rise.

The setting of alarms is dependent on local ambient and loading conditions, but is usually based
on the BS maximum oil temperature rise of 600C. Alarm thermometers, which depend upon oil
temperature, might be set at 85 and 900C respectively to take account of the inherent time lag
between maximum and top oil temperatures. Winding temperature indicators, which more
closely follow variations of winding temperature, are used for all large transformers and might
have a warning alarm set at 1050C and a trip at 1100C: these values are similarly subject to local
ambient and loading conditions.

It must be borne in mind that there will be a temperature gradient between the actual
maximum temperature of the copper conductors and that registered in the top of the oil, the
former, of course, being the higher. This accounts for the differences suggested between the
permissible continuous temperature and the alarm temperatures. Protection settings may be set to
a lower level than the recommended permanent settings for the initial energisation. If the
transformer is not required to operate in parallel with other transformers, the voltage may now be
applied. It is desirable to leave the transformer on no-load for as long a period as possible
preceding its actual use, so that it may be warmed by the heat from the iron loss, as this

31
minimizes the possible absorption of moisture and enables any trapped air to be dispelled by the
convection currents set up in the heated oil. The same objective would be achieved by switching
in directly on load, but for transformers fitted with gas-actuated relay protection the supply may
be interrupted by the dispelled gas from the oil actuating the relay, which could then trip the
supply breaker. If, however, the transformer has to operate in parallel with another unit, it should
be correctly phased in, as described in the chapter dealing with parallel operation, before
switching on the primary voltage. It is essential that the secondary terminal voltages should be
identical, otherwise circulating currents will be produced in the transformer windings even at no-
load.

32
2.3 FAILURES AND MAINTENANCE AFTER INSTALLATION.

The modern transformer is a very reliable piece of electrical equipment and however infrequent
breakdowns may be, they must be guarded against and all steps taken to maintain continuity of
supply. There should me means of indicating the development of a fault within the transformer,
particularly in the in the initial stages ,to avoid major breakdowns and sudden failure of the
power supply. The life of a transformer depends also on loading.

A gas-operated relay, the Buchholz relay is designed for this particular duty and depends for its
operation on the fact that most internal faults within the transformer generate gases.A Buchholz
relay, also called a gas relay or a sudden pressure relay, is a safety device mounted on some oil-
filled power transformers, equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a conservator.
It is installed in the pipe line betweeen the transformer and its conservator tank. The Buchholz
Relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the
equipment.

The relay has two different detection modes. On a slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to
slight overload, gas produced by decomposition of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the
relay and forces the oil level down. A float operated switch in the relay is used to initiate an
alarm signal. This same switch will also operate on low oil level, such as a slow oil leak.

If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows rapidly into the conservator. This flow
of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the path of the moving oil. This switch
normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the apparatus before the fault causes additional
damage. Buchholz relays have a test port to allow the accumulated gas to be withdrawn for
testing. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates some internal fault such as overheating or
arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only indicate low oil level or a leak.

Some of the faults against which the relay will give protection are:

1. Core-bolt insulation failure

2. Short-circuited core laminations

33
 3. Bad electrical contacts.

4. Local overheating

5. Loss of oil due to leakage

6. Ingress of air into the oil system.

These would normally initiate an audible or visible alarm. However the following more serious
faults would trip the transformer from the supply:

1. Short circuit between the phases.

2. Winding earth fault

3. Winding short circuit

4. Puncture of bushings.

Fig.2.3.1:A Buchholz relay.

34
2.3.1 TRANSFORMER FAILURES AND THEIR CAUSES.

The transformer consists essentially of a magnetic circuit, primary and secondary coils,
terminals, cooling and insulation and in some cases auxiliary cooling gear and tap changing
equipment. Any of these parts are liable to failure.

Failures in the magnetic circuit.

This includes the cores, yokes and clamping structure.

