Intro To Electronics P1 PDF

Introduction to Electronics
Mrinal K Mandal
mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Department of E & ECE
I.I.T. Kharagpur. 721302.
www.ecdept.iitkgp.ernet.in
1
People
Instructor:
• Mrinal Kanti Mandal (mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in)
List of TAs:
• Nijwm Wary (RS),
• Indranil Som (RS),
• Navonil Chatterjee (RS),
• Priyajit Mukherjee (RS),
• Shashank Shekhar (MT),
• M. Vamsi Krishna (MT),
• Sebin Philip (MT),
• Baheti Priyanka Sushil (DD) .
2
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Books
 Electric Circuit Theory - Van Valkenburg, Prentice Hall.

 Electronic Circuits Analysis and Design – Donald A. Neamean.
 Digital Logic and Computer Design – M. Morris Mano, Prentice
Hall.
Reference books:
1. Introduction to Microelectronics, B. Razavi.
2. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory – Robert L. Boylestad,
Prentice Hall.
3. Microelectronic Circuits, A.S. Sedra and K. C. Smith.
4. The Art of Electronics, Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill.
5. Electronic Devices and Circuits, David A. Bell.
3
Passive Components
1. Resistor
Thin film carbon resistor Adjustable Rheostat

wire wound
Resistors of different power Circuit symbol

dissipation factors
4
Resistor Colour Coding
• Inside material - A mixture of finely
powdered carbon and an insulating
material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the
mixture together. The resistance is
Thin film carbon resistor determined by the ratio of the powdered
ceramic to the carbon.
Colour codes:
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
•Band A - first significant figure (left side),

•band B - second significant figure,
•band C - the decimal multiplier,
•band D (if present) - tolerance of value in percent
(gold - ±5%, silver - ±10%, no band -20%).
•Resistance – AB10^C ±D%

Example: yellow-violet-red-gold  4.7k Ω ±5%, between 4,465 Ω and 4,935 Ω.
5
Passive Components
2. Inductor
Different form of inductors
Magnetic field lines
• Inductor stores energy in magnetic field.

• Unit is Henry (H).
6
Circuit Components
3. Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor Ceramic capacitor Polyester capacitor
•Ceramic capacitor marking – AB10^C pF ±10%.

•Example – 154 means 15×10000 pF±10%.
Polarized capacitor Non-polarized

symbol capacitor symbol
• Capacitor stores energy in electric field.

• Unit is Farad (F).
7
Active Components
Diode Bipolar transistor
Field effect transistor Operational amplifier
8
Signals
rms values:
Signal generator
Different periodic waveforms
RMS value of a function:
Effect of thermal noise
9
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
10
Electronic Circuits
Mobile phone
Computer motherboard
11
Concept of Ground
• Ground: a common reference point in any electrical circuit that may or may not
physically connected to the Earth.
• High power circuits: exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent
user contact with dangerous voltage if electrical insulation fails.
Connections to ground limit the build-up of static electricity when handling
flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices.
• In some power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one
conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor.
• In portable electronic devices, a large conductor attached to one side of the

power supply acts as a "ground”.
Signal ground Chassis ground Earth ground
12
Concept of Ground
• Planet earth is not a good conductor of dc voltage.
C D
A B
1kΩ 1kΩ
1kΩ 1kΩ
Planet RCD = ?
RAB = ? earth
PCB
ground
A typical earthing electrode. Printed circuit board (PCB)

