PAPER V - ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Unit- I: Electrostatics
Coulomb’s inverse square law – Gauss theorem and its applications (Intensity at a point
due to a charged sphere & cylinder) – Principle of a capacitor – Capacity of a spherical
and cylindrical capacitors –Energy stored in a capacitor – Loss of energy due to sharing
of charges.
Unit -II: Current Electricity
Ampere’s circuital law and its applications - Field along the axis of a circular coil and
Solenoid – Force on a conductor in a magnetic field – Theory of Ballistic Galvanometer
– Figure of merit – Damping Correction – Wheatstone network – Carey Foster’s Bridge
– Potentiometer - Measurement of current, resistance and low voltage.
Unit - III: Magnetism
Intensity of magnetization - Susceptibility – Types of magnetic materials – Properties
para, dia and ferromagnetic materials – Cycle of magnetization – Hysteresis – B-H
curve – application of BH curve–Magnetic energy per unit volume.
Unit- IV: Electromagnetic Induction
Laws of electromagnetic induction – Self and mutual induction – Self-inductance of a
solenoid – Mutual inductance of a pair of solenoids – Coefficient of coupling –
Experimental determination of self and mutual inductance (Rayleigh’s method)
Growth decay of current in circuit containing Land R – Growth and decay of charge in
circuit containing C and R – High resistance by leakage – Charging and discharging of
capacitor through Land R.
Unit- V: AC Circuits
Alternating EMF – Alternating EMF applied to circuits containing L and R – C and R –
Alternating EMF applied to circuits containing L, C and R – Series and Parallel
resonance circuits – Sharpness of resonance– Q factor – Power in AC circuits – Power
factor – Watt less current

Books for Study

1. Brijlal and Subramaniyam – Electricity and Magnetism – S.Chand & Co.

2. R.Murugesan, Electricity and Magnetism, S.Chand & Co.

Book for Reference

1. Narayanamoorthy and Nagaratnam, Electricity and Magnetism NPC, Chennai.

1
 UNIT-I: ELECTROSTATICS

Learning objectives:

After reading this chapter, every student should be able to:

 State Coulomb’s law

 State and prove Gauss’s law in electrostatics.
 Apply Gauss’s law for evaluating the electric field intensity at a point due to a
charged sphere and cylinder
 Define capacitance and capacitor
 Understand the principle of a capacitor
 Calculate the capacitance of spherical and cylindrical capacitor
 Understand the energy stored in a charged capacitor

1.1 Coulomb’s law

“The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of the charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them”.

The direction of the force will be along the line joining the two charges. The force
is attractive if the two charges are of opposite nature and repulsive if the two charges
are of the same type. The force depends on the nature of the medium in which the given
two charges are situated.

Fig.1.1

Let q1 and q2 be two point charges situated at A and B separated by a distance r

as shown in the figure 1.1. 𝑟̂ is the unit vector in the direction from A to B. then the

force (F12) exerted by charge q1 on charge q2 is

2
 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 𝐶 𝑟̂ ----------- (1)
𝑟2

1
Where C is a constant. In SI units, 𝐶 =
4𝜋𝜀0

When the charges are situated in vacuum. Here 𝜀0 is called the permittivity of free
space.

The measured value of 𝜀0 is

𝜀0 = 8.85418 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2 (or Fm−1 )

1
This gives 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2
0

When there is vacuum between the two charges. Coulomb’s law can be written as

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 𝑟̂ ---------- (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Force exerted by 𝑞2 on 𝑞1 is equal and opposite of that exerted on 𝑞2 by 𝑞1 so that

F12 = - F21.

If the charges are situated in a medium of permittivity 𝜀, then the force between the
charges is

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12(𝑚) = 𝑟̂ ------------ (3)
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2

Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (3), we get

𝐹12 𝜀
= = 𝜀𝑟 ------------ (4)
𝐹12(𝑚) 𝜀0

𝜀𝑟 is called the relative permittivity of the medium. It is defined as the ratio of the
permittivity of the medium to that of free space. Another name for 𝜀𝑟 is the dielectric
constant of the material. 𝜀𝑟 is a dimensionless quantity. The value of 𝜀𝑟 for air is 1. In
Equation (2) if 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1, we have

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1×1
𝐹= 2
= (9 × 109 ) 2 = 9 × 109 𝑁
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 1

3
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb.

A coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge which, when placed at a distance

of 1 metre in air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge, experience a repulsive
force of 9 × 109 𝑁.

A coulomb is also defined as the amount of charge that passes through any
cross-section of a wire in 1 second if there is a current of 1 ampere in the wire.

1.2 Gauss’s Law

“The total flux of the electric field E over any closed surface is equal to 𝟏/𝜺𝟎 times
the total net charge enclosed by the surface”.

𝑞
𝜑 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀 --------- (1)
0

This law relates the flux through any closed surface and the net charge enclosed within
the surface. Here q is the net charge inside the closed surface. This closed hypothetical
surface is called Gaussian surface.

Proof: For a charge inside the closed surface

Consider a single point charge +q located at a point O inside a closed surface S as shown
in the figure 1.2. Let dS be a small area element at a distance r from q.

Fig.1.2

1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

The flux through the area dS is given by

4
 d𝜙 = E.dS

= 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 𝑞
= ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑟

𝑞 𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But = dΩ = solid angle subtended by the area dS at O.
𝑟2

𝑞
∴ 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑑𝛺
4𝜋𝜀0

The total flux through the entire closed surface S is given by

𝑞 𝑞
𝜙 = ∮𝑑𝜙 = ∮𝑑𝛺 = × 4𝜋
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0

(∴ The total solid angle subtended by S at O is 4 𝜋, i.e., ∮ 𝑑 𝛺 = 4𝜋).

𝑞
∴ 𝜙=
𝜀0

Gauss’s law holds even if there are a number of charges q1,q2,….qn enclosed by a surface
S. we know from the principle of superposition that the electric field due to a number
of charges is the vector sum of their individual fields.

𝑛
1 𝑄
∴ 𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ∑ 𝑞𝑖 =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑖=1

Q = the total charge inside the surface.

For a charge outside the closed surface

Consider a point charge +q situated at O outside the closed surface as shown in the
figure 1.3. Let an elementary cone from O with small solid angle dΩ cut the closed
surface at two elements of area dS1and dS2. Magnitudes of flux through dS1 and dS2 are

5
equal. Flux through dS1 is an inward flux. Flux through dS2 is an outward flux.
−𝑞 𝑞
Therefore, total flux through dS1 and dS2 = 𝑑𝛺 + 𝑑𝛺 = 0
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0

Fig.1.3

The entire closed surface can be considered to be made of pairs of elements like dS1 and
dS2. Thus the total flux, due to a charge outside, is zero.

Differential form of Gauss law

Suppose the charge is distributed over a volume. Let ρ be the charge density. Then the
total charge within the closed surface enclosing the volume is given by

𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 ---------- (1)

We can write integral form of Gauss law as

1
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀 ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 ---------- (2)
0

By Gauss divergence theorem,

1
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜀 ∫(𝛻. 𝐸)𝑑𝑉 ---------- (3)
0

Comparing Eq. (2) and Eq. (3)

1
∫(∇. 𝐸)𝑑𝑉 = 𝜀 ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 ---------- (4)
0

Since this is true for any volume V, integrands must be equal.

𝜌
∴ ∇. 𝐸 =
𝜀0

6
1.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law

1.3.1 Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere

A spherically symmetric charge distribution means the distribution of charge

where the charge density ρ at any point depends only on the distance of the point from
the centre and not on the direction. Consider a total square q distributed uniformly
throughout a sphere of radius R.

Case (i). When the point P lies outside the sphere

P is a point at a distance r from the centre O as shown in the fig.1.4. We have to

find the electric field E at P. Draw a concentric sphere of radius OP with centre O. This
is the Gaussian surface. At all points of this sphere, the magnitude of the electric field
is the same and its direction is perpendicular to the surface. Angle between E and dS
(dA) is zero.

Gaussian surface

s
R
P 𝐸⃗
O
r Is everywhere perpendicular
to the surface
Sphere of
total charge q
Fig.1.4

The flux through this surface is given by

∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

By Gauss’s law,

𝑞
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝜀0

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

In vector form

7
 1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

So, the electric field at an external point due to a uniform charged sphere is the same as
if the total charge is concentrated at its centre.

Case (ii). When the point lies on the surface. Here, r=R

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

Case (iii). When the point lies inside the sphere

Pʹ is a point inside the sphere as shown in the fig.1.5. P′ is at a distance r from the centre
O. Draw a concentric sphere of radius r(r < R) with centre at O. This is the Gaussian
surface.

Gaussian surface
r
s
O P’
R
Sphere of
total charge q
Fig.1.5

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface

4
𝑞 ′ = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌
3
4 3 𝑞 𝑟3
= 𝜋𝑟 4 =𝑞
3 𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅3
3

𝑞
Here, ρ = charge density = charge per unit volume = 4
3
𝜋𝑅 3

The outward flux through the surface of the sphere of radius r is

∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

8
Applying Gauss’s law,

2)
𝑞′ 𝑞 𝑟3
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝑅3

1 𝑞𝑟
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3

Thus E ∞ r, at the centre of the sphere, E = 0.

1.3.2 Electric field due to an isolated uniformly charged conducting

sphere

In an isolated charged spherical conductor any excess charge on it is distributed

uniformly over its outer surface and there is no charge inside it.

(i) At an external point

Consider a point P near but outside a uniformly charged sphere of radius R with
a charge q as shown in the Fig.1.6. Let σ be the surface density of charge. Then σ
𝑞
= ⁄(4𝜋𝑅 2 ). P is at a distance r from the centre O. Draw a concentric sphere of radius

OP with centre O. this is the Gaussian surface. Let E = electric field at any point on this
sphere. At every point E is normal to the surface. The flux through this surface is given
by

Fig 1.6

∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

9
 𝑞
By Gauss’s law. 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝜀0

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

The electric field is, therefore, the same as that due to a charge q situated at the centre
of the sphere. Therefore, for points outside the sphere, the charges on the conducting
sphere behave as if they were concentrated at the centre of the sphere.

(ii) At a point on the surface

1 𝑞
𝐸= 𝑟̂ ( 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑅)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

(iii) At a point inside

Let P′ be an internal point. Through P′ draw a concentric sphere. The charge

inside this sphere is zero. Hence at all points inside the charged conducting sphere,
electric field E = 0.

1.3.3 Electric field due to a uniform infinite cylindrical charge

Let us consider that electric charge is distributed uniformly within an infinite

cylinder of radius R and ρ be the charge density. We have to find electric field E at any
point distant r from the axis lying (i) inside (ii) on the surface (iii) outside the cylindrical
charge distribution.