1. Cases have occurred in core-type transformers of breakdown of the insulation around the
bolts inserted through the cores and yokes for the purpose of clamping the laminations. This
type of fault has the effect of causing local short-circuits between the laminations which
produce intense local eddy currents; if in addition two or more of the core bolts break down,
heavy currents are liable to circulate in these bolts as they form a short-circuited turn through
which magnetic flux passes. The heat generated may also char the coil insulation and cause a
short circuit between turns of adjacent winding. It is now common to practice to clamp the
limb laminations of large power transformers with insulated bands.

2. Failures may also occur of the insulation between laminations and of the insulation between
the yokes and yoke clamping plates. These failures produce large circulating eddy currents
which generate considerable quantities of heat and which possibly damage the core and coil
insulation, also increasing the iron loss of the transformer.

3. During manufacture, the edges of the core and the yoke lamination may have become burred
due to the continued use of worn tools. Unless proper supervision is given to the cutting and
punching process, the resulting burrs will produce local short circuits in the iron laminations
and eddy currents with consequent abnormal heating will occur.

4. It is important to make sure that no metallic fillings or small turnings are present between the
laminations as these are also liable to produce intense local eddy currents and excessive local
heating of the core in the finished transformer.

35
5. High flux density in the magnetic circuit often results in larger magnetizing current in-rushes
occurring when switching a transformer into circuit on no-load. While this current in-rush
generally dies down rapidly, large electromagnetic forces are created while the heavy current
lasts and the windings are thereby strained. The phenomenon becomes more severe the
nearer the transformer is located to the generating source and repeated switching in may
ultimately cause movement of the windings.

6. If the voltage applied to the transformer must be increased appreciably on account of the
needs of the system load, the frequency must also be increased in order to avoid high
magnetic saturation of the core. An increase of voltage must not be accompanied by a
decrease of frequency, as if it is, core saturation may occur with resultant increased iron loss
and abnormal core heating.

7. In older transformers ageing of the core plates may be found to have taken place. This is due
to a deterioration of the material of the laminations and results in an increase in iron loss and
rise in temperature of the transformer. This may eventually lead to a partial or complete
destruction of the coil insulation and to sludging of the coil.

8. The laminations of rectangular shell-type transformers are usually clamped between

substantial top and bottom endplate structures which are tied together by vertical bolts, these
bolts being in close proximity to the chamfered corners of the core. If the bolts are too near
the core, stray flux from the main magnetic circuit into the bolts and the resulting eddy
currents may burn both the bolts and edges of the core plates.

Failures in the windings:

1. A short circuit between adjacent turns of a coil, usually of the high voltage winding, may be
caused by the presence of sharp edges on the copper conductors.

2. A short circuit between turns may result from the dislodging of one or more turns of a coil
caused by heavy external short-circuit across the windings.

3. Occasionally the insulating covering of rectangular wire conductors may not be wound on
the copper as tightly as it should be, in which case it has a tendency to bulge over each face
of the conductor. The configuration of the conductor is therefore masked and in fact it may

36
 appear to be rounded. Consequently the coil winder has some difficulty in making certain
that the conductor has not become twisted in the winding process and short circuits between
turns have arisen as a result of this twisting.

4. Transformers on large systems are usually fitted with adjustable coil clamping for the
purpose of taking up any shrinkage of the insulation which may occur under service. Unless
this adjustment of the coil supports is performed very carefully by an experienced workman,
so that the correct pressure is applied to the windings, some of the conductors may become
dislodged, and a short circuit between turns may occur.

5. Short circuits between turns are almost bound to occur sooner or later should moisture
penetrate the insulation of the coils. Breakdown from this cause is rendered more imminent
still if the coils have been insufficiently impregnated.

6. Drying out a transformer on site may be undertaken by an engineer not fully conversant with
the operation and due to the inexperience the process may be unduly shortened. If normal
voltage or a test voltage is applied while the insulation resistance of the windings is still low,
the insulation between adjacent turns is liable to fail due to the presence of moisture vapor.