13
Thevenin’s Theorem
Any two-terminal linear, bilateral network containing impedances and energy
sources can be represented by an independent voltage source VTh and a single
impedance ZTh.
VTh is the open circuit output voltage, ZTh is the impedance viewed at the terminals
when all independent energy sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
Rth
A
A
Black +
box Vth
-
B
B
 VTh calculation:
Calculate the no load output voltage. It is equal to VTh.
 RTh calculation:
Remove if any load.
Replace all sources by their input impedances.
Compute the total resistance between the load terminals. 14
Example
Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalence of the following circuit.
•VTh calculation:
2 kΩ
A
1 kΩ 7.5 V
+
-
B
•RTh calculation:
15
Norton’s Theorem
Any two-terminal linear, bilateral network containing impedances and energy
sources can be represented by an independent current source IN in parallel with a
single impedance ZN (admittance YN).
IN is the short-circuit current between the terminals, ZN is the impedance viewed at
the terminals when all independent energy sources are replaced by their internal
impedances.
A
A
Black
IN RN
box
B
B
 IN calculation:
Short the output terminals and calculate current through it.
 RN calculation:
The same as RTh.
16
Example
Obtain the Norton’s equivalence of the previous circuit.
•IN calculation:
•RN calculation:
17
Source Transformation
Rth
A A
A
Black + IN RN
box Vth
-
B B
B
Voltage source Current source
Calculations:
RTh  RN
VTh  I N RN
VTh
IN 
RTh
Voltage source Current source
18
Example
Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent of the following circuit.
•RTh calculation:
RTh = {(2||2) + 1} || 2 Ω
= 1Ω
•VTh calculation:
 
  
19
Capacitor Circuit
dv  t 
Instantaneous current: i  t  
dt
dv  t 
C
dt
 CV0 cos t [ for v  t   V0 sin t ]
 
 CV0 sin  t  
 2
 
 I 0 sin  t  
 2
Current leads the phase of input voltage by 900.
Instantaneous power expended in charging:

Current and voltage wave forms.
1
p  t   v  t  i  t   CV02 sin 2t
2
t1
1
Energy delivered in time interval t1: Wt1  t    p  t  dt  CV0 1  cos 2t1 
2
0
4
1
Energy delivered in n half-cycles: Wn  CV02 1  cos 2n   0
4 20
Capacitor Circuit
1 1
Capacitive reactance: xC   [where s    j ].
jC sC
Joule loss due to an ideal capacitor is zero.
Representation of non-ideal capacitor.
Series and parallel connections:
1 1 1 1
   ... 
Ceq  C1  C2  ...  Cn Ceq C1 C2 Cn
21
Inductor Circuit
di  t 
Instantaneous voltage: v  t  
dt
di  t 
L
dt
 L I 0 cos t [ for i  t   I 0 sin t ]
 V0 cos t.
Current lags the phase of input voltage by 900.
Instantaneous power expended in charging:

1
p  t   v  t  i  t    LI 02 sin 2t
2
t1
1
Energy delivered in time interval t1: Wt1  t    p  t  dt  LI 02 1  cos 2t1 
0
4
1
Energy delivered in n half-cycles: Wn  LI 02 1  cos 2n   0
4
Inductive reactance: xL  j L  sL [where s    j ].
22
Inductor Circuit
Joule loss due to an ideal inductor is zero.
Representation of non-ideal inductor.
Series and parallel connections:
1 1 1 1
   ...  Leq  L1  L2  ...  Ln
Leq L1 L2 Ln
23
RC Circuit
Frequency domain analysis:
1 jC
vc  vin
R  1 jC
vc 1 1
  
vin 1  jCR 1  sCR
vc 1
RC circuit | | (transfer function)
vin 1  CR 
2
(Lowpass filter)
 f  0, gain 1
Pout 1 vout 1 LPF
Half-power points:    . f  , gain  0
Pin 2 vin 2
1 1

1  CR 
2
2
Log100.5 = -0.301
 1  CR   2
2
1 3dB 1
  3dB ,  f3dB   •f3dB: cut-off frequency (fc).
RC 2 2 RC
24
CR Circuit
R
vR  vin
R  1 jC
vR jCR sCR
  
vin 1  jCR 1  sCR
vR CR
| | (transfer function)
vin 1  CR 
2
CR circuit
(High pass filter)
 f  0, gain  0
Half-power points: HPF
f  , gain 1
CR 1

1  CR 
2
2
1
  3dB ,
RC
 1
 f 3dB  3dB  . The same as RC circuit.
2 2 RC
25
Comparison of CR & RC Frequency Responses
VR = RI
I
θ
V = ZI VC = jxCI
RC circuit Phasor diagram CR circuit
Low pass filter High pass filter