Case (i).when the point lies outside the charge distribution

Let P1 be a point at a distance r (> R) from the axis of the cylinder as shown in the fig.1.7.
Draw a coaxial cylinder of radius r and length 𝑙 such that P1 lies on the surface of this
cylinder. From symmetry, the electric field E is everywhere normal to the curved
surface and has the same magnitude at all points on it. The electric flux due to plane
faces is zero. So the total electric flux is due to the curved surface alone.

10
 Fig.1.7

The electric flux due to curved surface

= ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙)

The net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface = 𝑞 = (𝜋𝑅 2 𝑙)𝜌

∴ By Gauss’ law, 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) = 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑙𝜌/𝜀0 )

𝜌𝑅2
𝐸=
2𝜀0 𝑟

Case (ii). When the point lies on the surface of charge distribution (r = R)

Let P2 be the point on the surface of charge distribution

By Gauss’ Law, 𝐸(2𝜋𝑅𝑙) = 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑙𝜌/𝜀0 )

𝑅𝜌
𝐸=
2𝜀0

11
Case (iii). When the point lies inside the charge distribution (r < R)

Let P3 be the point at a distance r (<R) from the axis of the cylinder. Consider a coaxial
cylindrical surface of radius r and length 𝑙 such that P3 lies on the curved surface of
this cylinder.

The charge q′ inside this Gaussian surface = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙𝜌

By Gauss’ law, 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙𝜌/𝜀0

𝜌𝑟
∴𝐸=
2𝜀0

The variation of E with r is shown in the fig.1.8.

E∝ 𝑟 1
E E∝ 𝑟

O R r
Fig.1.8

1.3.4 Field due to a uniformly charged hollow cylinder

Consider a uniformly charged hollow cylinder of radius R (Refer fig 1.7). In this
case, charge is uniformly distributed over cylindrical surface. Let λ be the charge per
unit length. P is a point at a distance r (>R) from the axis of the cylinder. Draw a coaxial
cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length 𝑙. The electric flux due to the top
and bottom circular caps is zero.

The electric flux due to curved surface = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙)

The net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface = 𝑞 = 𝜆𝑙

𝜆𝑙
By Gauss’ law, 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) =
𝜀0

𝜆
∴ 𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

12
The direction of the electric field is radially outwards.

E is independent of the radius R of the charged cylinder.

Let σ be the surface density of charge on the cylinder. If P is infinitely close to the
cylinder, then λ = 2πRσ.

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0

If we construct a Gaussian surface inside the hollow cylinder, it will enclose no charge.
Therefore, the electric field inside a charged hollow cylinder is zero.

1.4 Capacitance of a conductor

If a charge q is given to an isolated conductor, its voltage is increased by an

amount V. For a given conductor, the ratio Q/V is independent of Q and depends only
on the size and shape of the conductor. The ratio Q/V is called the capacitance of the
conductor and is denoted by C.

C = Q/V

The capacitance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge given to the
increase in the potential of the conductor. The capacitance of a conductor is also defined
as the amount of charge that should be given to it to increase its potential by unity.

The unit of capacitance is farad. A conductor has a capacitance of one farad, if a

charge of 1 coulomb given to it raises its potential by 1 volt.

1.5 Principle of a Capacitor

Suppose an insulated metallic plate A is given a positive charge Q and its

potential is V (Fig. 1.9 (a)). its capacitance C = Q/V. Let another insulated metal plate
B be brought near A. negative charge is induced on that side of B which is nearer to A.
An equal positive charge is induced on the other side of B. The negative charge on B
decreases the potential of A. The positive charge on B increases the potential of A. But
the negative charge on B is nearer to A than the positive charge on B. So the net effect
is that the potential of A decreases. Thus the capacitance of A is increased.
13
 Fig. 1.9 (a) Fig.1.9 (b)

The positive charge on B is neutralized by connecting the back side of B to earth

(Fig.1.9 (b)). Then the potential of A decreases still further. Thus the capacitance of A is
considerably increased.

A capacitance in general consists of two conductors one positively charged and

the other earthed. The conductors are called plates. The capacitance depends on the
geometry of the conductors and the permittivity of the medium separating them. A
capacitor is a device for storing charge.

1.6 Capacitance of a spherical capacitor (outer sphere earthed)

Let A and B be two concentric metal spheres of radii a and b respectively with
air as the intervening medium as shown in the fig. 1.10. The outer sphere B is earthed.
A charge +q is given to the inner sphere. The induced charge on the inner surface of
the outer sphere is –q. P is a point at a distance r from the common centre O.

Fig.1.10

14
Electric field at

1 𝑞
P=𝐸 = [ 2 ] 𝑟̂ ---------- (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along 𝑂𝑃

The potential difference between the spheres A and B is given by

𝑎
𝑣 = − ∫𝑏 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐼 ---------- (2)

Here, dI is the differential vector displacement along a path from B to A.

But 𝐸. 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 cos 180° = −𝐸. 𝑑𝑙. Further, in moving a distance 𝑑𝑙 in the direction of
motion, we are moving in the direction of r decreasing, so that 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑑𝑟. Hence,

𝐸. 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟

𝑎
Eq. (2) becomes 𝑉 = − ∫𝑏 𝐸 𝑑𝑟. Putting the value of E from Equ. (1), we get

𝑎
𝑞 𝑑𝑟 𝑞 1𝑎
𝑣=− ∫ =− {− }
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑏
𝑏

𝑞 1 1 𝑞 𝑏−𝑎
= {𝑎 − 𝑏} = 4𝜋𝜀
4𝜋𝜀0 0 𝑎𝑏

∴ Capacitance of the spherical capacitor

𝑞 𝑞 𝑎𝑏
𝐶=𝑉= 𝑞 𝑏−𝑎 = 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑏−𝑎) ---------- (3)
[ ][ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏

Note. Eq. (3) can be written in the form

𝑎𝑏 4𝜋𝜀0
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 =
𝑏 − 𝑎 (1 − 1 )
𝑎 𝑏

When 𝑏 → ∞, 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎

This is the capacitance of an isolated conducting sphere of radius a.

15
1.7 Capacitance of a spherical capacitor (inner sphere earthed)

A and B are two spheres of radii a and b as shown in the fig 1.11. Suppose a
charge +q is given to the outer sphere B. +q is distributed on its inner and outer surfaces
by amounts +q1 and +q2 respectively, so that q=q1+q2. The charge +q1 on the inner
surface of B induces a charge –q1(bound charge) on the outer surface of A and charge
+q1 on the inner surface of A. the charge +q1 on the inner surface of A, being free, leaks
to the earth.

Fig.1.11

The two spheres now behave as two capacitors connected in parallel.

(i) The inner sphere of radius a and the inner surface of outer sphere form a
capacitor of capacitance.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏
𝐶1 = (If the dielectric is air)
𝑏−𝑎

(ii) The outer surface of B and the earth form a capacitor of capacitance
𝐶2 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑏
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏
Total capacitance 𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = + 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑏
(𝑏−𝑎)

4𝜋𝜀0 𝑏2
𝐶=
𝑏−𝑎

1.8 Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor

Consider a cylindrical capacitor formed by two coaxial cylinders A and B of radii

a and b respectively and each of length 𝑙. Air is the medium between A and B. The
outer cylinder B is earthed as shown in the figure 1.12 (a).

16
 If a charge +q is given to the inner cylinder, then an equal charge –q is induced
on the inner surface of the outer cylinder and a charge +q on the outer surface of the
outer cylinder. The charge +q induced on the outer surface of the outer cylinder flows
to the earth.

Fig.1.12 (a) (b)

The electric field at a point P in the space between the two cylinders at a distance r from
the axis is

1 𝑞
𝐸= ---------- (1)
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑟

The potential difference V between the cylinders A and B is

𝑎
𝑉 = − ∫𝑏 𝐸. 𝑑𝐼 --------- (2)

Here, dI is the vector displacement along a path from B to A (Refer Fig.1.12 (b).

Now, E is radially outward and dI is inward. Therefore

𝐸. 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐸 cos 180° = −𝐸 𝑑𝑙

As we move a distance 𝑑𝑙 from B to A, we move in the direction of decreasing r.

So 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑑𝑟. Thus

𝐸. 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑟

17
 𝑎
Equ. (2) becomes, 𝑉 = − ∫𝑏 𝐸 𝑑𝑟

𝑞 𝑎 𝑑𝑟
=− ∫ [From equ. (1)]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑏 𝑟

𝑞 𝑞
=− {𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟}𝑎𝑏 = − {log 𝑒 𝑎 − log 𝑒 𝑏}
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙

𝑞 𝑏
= log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎

Hence the capacitance of the cylindrical capacitor is

𝑞 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= =
𝑉 log𝑒 (𝑏/𝑎)

1.9 Energy stored in a charged capacitor

Let q′ be the charge and V′ the potential difference established between the
plates of the capacitor at any instant during the process of charging. If an additional
charge dq′ is given to the plates, the work done by the battery is given by

q′ q′
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉′dq′ = [ ] dq′ ∴ 𝑉ʹ =
C C

Total work done to charge a capacitor to a charge q is

𝑞 𝑞ʹ 1 𝑞2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝐶 dq′ =2 𝐶

This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the capacitor.

1 𝑞2 1
∴𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 2 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
2 𝐶 2

This energy can be recovered if the capacitor is allowed to discharge.

Energy density. Consider a parallel plate capacitor of area A and plate separation
d.

1 1 𝜀0 𝐴
Energy of the capacitor= 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = [ ] 𝑉2
2 2 𝑑
18
 Volume of the space between the plates = Ad

Energy density u is the potential energy per unit volume.

𝑈 1 𝜀0 𝐴 1 1 𝑉 2
∴𝑢= = [ 2
𝑉 ]× = 𝜀0 ( )
𝐴𝑑 2 𝑑 𝐴𝑑 2 𝑑

1 𝑉
∴ 𝑢= 𝜀0 𝐸 2 =𝐸
2 𝑑

1
Thus we can associate an electrostatic energy density 𝑢= 𝜀0 𝐸 2 with every
2
point in space where an electric field E exists.

1.10 Loss of energy on sharing of charge between two capacitors

Consider two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 charged to potentials V1 and

V2. When they are joined by a wire, they attain a common potential V.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2

𝑉 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 +𝐶2

Total energy of the two capacitors before contact

1 1
𝑈1 = 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 𝐶2 𝑉22 ---------- (1)
2 2

Total energy of the two capacitors after contact

1 2
1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2
𝑈2 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )𝑉 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) [ ]
2 2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

1 (𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2 )2
= ---------- (2)
2 𝐶1 +𝐶2

Loss of energy due to contact.