7. Cases have occurred where thin ribbon conductors have been wound on edge, direct onto an
insulating cylinder to form spiral-type coils. Such a coil is mechanically weak and the turns
are liable to lay over from the plane normal to the cylinder surface so that the coil becomes
very susceptible to damage in the event of an external short-circuit occurring on the system.

8. If a transformer is subjected to more or less rapidly fluctuating loads, the expansion and
contraction of the winding conductors alternatively increases and decreases the mechanical
pressure on the insulation between turns. As the dielectric strength of most insulation
decreases with increasing mechanical pressure, the windings become more susceptible to
failure should they be subjected to electrical or magnetic shocks.

9. Badly made joints between coils may overheat on load and local carbonization of the oil may
occur. The heat generated at the joint will probably be transmitted to a length of the
conductor of each coil and this may partially carbonize the insulation round the conductors
and eventually result in a short circuit between turns. Such joints may eventually come apart
and produce an open circuit to the winding concerned.

37
10. Coil conductors may be displaced violently on the occurrence of an external short circuit as
the result of unbalanced electromagnetic conditions.

Failures in the oil insulation

1. Moisture entering the oil as a result of the breathing action greatly reduces its dielectric
strength, so that breakdowns from coils or terminal leads to tank or core structure may take
place.

2. As a result of prolonged overloading, deterioration of oil may occur. Excessive oil

temperature accelerates the formation of sludge, water and acids. Gases are also formed
which dissolve in the oil.

3. Corona may take place from sharp conducting edges or smaller conductors if the surface
voltage gradient is high.

4. Narrow oil ducts reduce the life of a transformer because adequate cooling cannot be
obtained. Coil insulation becomes brittle in time and a fault appears between turns.

5. Incase oil level falls, it should be topped up to the correct working level, to avoid transformer
from overheating.

6. Presence of conducting particles held in suspension in the oil may cause a temporary
breakdown, due to the lining up of these particles between bare parts having a voltage
difference.

Failures due to structural defects

1. Insufficient bracing of the leads from windings to terminals may result in these becoming
distorted and even making contact in case of an external short circuit in the system.

2. In case of bad and porous welding and leaky fittings of the transformer tank, oil leakage may
take place.

3. Deposits of ordinary dust and salt spray on the surfaces of bushing insulators often cause
flashover.

4. Lack of sufficient space around the transformer, hence the tank not able to dissipate the
losses.

38
2.3.2 MAINTENANCE OF THE TRANSFORMER.

It pays a lot to inspect transformers regularly in service. As the transformer ages, the insulation
becomes more brittle and it is necessary to be cautious when handling the transformer. At the
same time, the older the transformer becomes, the less likely is it to require frequent adjustments.
Periodic inspection of a large number of transformers on a system may be a costly procedure.
Thus most inspections are not done unless the periodic temperature check shows a rise indicating
a fault. Exposed flames should not be allowed around the transformer when removing the cover
during inspection or when emptying or filling the tank. This is because it has been found in
practice that explosive mixtures may be generated in the conservator vessels or in the top of the
tank.

Periodic inspection should include:

1) Tightening of the coils by means of adjustable clamping screws or by inserting insulating

packing blocks between the top of the high-voltage coils and yokes.

2) All nuts should be examined and thoroughly tightened where necessary particularly those for
current carrying terminals and for the bolts clamping the core and yoke plates together.

3) Insulated bolts passing through core laminations might also be meggered (at a maximum of
2000v) to afford a qualitative idea of the condition of the bolt insulation.

4) Insulators should be cleaned regularly with a dry cloth.

5) If a breather is supplied, the air-drying agent, which is usually silica-gel, should be checked
regularly and replaced or dried as is found necessary.

6) Any moisture which may become trapped at the bottom of the conservator vessel should be
drawn off by means of the drain provided for the purpose.

7) In case any wet oil is removed, clean, dry oil should be introduced to make up for the
removed oil.