26
LR & RL Circuits
Frequency domain analysis:
V = ZI
VL = jxLI
θ
I
VR = RI
Phasor diagram
RL circuit
Output voltage across the inductor: Output voltage across the resistor:
j L R
vL  vin vR  vin
R  j L R  j L
vL L v R
| | (transfer function)  | R | (transfer function)
vin R   L  R 2   L 
2
2 vin 2
 f  0, gain  0  f  0, gain 1
HPF LPF
f  , gain 1 f  , gain  0
R R
•Half-power points for the both cases: 3dB  rad / S , f3dB  Hz.
L 2 L 27
Time Domain Analysis
Steady-state response: f s (t )  Lt f (t )
t 
Transient response: response before the steady is achieved.


Laplace transform: L [ f (t )]  F ( s)   f (t ) e st dt , f (t )  K e at , a :real and positive, K :constant
0
Re( s) > 0
  iT
1
 L  
-1
Inverse Laplace transform: f (t ) [ F ( s )] e st F ( s) ds
2 i   iT
Unit step function: U (t ) 1, t  0

 0, t  0 1
U(t)

1
L [U (t )]  
0
e st dt 
s t
28
Time Domain Analysis
1
Exponential function: L [e ] 
at
sa
dy
Differentiation: L [ ]  sY ( s)  y (0 ) , y (0 ) is the initial value of y(t )
dt
t
1
Integration: L [ 0 y dt ] 
s
Y ( s)

For a sinusoidal wave in steady state:
1 sL
sC
Capacitive reactance Inductive reactance
29
Time Domain Analysis of RC/CR Circuits
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

V t
1
0
vc (0 )   i dt  Ri V U (t ) ...(1)
C0
t=0
RC circuit Taking Laplace transform,

vc (0 ) I ( s) V ...(2)
  R I (s) 
s Cs s
Considering vc(0-) = 0,
VC V 1 
 I ( s)     ...(3)
1  sCR R  s  1 CR 
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
V t CR ...(4)
 i(t )  e U (t )
R
Voltage across the resistor: vR  i R V et RC ...(5)
30
Time Domain Analysis of RC/CR Circuits
Voltage across the capacitor: vC V  vR V 1  et RC  ...(6)
• Time constant of the circuit:

Time taken to drop the voltage across the resistor to V/e.
  RC put et RC  e1  [Euler’s number e = 2.71828…]
1 2 f c ...(7)
• Rise time:
Time taken to reach the capacitor voltage from 10% to 90% of the final value.
Τr = 2.3 RC – 0.1RC
= 2.2 RC
~ 0.35 × 2πRC
= 0.35/ fc. ...(8)
31
Time Domain Response of RC/CR Circuits
vC V 1  e
vR V et RC
t RC

vR / vin = 0.905 at t = 0.1τ
vC / vin = 0.95 at t = 3τ = 0.990 at t = 0.01τ
= 0.993 at t = 5τ = 0.05 at t = 3τ
= 0.007 at t = 5τ
Step response of a capacitor. Step response of the resistor.

32
Example
Draw the output voltage waveform for the following circuit and calculate the rise
time.
Solutions:
At t = 0, the capacitor is shorted, so V0 = 0 and I0 = 10 mA.
Time constant = 1k × 1n = 1 μS.
Now, vC V 1  e 
t RC

•Rise time = 2.2 RC
= 2.2 1k × 1n
= 2.2 μS.
• Calculate the time when the output voltage is half

Output voltage waveform.
of that of the input. (Ans – 0.693 μS)
33
Time Domain Response of RC/CR Circuits
Low PRP (RC<<Ton) High PRP (RC>>Ton)
Ton
RC circuit
Charging phase:
vR V et RC
vC V 1  et RC 
Discharging phase:
vC V et RC

R tR
C
v Ve
Rectangular pulse:
V U  t   U  t  Ton 
34
RC Integrator
Consider the output across the capacitor at high frequency i.e. f >>1/Ton.
vin
Loop current is i  ...(1)
R  1 jC
The frequency condition, 1 C  R gives