1 1 1 (𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2 )2
𝑈1 − 𝑈2 = 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 𝐶2 𝑉22 -
2 2 2 𝐶1 +𝐶2

1
= [(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )(𝑐1 𝑣12 + 𝑐2 𝑣22 ) − (𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 )2 ]
2(𝐶1 +𝑐2 )

19
 1
= [𝑐1 𝑣12 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑣22 + 𝑐1 𝑣12 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑣12 + 𝑐2 𝑣22 − 𝑐1 𝑣12 − 𝑐2 𝑣22 −
2(𝑐1 +𝑐2 )

2𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑣1 𝑣2 ]
𝑐1 𝑐2
= [𝑣12 + 𝑣22 − 2𝑣1 𝑣2 ]
2(𝑐1 +𝑐2 )

𝑐1 𝑐2
= (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2
2(𝑐1 +𝑐2 )

Since (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2 is always positive 𝑈2 must be less than 𝑈1 . Hence there is a loss of
energy on sharing the charges.

SUMMARY

 The basic law of force between two point charges called ‘Coulomb’s Law ’. This
law implies ‘action at a distance’, i.e., a charge experiences electrostatic force due
to other charges removed from it.
 Concept of electric flux across a surface. This is used to prove ‘Gauss’s Law’,
which relates the total flux across a closed surface to the total charge inside it,
irrespective of actual location.
 Circuits with capacitors have a time- dependent current. The time constant is
related to the product of resistance and capacitance.

PROBLEMS

1. If 1 coulomb charge is placed at the centre of a cube of side 10 cm, calculate the
flux coming out of any face of the cube.
1 1 1
Net flux, 𝜑 = 𝜀 𝑞 = 𝜀 × 1 = 𝜀 .
0 0 0

As the cube has six faces, the electric flux through each of the cube faces
1 1 1
= 6 × 𝜀 = 6𝜀 =1.884× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟏
0 0

2. How much electric flux will come out through a surfaces S= 10 j kept in an
electrostatic field E=2i+4j+7k?
The electric flux 𝜑 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸. 𝑆 = (2𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 7𝑘) . 10𝑗 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔

20
3. Two point charges, q1=+25nC and q2= - 75nC, are separated by a distance of 3.0
cm. find the magnitude and direction of the electric force that q1 exerts on q2;
and the electric force that q2 exerts on q1.

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹1𝑜𝑛2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

|(+25×10−9 𝐶)(−75×10−9 𝐶)|

=(9.0 × 109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ) (0.030𝑚)2

= 0.019N

4. Calculate the value of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force
of 0.1N when situated 50 cm apart in a vacuum.
q1 q 2
F=K
r2
9 × 109 × q2
0.1 =
(0.5)2
𝒒 = 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝝁𝑪
5. The radii of the inner sphere and outer sphere of a spherical capacitor are
4x10-2 m and 6x10-2 m. If the dielectric medium between the plates is air,
calculate the capacitance of the sphere capacitor if outer sphere is earthed
and the inner sphere is positively charged.
𝑎𝑏
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0
𝑏−𝑎
4 × 10−2 × 6 × 10−2
4 × 3.14 × 8.854 × 10−12 ×
4 × 10−2 − 6 × 10−2

111.02 × 10−12 × 12 × 10−2

1334.47 × 10−14 farad

6. Calculate the capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor if the radii of the inner

and outer cylinders are 2x10-3 m and 8 x10-3m, the outer cylinder is being
earthed and the inner cylinder is given a positive charge. The relative
permittivity of the dielectric medium between the cylinders is 5 and the
length of the cylinders is 6 m.

2𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑙
𝐶=
log𝑒 (𝑏/𝑎)

21
 2×3.14𝑥5𝑥8.854×10−12 ×6
𝐶= 8×10−3
2.303𝑥 log10 ( )
2×10−3

C= 1.203x10-9 farad

QUESTIONS

1. State coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two charges.

2. Define one coulomb.
3. State and prove Gauss’s Law in electrostatics.
4. Explain the differential form of Gauss law.
5. State the applications of Gauss’s law.
6. Using Gauss’s law to find the electric field intensity inside and outside a
uniformly charged spherical cell.
7. Define capacitance and capacitor.
8. A capacitor consists of two concentric spheres. Calculate the capacitance
when (a) The inner sphere is charged and the outer sphere earthed.
(b) The outer sphere is charged and the inner sphere earthed.
9. Derive an expression for the capacitance per unit length of a capacitor
consisting of two co axial cylinders.
10. Prove that, when two charged conductors share their charge, there is always a
loss of energy.
11. Explain the electric field due to a uniform infinite cylindrical charge.
12. Describe the principle of a capacitor.
13. Derive the expression for energy stored in a charged capacitor.
14. What is called Energy density?
15. Write the expression for the capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor of length l.

22
 UNIT- II: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Learning objectives:

After reading this chapter, every student should be able to:

 State and explain the ampere’s law and applications of circuital law.
 Discuss the construction, theory and applications of the Ballistic galvanometer
 Elucidate the principle of Carey Foster’s bridge and how it is used for
measurement of resistance and specific resistance
 Explain the principle of a potentiometer and how it is used for measuring
current, voltage and resistance.
 Realize the condition of balance of Wheatstone bridge network by using
Kirchhoff’s laws.

2.1 Ampere’s Circuital Law

Ampere’s Circuital Law states the relationship between the current and the magnetic
field created by it.
It states that the integral of magnetic field density (B) along an imaginary closed path
is equal to the product of current enclosed by the path and permeability of the medium

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝐼 = 0 𝑖

2.1.1 Applications of Ampere’s Circuital law

1. Magnetic field due to straight long solenoid

2. Magnetic field due to toroid
3. Magnetic field due to cylindrical current carrying infinitely long
conductor

2.2 Field along the axis of the coil using a circular coil

Consider a circular coil of radius a, current i. P is a point on its axis at a distance

from O. Consider two system opposite current elements AB and CD each of length dl.

The distance of P from any point on the circumference of the coil √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 as shown
in the figure 2.1.

23
 Fig.2.1

0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
The field at P due to AB = dB = ( ) 2 ------- (1)
4 𝑎 + 𝑥 2

This is in the direction PL, perpendicular to the line joining the midpoint of AB with P.

E is the midpoint of AB. Let EPO = 

The total magnitude induction at P to the entire coil is

𝑙= 2𝑎 𝑙= 2𝑎 0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 sin 

𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = ∫ ( )
𝑙=0 𝑙=0 4 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2

2𝑎 0 𝑖𝑑𝑙 𝑎
= ∫0 ( ) 2 ×
4 𝑎 2 + 𝑥 √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2

 𝑖𝑑𝑙
= ( 0) 3 2𝑎
4 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) ⁄2

0 𝑖 𝑎2
𝐵= 3⁄
2 ( 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ) 2

If the coil has N turns, then

0 𝑖 𝑁𝑎2
𝐵= 3⁄
2(𝑎2 + 2
𝑥 ) 2

𝑥 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

24
 0 𝑖 𝑁
𝐵=
2𝑎

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎

0 𝑖 𝑁𝑎2
𝐵=
2𝑥 3

2.2 (b) Field along the axis of the solenoid

Let L be the length of the solenoid and N be the total number of turns in its
winding, ‘a’ is the radius of the solenoid (Refer figure 2.2). A current i flowing through
the solenoid. Let find the magnetic induction B at a point P on the axis of the solenoid.

Consider an elementary length dx of the solenoid, at a distance x from P. We consider

be this element AB as a circular coil of radius a containing N dx/L. The number of turns
per unit length is N/L.

Fig.2.2

Magnetic induction

0 𝑖 𝑎2 𝑁𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐵 = 3 ( ) ---------- (1)
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2) ⁄2 𝐿

Let us use the angle  instead of x .then,

x= a cot

dx = - a cosec2  d

25
Substituted these values into eq. (1)

0 𝑖 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2  𝑑 𝑁
𝑑𝐵 = − 3⁄ ( )
2(𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 ) 2 𝐿

0 𝑖 𝑁
𝑑𝐵 = − sin  𝑑
2𝐿

The magnetic induction at P due to the full length of the solenoid

0 𝑖 𝑁 𝛼
𝐵= − ∫ sin  𝑑
2𝐿 𝛽

0 𝑖 𝑁
𝐵= (cos 𝛼 - cos β)
2𝐿

The direction of B is parallel to the axis of the solenoid.

Special cases

(i) At a point well inside a long solenoid 𝛼 = 0, β = 0.

0 𝑖 𝑁
𝐵=
𝐿

(ii) At a point well inside a long solenoid 𝛼 = 0, β = 900.

0 𝑖 𝑁
𝐵=
2𝐿

2.3 Force carrying conductor in a magnetic field

Consider a conductor of length l, area A and carrying current i. It’s placed in the
magnetic induction B at right angles to the length of the conductor and directed into
the plane of the paper (Refer figure 2.3).

The current I, in a conductor is due to free electrons moving into the opposite direction
of the electric current

26
 Fig. 2.3

The magnitude of the force on each electron is f = e vd B

Where, vd be the drift velocity

The number of electrons in the length of the conductor is N = n l A

Total force on all the free electrons, F= f N = (e vd B) N

= (e vdB)(n l A)

But nAevd= i, the current of the wire

F= i Bl

If the conductor makes an angle  then the force is

F= i B l sin (or) vertically F = il x B

Here l is the vector pointing along the conductor in the direction of the current.
Direction of F is perpendicular to both i and B is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

2.4 BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER (BG)

Principle: When current is passed through a coil, suspended freely in a magnetic field,
it experiences a force in a direction given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

Construction: The schematic diagram of BG is shown in the figure 2.4. It consists of a

rectangular coil of thin copper wire wound on a nonmetallic frame of ivory. It
suspended by means of wire between poles of powerful magnet. A small circular
mirror is attached to the suspension wire. Lower ended of the coil is connected to a

27
spring. The upper end a lower end is connected between the T1 and T2. The iron core
concentrates the magnetic field and helps in producing radial field.

Fig.2.4

The BG is used to measure electric charge. The charge has to pass through the coil as
quickly as possible and before the coil starts moving. The coil thus gets an impulse and
throw is registered.

Theory (i) Consider the rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field
of magnetic induction B. let l be the length of the coil and b its breadth.