39
8) Bushings should be checked for presence of dust, which might lead to flash over, and they
should thus be wiped with a dry cloth. Meggering should also be done on the bushings,
where the dielectric strength is checked.

9) An oil filter press should be utilized to remove solid impurities and small quantities of water
which may have contaminated the insulating oil. In operating the filter, the oil should
preferably be warm as warm and mobile oil is filtered more readily.

10) In case the oil is oxidized, that is , when the acidity of the oil has risen to a value approaching
0.5mgKOH/g, the transformer core and windings should be thoroughly drained and carefully
washed down with a spray or jet of clean oil before the introduction of a fresh charge. The
degraded oil can be returned for reclamation to an oil supplier.

11) Gas samples should be taken from the Buchholz relay after a fault in the transformer. The
most significant gases generated by decomposition of oil are hydrogen (H), methane (CH4),
ethane (C2H6),ethylene (C2H4).Calculation of ratios of the concentrations of the gases present
is a convenient basis for fault diagnosis .i.e. (C2H4)/ (C2H6).

40
CHAPTER 3: DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS CAPITALIZATION OF
LOSSES

With the increasing cost of energy, it is now common practice for purchasers to indicate the
values attached to losses when calling for a tender. Values of losses should be based on full load
losses, the iron loss being valued higher than the copper loss because the iron loss remains
substantially constant while the copper loss varies with the load. This widely used method in
selecting the most economical transformer design is known as capitalization of transformer
losses.

Capitalization formulae will vary dependent on territory and from year to year so that it is
essential that accurate information is provided to enable the manufacturer to tender the most
satisfactory designs.

A complete specification for a loss evaluated power transformer should include

1) evaluation cost per kilowatt of losses,

2) Percent of rated load for the evaluation.

3.1 TYPES OF LOSSES

Transformer losses fall into two categories: no-load losses and load losses. No-load losses
consist of all losses that arise from energizing the primary winding at rated voltage, with the
secondary winding open circuited. These include losses due to eddy currents, magnetic
hysteresis, winding resistance to exciting current, and the losses of dielectric materials. Most
such losses occur because of iron in the transformer core, thus they are commonly called "iron
loss." The no-load losses are the same regardless of load as shown graphically in Fig.3.1. Load
losses are those that vary with load current. They are caused by I2R loss in the transformer
windings and eddy currents induced by stray fluxes within the transformer structure. Most of
these losses occur in the windings, so they are commonly known as "copper loss"; however,

41
this term is somewhat ambiguous because aluminum is commonly used for transformer
windings. These losses vary as the square of the load current as shown in Fig. 3.1. Because no-
load losses are not load dependent, their value expressed as a percentage of transformer load
decreases as the load increases. Load losses, however, are proportional to current squared; their
value as a percentage of transformer load increases as load increases.

Fig3.1: Losses as a function of load of a typical transformer.

Iron loss
The iron loss mainly becomes important in cases where a lighting load is being supplied and in
which the transformer itself remains excited, even though not actually supplying any load. It is
also important in cases where a transformer is working on a low load factor.

A low iron loss is obviously desirable. and in those cases where it represents a continuous 24
hour loss, it may, in comparing tenders, be capitalized at a figure corresponding to the fuel and
other generating costs holding good in the district, such capitalization being added to the quoted
price of the transformer.

Copper loss
It is usual to keep the iron loss as low as possible since it may represent a 24 hour load,so that the
copper loss is correspondingly high in proportion, as the total losses for a given kVA output and
at a specified frequency, voltage ratio ant temperature rise are approximately the same for any
well designed commercial transformer.