Integrator circuit vin
i ...(2)
R
Now, voltage across the capacitor is
1 t
vC   i dt ...(3)
C 0
1 t
 vC 
RC 0
vin dt ...(4) Low pass filter at high frequency
At high frequency, the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the time
integration of the input voltage.
35
RC Integrator Waveforms
Integrator circuit
at very high Input:

vc frequency
Output:
at medium
vc frequency
36
RC Differentiator
Consider the output across the resistor at low frequency i.e. f <<1/ Ton.
vin
Loop current is i  ...(1)
R  1 jC
•The capacitor has enough time to charge up until vc
is nearly equal to the source voltage.
The frequency condition, R 1 C gives
vin i
Differentiator circuit i  vin   vc
1 jC jC ...(2)
dvc
Now, voltage across the resistor is vR  iR  C R ...(3)
dt
dvin
 vR  R C ...(4)
dt High pass filter at low frequency.
At low frequency, the voltage across the resistor is proportional to the time
differentiation of the input voltage.
37
RC Differentiator Waveforms
Some other waveforms.
38
RL/LR Circuits
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

V
di
0 L  Ri V U (t ) ...(1)
t=0 dt
RL circuit Taking Laplace transform,

V ...(2)
L  s I  s   i  0    R I  s  
s
Considering iL(0-) = 0,
V V 1 1 
 I (s)      ...(3) Time constant:  L/ R
s  R  sL  R  s s  R L 
1 2 f c
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
 i(t ) 
V
R
1  e Rt L  , t  0
...(4)
 vR  i R V 1  e Rt L  , vL  v  vR Ve Rt L . ...(5)
39
Problem
A positive square wave of amplitude 10 V and PRP of 1 kHz is applied to the
following circuit. Draw the vR and vC waveforms for R = 1 kΩ, C = 10 nF.
Solution:
Time period of the input wave: 1 mS.
Ton = 0.5 mS
Time constant = 1 k ×10 n Sec

= 10 μS.

t
0.
5m1
0
5
0 

vC max  V 1  eT ON RC

 10 V
40
Thank you
?
mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Ph. – +91-3222-283550 (o)
Department of E. & E.C.E.
I.I.T. Kharagpur, 721302.
41

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Introduction to Electronics

 Electric Circuit Theory - Van Valkenburg, Prentice Hall.

Thin film carbon resistor Adjustable Rheostat

Resistors of different power Circuit symbol

•Band A - first significant figure (left side),

•Resistance – AB10^C ±D%

Different form of inductors

Magnetic field lines

• Inductor stores energy in magnetic field.

Electrolytic capacitor Ceramic capacitor Polyester capacitor

•Ceramic capacitor marking – AB10^C pF ±10%.

Polarized capacitor Non-polarized

• Capacitor stores energy in electric field.

Diode Bipolar transistor

Field effect transistor Operational amplifier

Different periodic waveforms

RMS value of a function:

Effect of thermal noise

• In portable electronic devices, a large conductor attached to one side of the

Signal ground Chassis ground Earth ground

A typical earthing electrode. Printed circuit board (PCB)

Obtain the Norton’s equivalence of the previous circuit.

Voltage source Current source

Current leads the phase of input voltage by 900.

Instantaneous power expended in charging:

Joule loss due to an ideal capacitor is zero.

Representation of non-ideal capacitor.

Series and parallel connections:

Current lags the phase of input voltage by 900.

Instantaneous power expended in charging:

Joule loss due to an ideal inductor is zero.

Representation of non-ideal inductor.

Series and parallel connections:

RC circuit Phasor diagram CR circuit

Low pass filter High pass filter

Transient response: response before the steady is achieved.

Unit step function: U (t ) 1, t  0

For a sinusoidal wave in steady state:

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

RC circuit Taking Laplace transform,

Voltage across the capacitor: vC V  vR V 1  et RC  ...(6)

• Time constant of the circuit:

Step response of a capacitor. Step response of the resistor.

• Calculate the time when the output voltage is half

The frequency condition, 1 C  R gives

at very high Input:

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

RL circuit Taking Laplace transform,

Time constant = 1 k ×10 n Sec

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