Area of the coil = A = lb

When the current passes through the coil, the torque of the coil =  = NiBA ---- (1)

If the current passes short interval of the time dt, the angular impulse produced in the
coil is

dt =NiBAdt ---------- (2)

If current passes through for t seconds, the total angular impulse given to the coil is

𝑡 𝑡
∫0  𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 ∫0 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑞 ---------- (3)

28
q is the total charge passing through the coil.

Let l be the moment of inertia of the coil about the axis of suspension and  its angular
velocity, then change in

Angular momentum of the coil = I --------- (4)

I = NBAq ---------- (5)

(ii) The kinetic energy of the moving system (1/2) I2 is used in twisting the suspension
wire through an angle  . Let c be the restoring torque unit twist of the suspension wire.
Then,

Work done through angle  = (1/2) c2

I2 = c2 ---------- (6)

(iii) the period of oscillation of the coil is

2
4 𝐼2
𝑇 =
𝑐

𝑐𝑇 2
𝐼 = -------- (7)
42

Multiplying Equ. (5) and (7)

c T
𝐼 = ---------- (8)
2

c T
Equating Equ. (4) and (7) NBAq =
2

𝑇 𝐶
𝑞 = ( )( )
2 𝑁𝐵𝐴

This gives the following relation between the charge flowing and the ballistic throw 
of the galvanometer q 𝛼 

𝑞=𝐾

𝑇 𝐶
(2) (𝑁𝐵𝐴) is called the ballistic reduction factor (k).

29
2.5 Figure of Merit of B.G (Measurement of charge sensitiveness)

The charge passing through a B.G is given by

𝑇 𝐶  
𝑞 = ( )( ) 1 ( 1 + ) = 𝐾 1 ( 1 + )
2 𝑁𝐵𝐴 2 2

Hence k is the sensitiveness or figure of merit of the B.G. It’s also known as the ballistic
reduction factor.

The charge that should circulate through the coil to produce an undamped
throw of 1 mm in the spot of light on a scale placed at a distances of 1 m from the
mirror is called the charge sensitiveness K of the ballistic galvanometer.
The figure of merit of BG diagram is shown in the figure 2.5.Two resistances P
and Q and key K are connected in series with the accumulator of emf E. A capacitor C
is connected to P through V and Ch of the charge – discharge key. The capacitor charged
with the P.

Fig.2.5

1000in P and 9000 are included .The capacitor quickly charged and discharge
through the B.G. the 𝜃1 is measured. The experiment is repeated different P and Q
values, mean vale of P/1 is calculated

Let the capacitance of the capacitor be C F

𝐸𝑃
Charge on the capacitor 𝑞 = CF
𝑃+𝑄

30
The charge produces a throw 1

1
Undamped throw  = 1 (1 + 2 )

Charge required to produce unit deflections = K

1 𝐸𝑃
𝐾1 (1 + ) = C
2 𝑃+𝑄

𝐸𝑃 𝑃
𝐾= ∗ 1 C/ div
𝑃+𝑄 (1+ 2)

The value of  is obtained by observing the first throw 1 and the eleventh throw 11
and using the relation

1 1 1 1
 = 10
log 𝑒
11
=
10
× 2.3026 log 𝑒
11

2.6 Damping correction in Ballistic Galvanometer

We have assumed that the whole kinetic energy imparted to the coil is used in
twisting the suspension of the coil. In actual, the motion of the coil is damped by the
air resistances and induced current produced in the coil. The first throw of the
galvanometer is, therefore, smaller than it would have been in the absence of damping.

Let 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 … ., be the successive maximum deflection from zero position

to the right and left. Then it found that

1 2 3
= = = ……..= 𝑑 ---------- (1)
2 3 4

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑑 = 𝑒   = log 𝑒 𝑑

 is called logarithmic decrement

1 1 2
For a complete vibration = 𝑥 = 𝑑 2 = 𝑒 2
3 2 3

Let  be the true first throw in the absence of damping.

31
>1 .the first throw 1 is observed after the coil completes a quarter of vibration. In
case, the value of the decrement would be 𝑒 2

  
= 𝑒 2 = ( 1 + )  = 1 ( 1 + 2) --------- (2)
1 2

We can calculate  by observing the first 1 and the eleventh throw 11

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
= . . . . . . . . . = 𝑒 10
11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 1 1 1
 = 10
log 𝑒
11
=
10
× 2.3026 log 𝑒
11
----------- (3)

𝑇 𝐶  
𝑞 = ( )( ) 1 ( 1 + ) = 𝐾 1 ( 1 + ) ----------- (4)
2 𝑁𝐵𝐴 2 2

2.7 Carey Foster Bridge

The Carey Foster Bridge is a form of Wheatstone’s bridge. It consists of a uniform

wire EF of length l meter stretched on a wooden board as shown in the figure 2.6. Two
equal resistances P and Q are connected in gap2 and gap3, the unknown resistance X
is connected in gap1. A standard resistance S, of the same order of the resistance as Y,
is connected gap 4. A Leclanche Cell is connected across AB. A galvanometer G is
connected between the terminal B and jockey D.

Theory

The jockey is moved until the bridge is balanced. Let l1 be the balancing length as
measured from end E. Let α and β be the end resistances at E and F.

Fig.2.6

32
. Let  (specific resistance) be the resistance per unit length of the wire.

From the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge

𝑃 𝑅+𝛼+𝑙1 
= 𝑆+𝛽+(100−𝑙1 )
---------- (1)
𝑄

The resistance X and Y are interchanged and the bridge is again balanced. The
balancing length l2 is determined from the same end E. then,

𝑃 𝑆+𝛼+𝑙2 
= 𝑅+𝛽+(100−𝑙2 )
---------- (2)
𝑄

Figure represents the equivalent Wheatstone’s bridge circuit in the two cases.

From the equations (1) and (2),

𝑅+𝛼+𝑙1  𝑆+𝛼+𝑙2 
𝑆+𝛽+(100−𝑙1 )
= 𝑅+𝛽+(100−𝑙 ---------- (3)
2 )

Adding 1 on the both sides of equation (3) we get

𝑅+𝛼+𝑙1 +𝑆+𝛽+100 −𝑙1  𝑆+𝛼+𝑙2 +𝑅+𝛽+100 −𝑙2 

𝑆+𝛽+(100−𝑙1 )
= 𝑅+𝛽+(100−𝑙1 )

R+α+S+β+100  𝑆+𝛼+𝑅+𝛽+100 
S+β+(100−l1 )
= 𝑅+𝛽+(100−𝑙1 )

Since the numerators are equal, the denominators must be equal

S+ β + 100- l1  = R+ β + 100- l2  ---------- (4)

S- l1  = R- l2 

R= S +  ( l2 – l1) ---------- (5)

To find  : A standard resistance of 0.1Ω is connected in the gap1. A thick copper

strip in connected in gap 4 i.e., Y= 0.1Ω and X= 0. The balancing length l1’ is determined.
The standard resistance and thick copper strip are interchanged. The balancing length
l2’ is determined.

33
From Equ. (5), 0.1= Y+ ( l2’ – l1’)

 = 0.1 / ( l2’ – l1’)

Thus by knowing Y and  , the unknown resistance X is calculated.

2.8 WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE

Four resistances P, Q, R and S form in a closed circuit as shown in Fig.2.7. A cell

E is connected between the terminals A and C .the galvanometer in connected between
the terminal B and D.

Fig. 2.7

By applying the Kirchhoff’s first law, the current along the various branches will be as
shown. We can obtain an expression for the current through the galvanometer by
applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law( KVL).

Applying KVL, to the closed loop ABDA

I1 + IgG - (I- I1) R = 0

Or (P+R) I1 +IgG = I R ---------- (1)

Applying the KVL to the closed loop BCDB

(Q+S)I1 – (Q+S+G) Ig = I S ---------- (2)

Multiplying Equ. (1) by (Q+S)

34
 (P+R)(Q+S)I1 +Ig G (Q+S) = I R (Q+S) ---------- (3)

Multiplying Eq.(2) by (P+R)

(P+R) (Q+S)I1 – (P+R) (Q+S+G) Ig = I (P+R) S ---------- (4)

Subtracting Equ.(4) from (3) we get,

(𝑄𝑅−𝑃𝑆 )𝐼
Ig = --------- (5)
[ 𝐺(𝑃+𝑄+𝑅+𝑆)+(𝑃+𝑅)(𝑄+𝑆)

Condition for balance is Ig = 0 i.e (QR-PS) I = 0

Thus, the condition for the balance of the bridge is

𝑃 𝑅
= ---------- (6)
𝑄 𝑆

2.9 POTENIOMETER

Principle: A Potentiometer is a device for the measuring or comparing Potential

difference (PD). A potentiometer can be used to measure any electrical quantity which
can be converted into a proportionate D.C potential difference.

Fig.2.8

It consists of a uniform wire AB of the length 10 m stretched on a wooden board. A

steady current is passed through the wire AB with the help of a cell of EMF E (Refer
Fig. 2.8). Let

 = resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire,I = steady current passing
through the wire. Let C be a variable point

Let AB = L & AC = l
35
PD across the AB= LI and PD across AC = lI

𝑃𝐷 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐵 𝐿I 𝐿
= =
𝑃𝐷 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝐶 lI 𝑙

𝐿
PD across the AC = x PD across AB
𝑙

i.e., for a steady current passing through the potentiometer wire AB, the PD across any
length is proportional to the length of wire.

2. 10 (a) Find the current using potentiometer (Calibration of ammeter)

Fig.2.9

Connect the emf of the potentiometer wire to the terminals of a standard cell through
a key K1. S is a cell. Connect the ammeter to be calibrated in series with battery, key K2
a rheostat and standard resistance R. When current I passes through the standard
resistances R, the potential difference across R is IR. The potential drop is measured
with the help of potentiometer as shown in the figure 2.9.

Connect 1 and 3 and balance the emf of the standard cell against the potentiometer
.Find the balancing length (l) from A. The potential difference per cm of the
potentiometer = E/l. Connect the 2 and 3 and adjust the rheostat so that the
ammeter reads a value A1. Balance the PD across R against the potentiometer and find
the balancing length l1.

E𝑙1 E𝑙1
Potential difference across R = , Current I(through R) = ampere
𝑙 𝑙𝑅

Similarly, the ammeter readings are determined.

36
2.10 (b) Find the voltage using potentiometer (Calibration of low range
voltmeter)

Connect the emf of the potentiometer wire to the terminals of a storage cell through
a key K1 . S is a cell. Connected the voltmeter is connected parallel to standard resistance
R as shown in the figure 2.10. The PD across R is balanced against the potentiometer.
Let l1 be the length when the voltmeters reads V

PD across R = El1/l

Fig. 2.10

2.10 (c) Find the resistance using the Potentiometer

The potentiometer method of measurement of resistance is used for measuring

the unknown resistance of low value. This can be done by comparing the unknown
resistance with the standard resistance. The voltage drop across the known and
unknown resistance is measured and by comparison the value of known resistance is
determined.