42
 Fig3.2: Relationship between no-load and load losses, percent load and efficiency for a typical
transformer.

The cost of producing a specific size and voltage class of transformer is strongly related to
material properties and quantities used in the manufacture of the unit. Transformer size is related
to load losses, magnetic flux density and current density through an equation of the form:

J =K *(Bmax)2*(Acore/s)*%Pcu/Keddy

where J is the current density, Bmax is the flux density Acore is the area of the core cross-section, s
is the mean turn length in the windings, )*%Pcu is the core loss expressed as a percent of total
rating, and Keddy = 1.05-1.2. The constant K depends upon the units. We note that by specifying J
or Bmax the copper loss as function of core geometry is obtained. This also sets core loss since
core size is implied. By itself, this equation cannot be used to design transformers. However, the
equation does indicate the relationship of current density and flux density to geometric
parameters.Since losses are related to the flux, current density and mass of core and winding, the

43
equation provides a direct indication of the effects of varying these parameters on losses. The
designer can do one or more of the following to decrease no-load losses:

Use lower loss core materials or core geometries.

Decrease core flux density by either increasing the core cross section or decreasing the
volts/turn.

Decrease flux path length by decreasing conductor cross-section.

In general, these steps result in increased load losses and cost. Alternately, the designer can
reduce the load losses by one or more of the following:

Use lower loss conductor materials or winding methods.

Decrease current density by increasing conductor cross-section

Decrease current path length by decreasing either core cross-section or increasing

volts/turn.

As expected, these steps result in increased no-load losses and cost.

As indicated, using more materials and operating at reduced B or j can result in improved
efficiency

Total transformer losses as a fraction or percent of the kVA load will always be the minimum
when the no-load losses are equal to the load losses. Accordingly, transformer efficiency is
maximum at a certain loading where the load losses are equal to the no-load losses.

3.2 LOSS CAPITALIZATION FORMULA

The cost of a transformer includes:

1. The initial capital cost.

2. The operating cost (Running cost) -This is the cost of supplying the losses.

The latter cost for a transformer is the cost of supplying the no-load loss and the load loss, so the
total owning cost (TOC) is:

44
TOC = C + K1* NLL + K2 *LL (1)

Where

C = initial capital cost (purchasing costs) [$]

K1 = no-load loss evaluation factor [$/W]

K2 = load loss evaluation factor [$/W]

NLL = no-load loss at nominal voltage [W]

LL = load loss [W]

As a general rule, transformers with lower losses use more and better materials for their
construction and thus cost more. The evaluation process becomes essentially a comparison
between two types of transformer designs: High loss (low cost) design and Low loss (high cost)
design. It is extremely important that the absolute values of loss evaluation factors K1 and K2 are
calculated accurately. They could significantly influence the minimum of the TOC function as all
gains in relatively low capital costs could be marginalized by extremely high running costs (as a
consequence of unrealistically high loss evaluation factors) and vice versa.

Electrical utilities are increasingly required to operate their networks more efficiently and to
reduce the total real running costs of equipment. It can be quite common nowadays to receive
many tenders for even a fairly modest project. The first step therefore is to reduce the number of
tenders to be considered in detail to a shortlist of three or four. This will normally be done by an
examination of the costs. For each tender the total cost can be calculated; this is the sum of the
tender price plus the cost of the losses plus the cost of any special commercial aspects associated
with the offer. Possibly, despite specifying a requirement for a five year guarantee, say, one of
the tenderers might only be prepared to offer a one year guarantee period. Possibly one of the
tenderers will be from overseas so that monitoring of the contract will be more costly, requiring
some extra allowance to be made. Another might require a different schedule of stage payments,
making the financing costs greater. The table below shows a typical initial tabulated series of
costs for six tenders taking account of such factors. It will be seen how the order of preference
can be significantly affected by carrying out this exercise.

45
Although on price alone tender A is the lowest, the extra cost of supplying the significantly
higher losses during the operating life of the transformer make this less attractive overall and
tender D, which on initial examination might appear considerably higher, appears to be the most
attractive.