Let understand this with the help of the circuit diagram is shown in the fig. 2.11. The R
is the unknown resistance whose value is needed to be measured. The S is the standard
resistance from which the value of unknown resistance is compared. The rheostat is
used for controlling the magnitude of current into the circuit.

37
 Fig.2.11

The double pole double throw switch is used in the circuit. The switch, when a move
to position 1, 1’ the unknown resistance connects to the circuit, and when it moves to
position 2, 2’ the standard resistance connects to the circuit.

Consider that when the switch is in position 1,1 the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance is Vr=VR=IR
And when it is in 2, 2 the voltage drop across the resistance is Vs=Vs=IS

On equating the equation (1) and (2), we get

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅
= =
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆

𝑉𝑅 𝑅
= =
𝑉𝑆 𝑆

𝑉𝑅
𝑅= .𝑆
𝑉𝑆

The accuracy of unknown resistance depends on the value of standard resistance.

SUMMARY

 Electric charges in motion constitute an electric current. Electric current is

described by a current density 𝑗 (𝑟).
 To maintain an electric current in a conductance, a potential difference needs to
be maintained across the ends of the conductor. This is usually supplied by a

38
 battery or a source which normally converts chemical energy to electrical
energy.
 Circuits or combinations of resistors and batteries can be analyzed using
Kirchhoff’s Laws, which are basically statements of Conservation of Charge and
Conservation of Energy as applied to the circuits and for complicated circuits or
networks.
 Divergence of the magnetic field is always zero. The curl of the magnetic field is
related to the current density by Ampere’s Law.
 Potentiometer and Carey Foster’s bridge can be used to measurement of
resistance.

PROBLEMS

1. A solenoid of 1200 turns is wound uniformly in a single layer on a glass tube 2m

long and 0.2m in diameter. Find the magnetic induction at the centre of the
solenoid, when a current of 1A flows through it.

N = 1200, L = 2m, i= 1A, 0 = 4 x 10-7Wb A-1m-1

1200 ∗1∗4 x 10−7

B = (0 I N/L) = = 0.753 10-3Wb m-2
2

2. The successive throws on the same side of the mean position for an oscillating
coil are 25, 24.9 and 24.8 cm. Calculate the logarithmic decrement.

1 = 25cm ;3 = 25cm ; 5 = 25cm

1  1 25
 = 4
log e 1 = 4
∗ 2.3026 log e 24.8 = 0.02
5

3. The resistances of the arms of a Wheatstone’s bridge are P =5, Q= 5 and R= 5.2
. the resistances of the galvanometer is 40 and the current 0.1 amp. Calculate
the unknown resistances value.

Unknown resistance value:

P =5 Q= 5 and R= 5.2

P R Q
=S S = R.P
Q

39
 5.2x5
S= = 5.2
5

4. In a Carey Foster’s Bridge , the shift in the balance point is 5.4cm when the
strip is 1 resistances are interchanged .1 resistances is then replaced by X
resistances .balance point is 10cm on inter changed. Calculate the X value.

 = (1/5.4)/cm

R= S +( l2 – l1)

= 0 + (1/5.4) * 10 = 1.85ohm.

QUESTIONS

1. State the Ampere’s circuital law.

2. Write an applications of Ampere’s circuital law.
3. Write a principle of Ballistic Galvanometer.
4. Define the Specific resistance.
5. What is Potentiometer?
6. Derive the expression for force carrying conductor in a magnetic
field.
7. Derive the expression for field along the axis of the solenoid.
8. Deduce the condition of the balance of a Whetstone’s bridge.
9. Describe the construction and working of Ballistic Galvanometer
10. Show how to correct the observed throw for Damping in BG.
11. Explain the Figure of merit of Ballistic Galvanometer.
12. Derive the expression for Field along the axis of the circular coil.
13. Explain the necessary theory how a Carey Foster’ bridge used to find
the unknown resistance.
14. Explain the potentiometer and use the potentiometer find the current
and voltage and resistance.

40
 UNIT-III: MAGNETISM

Learning objectives:

After reading this chapter, every student should be able to:

 Define magnetic induction, intensity of magnetization and relative permeability

 Prove the relations: (i) 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) (ii) 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚
 Discuss the classification of materials into para, dia and ferro magnetic and
properties
 Understand the concept of the Hysteresis,Hysteresis loop. retentivity, coercivity

We have seen that when material is placed in an external magnetic field, the
magnetization is induced in the sample. The physical quantity measuring
magnetization is the magnetic moment.

3.1 Intensity of Magnetization

When a magnetic material is placed in a uniform external magnetic field, the

elementary current loops in the material become aligned parallel to the field. The
material is said to be magnetized and acquires the magnetic moment.

The acquired magnetic moment per unit volume is called the intensity of magnetization
and is denoted by M

𝑑𝑚 𝑚
M= =
𝑑𝑉 𝑉

3.2 Relative Permeability (𝝁r)

The ratio of magnetic induction within the sample to magnetizing field when expressed
in same units is called the relative permeability 𝜇 r, i.e., if B is magnetic induction within
sample in tesla and B0 the applied external magnetic induction in free space then

𝐵
𝜇r =
𝐵0

41
In general the magnetizing field is expressed by H and its unit is ampere- turn/metre
and magnetic flux density within the sample is denoted by B (unit tesla or Wb/m2),then
the ratio B/H is called the absolute permeability (𝜇)of material medium.

𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻

The absolute permeability of vacuum is expressed by 𝜇 0 and so

𝐵0
𝜇 0= = 4𝜋 x 10-7 Wb/A-m.
𝐻

The relative permeability is also defined as the ration of permeability of medium to the
permeability of free space i.e.,

𝜇
𝜇r =
𝜇0

Being a fraction, it has no unit.

3.3 Magnetic susceptibility

In simple isotropic materials the intensity of magnetization M is found to be

proportional to magnetic field H and parallel to it.

𝑀𝛼 𝐻

𝑀 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻

Where 𝜒𝑚 is dimensionless constant and is called the magnetic susceptibility of the

material. It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (M) to the magnetic field
intensity (H).

𝑀
𝜒𝑚 =
𝐻

𝜒𝑚
(𝜒𝑚 )Mass = Mass susceptibility
𝜌

𝜒𝑚 𝜌
(𝜒𝑚 )Molar = Molar susceptibility
𝐴

42
Where 𝜌 and A are the density and molecular weight of the material respectively. Here,
𝜒𝑚 , (𝜒𝑚 )mass, (𝜒𝑚 )molar are known as volume, mass and molar susceptibilities
respectively.

We can classify magnetic materials in terms of susceptibility(𝜒𝑚 ). If(𝜒𝑚 ) is positive, the

material is para magnetic. If (𝜒𝑚 ) is negative, the material is diamagnetic. The
characteristic of ferromagnetic materials is that (𝜒𝑚 ) positive and very large. However,
the ferromagnetic material, M is not exactly proportional to H, and so (𝜒𝑚 ) is not a
constant. M may even be finite when H=0.

3.4 Magnetic permeability

Consider the relation 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)

𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)

𝑀
𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + )
𝐻

𝑀
𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + )
𝐻

Where
𝑀
𝜒𝑚 =
𝐻

𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )

Where, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒𝑚 ) is called the magnetic permeability of the material. Magnetic

permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction to the intensity of the
magnetising field.

𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻
𝜇
= (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )
𝜇0

𝜇𝑟 = (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )

𝜇𝑟 is called the relative permeability

43
We may also classify magnetic materials in terms of the relative permeability(𝜇𝑟 )

Diamagnetism:𝜇𝑟 < 1, Paramagnetism : 𝜇𝑟 > 1, Ferromagnetism: 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1

3.5 Types of magnetic materials

On the basis of the behaviour of materials in a magnetizing field, the materials are
generally classified into three categories namely, (i) Diamagnetic, (ii) Paramagnetic and
(iii) Ferromagnetic

3.5.1 Diamagnetic

Diamagnetic substances which get weakly magnetized by a strong magnetic field in a

direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic
substances.

Example: Copper, Silver, Gold, Bismuth, Water, Alcohol

Properties of diamagnetic substances

 The susceptibility has a low negative value.

 Susceptibility is independent of temperature.
 The relative permeability is slightly less than one.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field they have a tendency to move
away from the field. (i.e) from the stronger part to the weaker part of the field.
They get magnetized in a direction opposite to the field(Fig)
 When suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, they set themselves
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field (Fig).

Fig.3.1

44
3.5.2 Paramagnetic

The substances which get weakly magnetized by a strong field in the same direction
as the applied field are called paramagnetic substances.

Example: Aluminum, Magnesium, Tungsten, Chromium

Properties of paramagnetic substances

 Susceptibility has a low positive value.

1
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to absolute temperature (i.e)𝜒𝑚 𝛼 𝑇. As

the temperature increases susceptibility decreases.

 The relative permeability is greater than one.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they have a tendency to move
from weaker part to the stronger part of the field. They get magnetized in the
direction of the field as shown in the figure.
 When suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, they set themselves parallel
to the direction of magnetic field.

Fig.3.2

3.5.3 Ferromagnetic

Those substances which get strongly magnetized by relatively weak magnetic fields
in the same sense as the field are called Ferro magnetic substances.

Example: Nickel, Cobalt, Iron, Steel and their alloys

45
 Properties of ferromagnetic substances

 The susceptibility and relative permeability are very large.

 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. As the
temperature increases the value of susceptibility decreases. At a particular
temperature, ferromagnetic become paramagnetic. This transition temperature
is called Curie temperature.
 When suspended freely in uniform magnetic field, they set themselves parallel
to the direction of magnetic field.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they have a tendency to move
from the weaker part to the stronger part of the field. They get strongly
magnetized in the direction of the field.
 These materials exhibit the phenomenon of hysteresis.

3.6 Comparison of Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic Material Paramagnetic Material Ferromagnetic Material
Magnetic There is no permanent There is permanent dipole There is enormous
Moment dipole moment (or) moment (or) magnetic moment permanent dipole
magnetic moment in each in each atom. moment (or) magnetic
atom. moment in each atom.
Spin No spin All spins are randomly oriented. Spin alignment is parallel
alignment in the same direction.