Table 3.1 Typical price and loss summary for transformer tenders [1]

Tenderer A B C D E F

Price £ 435,000 478,300 495,700 473,600 498,200 520,000

No-load loss kW 28 26 35 32 29 27

Load loss kW 270 290 190 188 265 245

Cost of no-load £ 84,000 78,000 105,000 96 ,000 87,000 81,000

loss

Cost of load £ 175,500 188,500 123,500 122,200 172,250 159,250

loss

Totals £ 694,500 744,800 724,200 691,800 757,450 760,250

Having carried out this initial examination of the tenders to arrive at the position shown in Table
3.1, the next stage is to look at those which appear more attractive in a little more detail. Of those
examples listed in the table, tenders A, C and D are worthy of consideration in greater depth.

Tenderers will frequently submit a tender letter in which they will highlight those aspects of their
bid which they feel might require clarification. This letter might also identify aspects of the
enquiry document which they did not consider to be entirely clear in its requirements and it will
explain any assumptions which they felt it necessary to make. They will also probably include a
detailed description of the transformer offered, including those aspects of their design and
manufacturing processes, which they feel renders their bid worthy of extra commendation, and,
of course, they should have completed the tender schedules included in the enquiry document.

46
This careful scrutiny of the shortlisted tenders will probably result in the need to make some
adjustments to the initial assessment of costs as given in the example above. It is quite common
for tenderers not to include for type testing in their total tender sum, even though they will
probably indicate the price of the tests themselves.

It might be the case that one tenderer can meet the specified noise level without the use of a
noise enclosure, while others cannot. The figures comprising Table 3.1 for the three shortlisted
tenderers can thus be amended as shown in Table 3.2 so that a preferred tenderer will be
identified.

Table 3.2 Amended price and loss summary after study of tender descriptive material [1]

Tenderer A C D

Price £ 435,000 495,700 473,600

No-load loss kw
28 35 32

Load loss kW 270 190 188

Cost of no-load
£ 84 ,000
loss 105,000 96,000

Cost of load loss £

175,500 123,500 122, 200

Extra for impulse

£ 1,500
type test

Extra for £
temperature rise 1,800
type test

Extra for anti- £

vibration 2500
mountings

Revised totals £ 697,000 727,500 691,800

47
3.3 ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY
The commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input
Output power
power i.e. commercial efficiency = Input power

However distribution transformers ,used for supplying lighting loads, have their primaries
energized all the 24 hours in a day but the secondaries supply little or no load during the major
portion of the day, Thus iron loss occurs during the whole day but copper loss occurs only when
the transformer is loaded and would depend upon the load’s magnitude. The efficiency of such
transformers is thus judged on the basis of energy consumption during the whole day. This is
called all-day efficiency.

All-day efficiency= ℎ   24 ℎ⁄ ℎ   24 ℎ

48
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

CALCULATION OF LOSSES ON A 24 - HOUR BASIS

Distribution transformers with different loads were considered. Arbitrary load curves were
considered as below and the corresponding value of total losses on a 24 hour basis calculated:

Number of units:{[Wi+(ld2)(Wcu)]*Hrs},

Where:

Wi = Iron loss

Wcu=copper loss

ld =load

Hrs=Number of hours

LOADCURVE ON A 24 HOUR BASIS

120

100

80
LOAD

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20
HOURS

Fig 4.1 VARYING LOAD.

49
Transformer 1: Wi=50%,Wcu=50%

Number of units:{[0.5+(0.22)(0.5)]*4}+{[0.5+(0.42)(0.5)]*4}+{[0.5+(0.82)(0.5)]*4}+

{[0.5+(0.62)(0.5)]*4}+{[0.5+(0.42)(0.5)]*4}+{[0.5+(12)(0.5)]*4}

= 2.08+2.32+3.28+2.72+2.32+4

=16.72 Kwhr

Transformer 2:Wi=25%,Wcu=75%

Number of units:{[0.25+(0.22)(0.75)]*4}+{[0.25+(0.42)(0.75)]*4}+{[0.25+(0.82)(0.75)]*4}+

{[0.25+(0.62)(0.75)]*4}+{[0.25+(0.42)(0.75)]*4}+{[0.25+(12)(0.75)]*4}

= 1.12+1.48+2.92+2.08+1.48+4

=13.08 Kwhr

Transformer 3:Wi=75%,Wcu=25%

Number of units:{[0.75+(0.22)(0.25)]*4}+{[0.75+(0.42)(0.25)]*4}+{[0.75+(0.82)(0.25)]*4}+

{[0.75+ (0.62)(0.25)]*4}+{[0.75+(0.42)(0.25)]*4}+{[0.75+(12)(0.25)]*4}

= 3.04+3.16+3.64+3.36+3.16+4

=20.36 Kwhr

50
 LOAD CURVE ON A 24 HOUR BASIS
120

100

80
LOAD

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20
HOURS

Fig 4.2 CONSTANT LOAD OF 100%

Transformer 1: Wi=50%,Wcu=50%

Number of units: {[0.5+ (12)(0.5)]*24}

= 24Kwhr

Transformer 2: Wi= 25%,Wcu= 75%

Number of units: {[0.25+ (12)(0.75)]

= 24Kwhr

Transformer 3: Wi= 75%,Wcu= 25%

Number of units: {[0.75+ (12)(0.25)]*24

= 24Kwhr
51
 LOADCURVE ON A 24 HOUR BASIS
60

50

40
LOAD

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
HOURS

Fig 4.3 CONSTANT LOAD OF 50%

Transformer 1: Wi=50%, Wcu=50%

Number of units: {[0.5+ (0.52)(0.5)]*24}

= 15Kwhr

Transformer 2: Wi=25%, Wcu=75%

Number of units: {[0.25+ (0.52)(0.75)]*24}

= 10.5Kwhr

Transformer 3: Wi=75%, Wcu=25%

Number of units: {[0.75+ (0.52)(0.25)]

= 19.5Kwhr

52
A short program on Microsoft visual C++ was developed that could calculate the above values
of losses automatically by just entering the values of percentage losses, the percentage load and
the number of hours for each load on 24 hours. Below is an example of an output where the
values of iron and copper losses are equal, and loads as per the variable load in figure 4.1 above.

Fig 4.4 Software output calculating total loss for a transformer with equal iron and copper
losses.

The above losses are then calculated for say, 35 years and a cost is assigned to the value of one
kilowatt of no-load loss and also to the value of a kilowatt of load loss during the operating life
of the transformer.

Calculation of the cost of the losses is usually done by calculating the total energy consumed in
losses over say,35 years and cost this at today’s energy price.

53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

For the cases considered above,

Case 1: Varying load

It was noted that when the value of no-load losses (iron losses) was lower than the load (copper)
losses, the total value of the losses was the least. This is when iron loss was 25% and copper loss
was 75%. This resulted to a total value of 13.08kwhr as per figure 4.1.

With equal amount of iron and copper losses, the total loss amounted to 16.72kwhr on a 24hr
basis. However, when the value of iron loss was higher than the value of copper loss, the total
loss was highest. For 75% iron loss and 25% copper loss, the total loss was found to be
20.36kwhr on a 24hr basis as per the arbitrary load curve in figure 4.1.

Thus for the varying load on the transformer as per the arbitrary load curve, tender should be
done for a transformer with a low value of iron loss as compared to the copper loss. This would
lead to a low value of total loss and hence less cost after loss capitalization.

Case 2: Constant load of 100%

For this load, the total loss calculated was found to be the same irrespective of the value of iron
or copper loss. This was found to be 24kwhr as per figure 4.2.This would thus represent a
transformer with a very high amount of total losses .For a transformer to supply a constant load,
the values of both losses should thus be maintained as low as possible during manufacture and
this should be considered carefully by the purchaser during tender. The tenderer with the least
value of both iron and copper losses should be selected after the loss capitalization as been
applied.