Susceptibility Susceptibility is always It is always positive and small. It It is always positive and
and its negative. It is is inversely proportional to very large 𝜒𝑚 = 𝐶
𝑇−𝜃
temperature independent of the absolute temperature of the (Curie – Weiss law)
dependence temperature and strength material. (i) For T>θ,
of applied magnetic field. 1 𝐶
𝜒∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝜒 = paramagnetic
𝑇 𝑇 behaviour.
(ii) For T <θ,
ferromagnetic
behaviour
Behaviour of When the material is The magnetic lines of force are The magnetic lines of
material in placed in the magnetic attracted towards the centre of force are highly attracted
the presence field, the magnetic lines of the material. towards the centre of the
of magnetic force are repelled away Bin > B out material.
field from the material. Bin >> B out
Bout > Bin

46
Relative µr is slightly less than 1 µr is slightly greater than 1 µr is very much greater
magnetic than 1 µr>>1
permeability
(µr)
Examples Hydrogen, bismuth, Aluminium, platinum, sodium, Iron, nickel, cobalt,
antimony, gold and super titanium, zirconium and gadolinium.
conducting materials like chromium.
niobium.

3.7 Cycle of Magnetization

The changes in magnetization in a ferromagnetic material lag behind the
variations of the magnetic field applied to it. Thus the intensity of magnetization at
every phase lags behind the applied field.

3.8 Hysteresis

On removing the external magnetic field, a ferromagnetic material doesn’t get

demagnetized fully. In order to bring the material back to zero magnetization, a
magnetic field in the opposite direction has to be applied. The property of
ferromagnetic materials retaining magnetization after the external field is removed is
called hysteresis.

3.9 B-H curve

The magnetization of the material measured in terms of magnetic flux density

(B) when plotted against the external applied magnetic field intensity (H) will trace out
a loop. This is called the hysteresis loop or B-H curve.

A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux
density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An
example hysteresis loop is shown in the figure 3.4.

47
 Fig.3.4

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic

material while the magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has
never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow
the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of
current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point
"a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the
magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has
reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will
move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux
remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to
as the point of retentivity on the figure and indicates the level of residual magnetism in
the material. As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where
the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. The
force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will
again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d").
Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual
magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the
positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin

48
of the figure because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The
curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with
complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material

can be determined.
Retentivity: Retentivity is the magnetic flux density that remains when the
magnetizing force is reduced to zero.
Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux: The magnetic flux density that remains
in a material when the magnetizing force is zero.
Coercive Force or Coercivity: The amount of reverse magnetic field which must
be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero.
Permeability: A property of a material that describes the ease with which a
magnetic flux is established in the component.
3.10 APPLICATIONS OF HYSTERESIS CURVE
The choices of magnetic materials for making permanent magnets, electromagnets,
cores of transformer, ferrites and magnetic shielding can be decided from the hysteresis
curve of the specimen.
1. Permanent magnets: Materials used for making magnets are never taken
through cycle. These materials should have high retentivity and high coercivity.
2. Electro-magnets: The material for the cores of electromagnets should have flux
density with comparatively small magnetizing field and low hysteresis loss, low
coercivity and high retentivity. Soft iron is an ideal material for electromagnets.
3. Transformer cores: Materials for transformer core, telephone diaphragms and
chokes etc., .The material have low hysteresis loss, high initial permeability and
high specific resistance.
4. Ferrites: It is used for memory circuit in computers and also widely used in the
manufacture of components for radio and electrical communication
equipment’s.
5. Magnetic shielding: It is often required to shield the electronic instruments,
watches from magnetic effects.

49
3.11 ENERGY LOSS DUE TO HYSTERESIS (Magnetic energy per unit
volume)
According to molecular theory of magnetization, the molecules of magnetized
or unmagnified magnetic substance are themselves complete magnets. When a
magnetized field is applied, the molecular magnets align themselves in the direction of
the field.
During this process, work is done by the magnetizing field in turning the
molecular magnets against the mutual attractive forces. This energy required to
magnetize a specimen is not completely recovered when the magnetizing field is
turned off, since the magnetization does not become zero. The specimen retains some
magnetization because some of the molecular magnets remain aligned in the new due
to the group forces. To tear them out completely, a coercive force in the reverse
direction has to be applied. Thus, there is a loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic
material through a cycle of magnetization. This loss of energy is called hysteresis loss
and appears in the form of heat.
Consider a magnetic material having n molecular magnets per unit volume. Let
m be the magnetic moment of each magnet and 𝜃 the angle which its axis makes with
the direction magnetizing field H.
The magnetic moment m of the molecular magnet can be resolved into a
component 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 in the direction of H and 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 perpendicular to H. The component
𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 alone contributes to the magnetising field and the component 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 has no
effect on the magnetization of the specimen.
If M be the intensity of magnetisation, then
𝑀 = ∑ 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ---------- (1)
Differentiating equation (1)
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑑 ∑ 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = - ∑ 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ---------- (2)
When M increases to M+dM, 𝜃decreases𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃.
The work done by the field in decreasing 𝜃 by 𝑑𝜃 is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐶 𝑑𝜃 ---------- (3)
Here, C= torque for unit deflection= 𝜇0 𝑚 𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜇0 𝑚 𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × (−𝑑𝜃)
= −𝜇0 𝑚 𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ---------- (4)
50
The work done by the applied field is
∑ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝜇0 𝐻 × (− ∑ 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
∑ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝜇0 𝐻 × 𝑑𝑀 From equation (2)
= 𝜇0 𝐻 × 𝑑𝑀
Thus work done by the magnetizing field per unit volume of the material for
completing cycle is,
𝑊 = ∮ 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑑𝑀 =∮ 𝐻 𝜇0 × 𝑑𝑀 ---------- (5)
Now 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) For ferromagnetics,𝑀 ≫ 𝐶.So 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑀
i.e.,
𝑑𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑑𝑀
From equation (5) and (6),

𝑊 = ∮ 𝐻𝑑𝐵

Thus, the work done per unit volume of the material per cycle is equal to the area of
the B-H loop or 𝜇0 times the area of the M-H loop. This work is measured in joule/m3
Per cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat.

SUMMARY

 There are three kinds of materials with magnetic properties - paramagnetic,

diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.
 Magnetic properties are due to the atomic magnetic dipole moments created by
or induced in electrons in atoms.
 Paramagnetic materials are those with permanent atomic magnetic dipole
moments. In a non-uniform magnetic field. They experience a force towards
regions of stronger field.
 Diamagnetic effects are present in all materials. These are caused by the induced
dipole moments in an external magnetic field. Diamagnetic materials experience
a force towards weaker field regions in a non-uniform field. Diamagnetism is a
much weaker effect.
 Paramagnetic susceptibility depends on temperature and the relationship is
given by Curie’s Law.

51
  Ferromagnetic materials are those which can have a permanent magnetic
moment. The magnetization is not proportional to the applied magnetic field.
 Ferromagnetic materials show hysteresis or retention of memory of the applied
magnetic field.

PROBLEMS

1. A rod of magnetic material, 0.5 m in length has a coil of 200 turns wound over it
uniformly. If a current 2 ampere is sent through it, calculate (a) the magnetizing
field H, (b) the intensity of magnetization M, (c) the magnetic induction B and
(d) the relative permeability µr of the material. Given 𝜒𝑚 = 6 × 10−3

Here N= 200, 𝑙=0.5m, i=2A

𝑁𝑖 200×2
(a) 𝐻= = = 800 𝐴 𝑚−1
𝑙 0.5

(b) 𝑀 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻 = (6 × 10−3 ) × 800 = 4.8𝐴𝑚−1

(c) 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) = 4𝜋 × 10−7 (800 + 4.8) = 1.08 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏 𝑚−2
𝐵 1.08×10−3
(d) 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 = (4𝜋×10−7 )×800 = 1.006
0 𝐻

2. An iron rod 0.2 m long, 10 mm in diameter and of relative permeability 1000 is

placed inside a long solenoid wound with 300 turns/metre. If a current of 0.5
ampere is passed through the rod, find the magnetic moment of the rod.

N= number of turns/metre = 300, 𝑖 = 0.5𝐴

Magnetic field intensity = H = ni = 300 x 0.5 = 150 ampere turns/ metre
𝐵 𝜇𝐻
𝑀= −𝐻 = − 𝐻 = 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 − 𝐻 = (𝜇𝑟 − 1)𝐻
𝜇0 𝜇0
= (1000 - 1) 150 = 149850 ampere turns/metre
Volume of the rod = V= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
= 3.142 × (5 × 10−3 )2 × 0.2𝑚3 = 1.57 × 10−5 𝑚3
Magnetic dipole moment of the rod
𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑉 = 149850 × (1.57 × 10−5 ) = 2.353 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 2

52
QUESTIONS

1. State and explain the terms intensity of magnetization, magnetic

susceptibility, magnetic induction and magnetic permeability.
2. Establish the relation B = µ0 (H+M).
3. Establish the relation µr = 1 + 𝝌m.
4. Distinguish between dia, para and ferromagnetic substances.
5. What is hysteresis? What does the area of hysteresis curve represent?
6. Define coercivity.
7. Derive the expression for Energy loss due to hysteresis.
8. Define Retentivity.
9. How would you use hysteresis curves to select materials for permanent
magnets and transformer cores?
10. Write short note on Hysteresis.

53
 UNIT-IV: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Learning Objectives:

After reading this chapter, every student should be able to:

 State and explain Faraday’s laws and Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.
 Define coefficient of self-inductance of a coil.
 Deduce a mathematical expression for the self-inductance of a solenoid.
 Discuss Rayleigh’s method of determining the self-inductance of a soil.
 Define coefficient of mutual induction.
 Define coefficient of coupling between the coils.
 Understand the growth and decay of electric current in a circuit containing a
resistance and an inductance.
 Discuss the phenomenon of charging of a capacitor through a series resistance
and inductance. Define time constant of an RC and RL circuit.
 Discuss the discharge of a capacitor in a purely resistive circuit and explain how
the result may be used for the measurement of a high resistance

4.1 Magnetic Induction

The induction of an electromotive force by the motion of a conductor across a magnetic

field or by a change in magnetic flux in a magnetic field is called ‘Electromagnetic
Induction’. Electromagnetic induction tells us that a time varying magnetic field can act
as a source of electric field.

Fig.4.1

54
4.4.1 Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s law of induction, in physics, a quantitative relationship between a

changing magnetic field and the electric field created by the change, developed on the
basis of experimental observations made in 1831 by the English scientist Michael
Faraday. This law is the basic working principle of the most of the electrical motors,
generators, transformers, inductors etc. Based on the experimental results, Faraday
gave the following laws;

1. Whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux, an

induced current is produced in the circuit.