Case3: Constant load of 50%

From the arbitrary load curve in figure 4.3, a transformer supplying a constant load of 50% was
found to have the least amount of total losses when the value of iron loss was less than the value
of copper loss that is 25%:75%. However, the value of total loss was highest when the value of
iron loss was higher than the value of copper loss that is 75%:25%. Thus for such a load, the

54
purchaser should select the tenderer providing the transformer with the least iron losses after loss
capitalization.

Thus to tender any transformer, the purchaser should ensure that both technical parameters and
losses are very essential considerations. Both iron and copper losses for the transformer should
be calculated and their cost over a number of years considered, which is then added to the initial
cost of the transformer. The purchaser should then select the tenderer with the least cost of both
losses.

From the above results, the different loads show that it is necessary that the purchaser notifies
the manufacturer the type of load that the transformer will be experiencing. This would help the
manufacturer to know the steps to follow so as to produce a transformer with minimum losses.

55
REFERENCES

Books:

1. A.C. Franklin and D.P.Franklin(1983), J&P Transformer Book,12thEdition

.Butterworth&Company Publishers,London.

2. S.Chand&Companyltd(2002), Principles of Electrical Machines, first

edition.S.Chand&Company ltd.,Ram Nager,New Delhi-110 055.

3. Gibbs J.B.(1950),Transformer principles and practice,second edition.MCGraw-Hill

Book company,INC,Newyork,Toronto,Canada.

4. Feinberg R.(1979), Modern Power transformers and practice.The Macmillan Press ltd.

5. Hindmarsh, J. (1984). Electrical Machines and their Applications, 4th ed.. Pergamon.
ISBN 0-08-030572-5.

Internet:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.transformerworld.co.uk/buchholz.htm

Publications:

1. Kenya power and lighting company- Specification for 60MVA power

transformer,132/66/11KV.Document No. KPLC1/3CB/TSP/10/002

56
APPENDIX A

List of National and International Standards relating to power transformers

57
APPENDIX B

C++ code
The following code was used to come up with an easier way of calculating the daily losses for
different iron and copper percentage losses.

#include <iostream.h>
#include <math.h>
#define HRS_IN_DAY24

main()
{
double Wi,Wcu,LD1,LD2,LD3,LD4,LD5,LD6;
double hrs1,hrs2,hrs3,hrs4,hrs5,hrs6;
double Total_loss;
cout<<"Enter percentage iron loss:\n";
cin>>Wi;
cout<<"Enter percentage copper loss:\n";
cin>>Wcu;
cout<<"Enter percentage load:\n";
cout<<"load1:\n";
cin>>LD1;
cout<<"load2:\n";
cin>>LD2;
cout<<"load3:\n";
cin>>LD3;
cout<<"load4:\n";

58
 cin>>LD4;
cout<<"load5:\n";
cin>>LD5;
cout<<"load6:\n";
cin>>LD6;
cout<<"Enter the number of hours for each load:\n";
cout<<"Number of hours for load1:\n";
cin>>hrs1;
cout<<"Number of hours for load2:\n";
cin>>hrs2;

cout<<"Number of hours for load3:\n";

cin>>hrs3;
cout<<"Number of hours for load4:\n";
cin>>hrs4;
cout<<"Number of hours for load5:\n";
cin>>hrs5;
cout<<"Number of hours for load6:\n";
cin>>hrs6;
cout<<"Total_loss is:\n";

Total_loss=((Wi+((LD1*LD1)*Wcu))*hrs1)+((Wi+((LD2*LD2)*Wcu))*hrs2)+((Wi+((LD3*L

D3)*Wcu))*hrs3)+((Wi+((LD4*LD4)*Wcu))*hrs4)+((Wi+((LD5*LD5)*Wcu))*hrs5)+((Wi+((

LD6*LD6)*Wcu))*hrs6);

cout<<"\n\n"<<Total_loss<<"KWHR\n";
return Total_loss;}

59
60