Fig.4.2

2. The induced current or EMF lasts only for the time for which the lines of force
or magnetic flux is acutually changing.
3. The magnitude of the induced emf depends upon the rate at which the
magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux changes.
𝑑𝜙𝐵
𝑒=−
𝑑𝑡
4.2 Lenz’s law

Lenz’ law demonstrates the reason for the negative sign in Faraday’s law of
induction. In other words, Lenz’ law explains why the emf generated according to
Faraday’s law is negative. The direction of the induced emf is given by Lenz’s law.
A common way to state Lenz’s law is, “When emf is generated by a change in
magnetic flux, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it generates a current whose
magnetic field is in a direction that opposes the change that produced it (the original

55
magnetic field).” That is, the induced magnetic field always works to keep the magnetic
flux constant.

4.3 Self-inductance

Joseph Henry in 1832 discovered the phenomenon of self-induction on theoretical

considerations.

Whenever the electric current flowing through a circuit changes, the magnetic flux
linked with that circuit also changes. As a result an induced emf is set up in the circuit.
According to Lenz’s law the direction of induced emf is such as to opposite to change
the current. Thus the emf induced is against the current when the current in the circuit
is increasing and along the direction of the current when the current is decreasing.

The phenomenon of the production of an induced an emf in a circuit itself due to the
change in current through it is called self-inductance and the induced emf is called back
emf.

Fig.4.3

In a given circuit (Fig 4.3) in which the current I is flowing. This current will set up a
magnetic field and hence a magnetic flux is linked with the circuit. As the magnetic
field strength at any point is proportional to the current I flowing through a circuit, so
that the magnetic flux ϕ linked with the circuit at any instant is proportional to the
current I flowing through the same circuit at that instant. i.e.

ϕαI

ϕ=LI ---------- (1)

56
Where L is constant of proportionality, called the coefficient of self-inductance or self-
inductance of the coil. The unit of self-inductance is henry (H).

When the current I flowing through a circuit is changed, the magnetic flux linked with
the circuit also changes and an induced emf is set up in the circuit.

The rate of change of flux linked with the circuit is given by

dϕ dI
=L
dt dt

Therefore from Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the circuit is

dϕ
e= −
dt

dI
e = −L dt ---------- (2)

Now, when the current in the circuit is first switch ON, the back emf opposes the
growth of current, so that the current flows against the back emf and does work against
it. If the growing current at any instant be I, then work done against back emf in a short
time dt will be

dI
dW = −e. I. dt = +L dt . I. dt (Using equation (2))

Hence the total work done in bringing the current from zero to a steady maximum
value I0 is

I0
dI
W = L∫ I dt
0 dt

I0
= L ∫ IdI
0

1
= 2 L I02 ---------- (3)

Equations (1), (2) and (3) enable us to define the self-inductance L of a circuit in the
following three ways

57
  From equation (1) ϕ = L I
ϕ
L=
I
If I=1 ampere, L = ϕ henry

Thus, the self-inductance of a circuit is defined as the magnetic flux linked with
the circuit when 1 ampere current flows through it.

dI
 From equation (2) e = −L dt
e
L=
dI
−
dt
dI
If dt = 1 A/s, L=e (numerically)

Thus, the self-inductance of a circuit is defined as the emf induced in the circuit
when the rate of change of current in the circuit is unity. Here emf in volt, current
in ampere and L in henry
1
 From equation (3), W = 2 L I02

2W
L=
I02

If I0 = 1 A, L = 2W

Thus, the self-inductance of a circuit is defined as twice the work done against the
induced emf in establishing unit current in the coil. Here work in joule, current in
ampere and L in henry.

Henry: A coil has a self-inductance of one henry if the back emf in it is one volt, when
the current through it is changing at the rate of 1 ampere per second.

4.4 Self-inductance of a long solenoid

Fig.4.4
58
Suppose there is a solenoid of length ‘l’ number of turns ‘N’, area of cross section ‘A’,
current flowing ‘I’ and permeability ’µ’

NI
Field inside H = l

NIµA
Flux through each turn µHA = l

NIµA
Total flux through N turns = N× l

N2 IµA
ϕ= ---------- (1)
l

But ϕ = LI ---------- (2)

Comparing equation (1) and (2)

N2 IµA
LI = Henry
l

N2 µA
L= Henry
l

μr μ0 N 2 A
L= ---------- (3)
l

For air core solenoid μr = 1 and μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m

μ0 N 2 A
L= Henry ---------- (4)
l

In general, if there is a core consisting of number of media of relative permeability’s,

μr1, μr2, μr3−−− etc., and areas of cross section, A1, A2, A3−−− , etc

μ0 N 2 A
L=
l
[μr1 A1+ μr2 A2+ μr3 A3−−− , ] Henry (5)

4.5 Experimental determination of self-inductance by Rayleigh’s method

Figure.4.5 shows the circuit arrangement for the measurement of self-inductance

of a coil by Rayleigh’s method based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. The coil
whose self-inductance is to be measured, is connected in series with a standard low

59
resistance in R3 one of the arms of Wheatstone bridge. The other arms of the Wheatstone
bridge contain variable resistances R1, R2 and R4. A Ballistic Galvanometer (BG) and a
key K2 are connected between B and D. A battery and key K1 are connected between A
and C. The resistance R3 is short circuited with K4. When key K4 is kept closed the
resistance R3 is eliminated from the arm AD of the bridge. But, when K4 is open, the
resistance R3 is introduced in the arm AD of the bridge.

Fig.4.5

Initially the key K4 is kept closed, R1 and R2 are made equal and the resistance R4 is
adjusted until the bridge is balanced by first pressing the battery key K 1 and then the
galvanometer key K2. Under this condition no current flows through the galvanometer.

If now galvanometer key K2 is closed first and then the battery key K1, the galvanometer
shows a throw. This is due to the fact that when K4 and K2 are kept closed and K1 is
pressed, the current grows through the whole bridge. Due to this growth of current
through the inductance L, an induced emf is produced in the circuit, which causes a
proportionate change of current in every branch of the circuit and so a momentary
current flows through a galvanometer consequently ballistic galvanometer shows a
throw. If ‘i’ is the instantaneous value of the current in the coil, the magnitude of
di
induced emf in the coil will be 𝐿 . Due to this induced emf the magnitude of current
dt
flowing through the ballistic galvanometer is

di
ig = kL
dt
60
Where k is constant which depends upon the relative resistances in the circuit.
Therefore the total charge flowing through the ballistic galvanometer is

i
q = ∫ ig dt
0

i
di
q = ∫ kL dt
0 dt

If the current in the coil grows from zero to a steady maximum value i 0in the time
interval t, then

i
q = kL ∫0 di = k L i0 ---------- (1)

If θ1 be the first throw of the ballistic galvanometer, then

T C λ
q= θ [1 + ] ---------- (2)
2π nBA 1 2

Where λ is logarithmic decrement, C is restoring couple per unit twist of suspension

fibre, T is the time period of oscillation of the moving system of ballistic galvanometer,
A is the area of the coil of ballistic galvanometer and B is the magnetic field strength
between the pole pieces of the strong permanent magnet of the ballistic galvanometer.

From equation (1) and (2), we have

T C λ
k L i0 = θ1 [1 + ] ---------- (3)
2π nBA 2

In order to eliminate k and i0 from this equation, key k4 is opened to introduce the
resistance R3 (approx. 0.1 or 0.01) on series with coil of inductance L in the arm AD of
the bridge. This resistance being small enough does not appreciably affect the current
i0 in the arm AD. As in this case there is an extra potential difference i0 R 3 in the arm
AD of the bridge, this extra potential difference causes a proportionate steady current
ki0 R 3 through the galvanometer due to which ballistic galvanometer shows a steady
deflection. If θ0 is the steady deflection of the galvanometer then

C
k i0 R 3 = θ ---------- (4)
nBA 0

61
Dividing (3) by (4), we get

T C λ
k L i0 = θ1 [1 + ]
2π nBA 2
C
k i0 R 3 = θ
nBA 0

L T θ1 λ
= . [1 + ]
R 3 2π θ0 2

T θ1 λ
L = R3 . [1 + ] ---------- (5)
2π θ0 2

From this equation we may calculate self-inductance of a given coil.

4.6 Mutual Inductance

Consider two coils A and B adjacent to each other, when the current in the circuit
A changes, there is change in magnetic flux linked with it, and an emf induced in the
circuit B. This phenomenon is called mutual inductance. If there is any change in the
current in the current in B, an emf is induced in the circuit A. This shows that mutual
inductance is truly mutual. Such circuits are known as coupled circuits. Moreover, the
magnetic flux linked with the circuit B depends upon the current in the circuit A (Refer
Fig.4.6).

Fig.4.6

∴ Magnetic flux

ϕαI

ϕ = MI ---------- (1)

62
Where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance. If I = 1, ϕ = M

Therefore, the coefficient of mutual inductance of two circuits is numerically equal to

the magnetic flux through one circuit, when units current pass in the other.

Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time

dϕ dI
=M
dt dt

Induced emf

dϕ dI
e=− = −M
dt dt

Therefore, the coefficient of mutual inductance between two circuits numerically equal
to the induced emf is one circuit when the rate of change in current in the other circuit
is unity.

dI
If e = 1volt, = 1 ampere then M=1henry
dt

Henry: It is the mutual inductance of two circuits when the current changing at the rate
of one ampere/s in one circuit induced on emf of 1 volt the other circuit. The mutual
inductance depends on the size, shape, number of turns and relative orientation of the
two coils. It also depends on the nature of the medium between the two coils.

4.7 Mutual inductance of two solenoids

Consider two co-axial solenoids A and B. A is the primary solenoid and B is the
secondary solenoid. It is assumed that there is no leakage of magnetic flux. Number of
turns of the primary solenoid = N1, Area of the cross section = A, Length of the primary
coil = l (Refer Fig.4.7)

63
 Fig.4.7

μ0N1I
∴ Magnetic field at any point inside =
l

μ0N1IA
∴ Magnetic flux through each turn of the secondary =
l

μ0N N IA
1 2
Total magnetic flux through N2turns of secondary ϕ =
l

μ0N N A
1 2
But ϕ = MI ∴M=
l

μ0N N A
1 2
For the air core, M = henry
l

If there are a number of cores of areas of cross section A 1,A2,A3 etc., and relative
permeability μr1, μr2, μr3 etc.,

μ0N N
M= 1 2
[μr1A1+, μr2A2+ μr3A3 + ⋯ ]Henry
l

4.8 Experimental determination of Mutual Inductance

Figure 4.8 shows the circuit arrangement for the measurement of mutual inductance
between two coils P and S. BG is a moving coil ballistic galvanometer, C is a four
segment commutator and r is very small resistance of the order of 0.01 ohm.

64
 Fig.4.8

First of all the segments 1 and 2 of commutator are connected together. So that the
ballistic galvanometer and secondary coil S may form closed circuit. Now segments 3
and 4 are connected together to short circuit the resistance r and rheostat is adjusted so
that a suitable current passes through the primary on pressing the key K.

When the key K is pressed the current in the primary takes some time to grow during
which the flux linked with the secondary coil changes. Hence an induced emf is
produced in the secondary and a momentary current flows in the secondary due to
which ballistic galvanometer gives a throw.

If i1 is the instantaneous current in the primary, the emf induced in the secondary is
given by

di1
e2 = −M
dt

If R is the total resistance of the secondary circuit, then the instantaneous current in the
secondary is given by

𝑒2 𝑀 di1
𝑖2′ = = (numerically)
𝑅 𝑅 dt

65
When the current flows through the BG connected in the secondary circuit, then the
total charge passed through BG as the current in the primary grows from zero to a
steady maximum value i0 in timer interval t, is

t t M di1 i M Mi0
q = ∫0 i2 dt = ∫0 dt = ∫00 di1 = ---------- (1)
R dt R R

If θ1 is the first throw in the ballistic galvanometer due to this charge, then

T C λ
q= θ1 [1 + ]
2π nBA 2
Using equation (1) we get

Mi0 T C λ
= θ1 [1 + ] ---------- (2)
R 2π nBA 2

C
To eliminate i0 and from this equation, the contact between 1 and 2 and that
nBA

between 3 and 4 is broken and now the segments 1 and 3 and 2 and 4 of the commutator
are connected together so that resistance r is now included in the circuit. The same
steady current i0 is now passed in the primary circuit. As the value of resistance r is
very small, it does not affect appreciably the current i0 in the primary circuit. As the
potential different across the resistance r is i0 r/R through the ballistic galvanometer. If
θ0 is the steady deflection of the galvanometer due to the current, then
i0 r T C
= θ ---------- (3)
R 2π nBA 0

Dividing equation (2) by (3), we get

M T θ1 λ
= [1 + ]
r 2π θ0 2

rT θ1 λ
M= [1 + ] ---------- (4)
2π θ0 2

From this equation we may calculate mutual inductance.

66
4.9 Coefficient of coupling

Fig.4.9

Consider two coils having self-inductance L1 and L2, number of turns N1 and N2 and i1
and i2are the currents flowing through the two coils (Refer Fig.4.9).Let 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 be the
magnetic fluxes linked with each turn o coils 1 and 2 due to their own currents i1 and i2
respectively.

The self-inductance of the coils is given by

𝑁1 𝜙1 𝑁2 𝜙2
𝐿1 = ---------- (1) L 2= ---------- (2)
𝑖1 𝑖2

Let 𝜙12 be the flux per turn in the coil 1 due to current I2in the coil 2. Similarly, 𝜙21 be
the flux per turn in the coil 2 due to current I1 in the coil 1. Then the mutual
inductance between them is given by

𝑁1 𝜙12 𝑁2 𝜙21
𝑀= = ---------- (3)
𝑖2 𝑖1

The whole of the flux from one coil is linked with the other coil. Then 𝜙12 = 𝜙2 and
𝜙21 = 𝜙1

From the above equation (3)

𝑁1 𝜙2 𝑁2 𝜙1
𝑀= =
𝑖2 𝑖1

𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜙1 𝜙2
𝑀2 = ---------- (4)
𝑖1 𝑖2
67
From equation (1) and (2),

𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜙1 𝜙2
𝐿1 𝐿2 =
𝑖1 𝑖2

Hence 𝑀2 = 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑀 = √(𝐿1 𝐿2 )

In practice, however, the condition that whole of the flux from one coil links with the

other, it is not satisfied. The ratio 𝑀/√(𝐿1 𝐿2 ) is known as the coefficient of coupling
between the coils. It is denoted by k. Thus

𝑀
𝑘=
√(𝐿1 𝐿2

k is a number between 0 and 1, depending upon the geometry of the coil and their
relative positions.

4.10 Growth of current in a circuit containing a resistance and inductance

Consider a circuit having an inductance L and a resistance R connected in series

to a cell of steady emf E (Refer Fig.4.8). When the key K is pressed, there is a gradual
growth of current in the circuit from zero to maximum value I0. Let I be the
instantaneous current at any instant.

Fig.4.8

𝑑𝐼
Then, the induced back emf e = - L
𝑑𝑡

68
 𝑑𝐼
E= RI+ L --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

When the current reaches the maximum value I0, the back emf,

𝑑𝐼
L =0
𝑑𝑡

Hence E=RI0 --------- (2)

Substituting this value for E in Eq.1

𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
RI0=RI+ L or R (I0-I) = L
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼 𝑅
= dt
𝐼0 −𝐼 𝐿

𝑅
Integrating, -log (I0-I) = t+C --------- (3)
𝐿

Where C is the constant of integration.

When t = 0, I = 0, ∴ -loge I0= C

Substituting this value of C in Equ.(3)

𝑅 𝑅
-log (I0-I) = t-loge I0 or loge (I0 -I)- loge I0= - t
𝐿 𝐿

(𝐼0 −𝐼) 𝑅 𝐼0
Loge = − t or 1 - = e-(R/L) t
𝐼0 𝐿 𝐼

𝐼0 −𝐼
∴ =e
-(R/L) t --------- (4)
𝐼0

Equ. (4) gives the value of the instantaneous current in the LR circuit. The quantity
(L/R) is called the time constant of the circuit.

𝐿 1
If = t, I=I0 (1-e-1) = I0(1 − ) = 0.632 I0
𝑅 𝑒

69
 Thus, the time constant L/R of an L-R circuit is the time taken by the current to
grow from zero to 0.632 times the steady maximum value of current in the circuit
shown in the Fig. 4.9.

I0 = E/R
I0
When L/R is low
Current I

When L/R is medium

When L/R is high

Time

Fig.4.9

Greater the value of L/R, longer is the time taken by the current I to reach its maximum
value.

Decay of current in a circuit containing L and R

𝑑𝐼
When the circuit is broken, an induced emf, equal to - L𝑑𝑡 is again produced in the

inductance L and it slows down the rate of decay of the current. The current in the
circuit decays from maximum value I0 to zero. During the decay, let I be the current at
time t. in this case E=0. The emf equation for the decay of current is

𝑑𝐼
0= RI+ L --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼 𝑅
∴ = - dt
𝐼 𝐿

𝑅
Integrating, loge I = - t +C where C is a constant
𝐿

When t = 0, I = I0, ∴ log e I0=C

𝑅 𝐼 𝑅
∴ logeI= - t +log e I0, or log e = - t
𝐿 𝐼0 𝐿

𝐼
= e- (R/L)t
𝐼0
70
 I=I0 e- (R/L) t --------- (2)

Equ. (2) Represents the current at any instant t during decay. A graph between current
and time is shown in Fig.4.10.

I0

Decay of
Current I

current

Time
Fig. 4.10

1
When t = L/R, I = I0e-1 I0 = 0.365 I0, t = 2L/R, I = I0-e-2 = 0.1035I0,
𝑒

t = 3L/R, I = I0e-3 = 0.05I0

Therefore, the time constant L/R of an R-L circuit may also be defined as the time in
which the current in the circuit falls to 1/e of its maximum value when external source
of e.m.f. is removed.

𝑅
𝑑𝐼 𝑅 −( 𝐿 )𝑡 𝑅
The rate of decay of current is = - 𝐼0 𝑒 =- 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

Thus it is clear that greater the ratio R/L, or smaller the time constant L/R, the more
rapidly does the current die away (Fig.4.11).
I0 = E/R
I0
When L/R is high
Current I

When L/R is medium

When L/R is low

Time
Fig.4.11

71
4.11 Charge and discharge of a capacitor through a resistor

Growth of charge

A capacitor C and a resistance R are connected to a cell emf E through a key K

(Refer Fig.4.12). When the key is pressed, a momentary current I flows through R. at
any instant t, let Q be the charge on the capacitor of capacitance C.

P.D. across capacitor =Q/C

P.D. across resistor = RI

The emf equation of the circuit is

E= (Q/C) +RI --------- (1)

E= (Q/C) +R (dQ/dt)

∴ I = (dQ/dt).

Fig.4.12

The capacitor continues getting charged till it attains the maximum charge Q0. At that
instant I = (dQ/dt) = 0. The P.D. across the capacitor is E= Q0/C.

𝑑𝑄 𝑄0
i.e., when, Q=Q0, = 0 and E=
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑄0 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
∴ = +R
𝐶 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄
(Q0-Q) = CR
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑡
[ ]= --------- (2)
𝑄0 −𝑄 𝐶𝑅
72
 𝑡
Integrating, - log e (Q0-Q) = +K
𝐶𝑅

Where K is a constant.

When t = 0, Q = 0 ∴ log 𝑒 𝑄0 = 𝐾

𝑡
∴ - log e (Q0-Q) = − log 𝑒 𝑄0
𝐶𝑅

𝑡
log e (Q0-Q) = − + log 𝑒 𝑄0
𝐶𝑅

𝑡
log e (Q0-Q) − log 𝑒 𝑄0 = −
𝐶𝑅

𝑄0 −𝑄 𝑡
log e ( )=-
𝑄0 𝐶𝑅

𝑡 𝑡
𝑄0 −𝑄 𝑄
= 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅 or 1- = 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅
𝑄0 𝑄0

𝑡
−
∴ Q = 𝑄0 (1 − 𝑒 𝐶𝑅 ) --------- (3)

The term CR is called time constant of the circuit. At the end of time t= CR,
Q = 𝑄0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 )= 0.632 𝑄0 .Thus, the time constant may be defined as the time taken by
the capacitor to get charged to 0.632 times its maximum value.The growth of charge is
shown in Fig.4.13.

𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑄0 1
The rate of growth of charge is = 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅 = (𝑄0 − 𝑄)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅

Thus it is seen that smaller the product CR, the more rapidly does the charge grown on
the capacitor. The rate of growth of the charge is rapid in the beginning and it becomes
less and less as the charge approaches nearer and nearer the steady value.

73
 Q0

Charge
Time

Fig.4.13

Decay of charge: Discharging of a capacitor through Resistance

Let the capacitor having charge 𝑄0 be now discharged by releasing the key K (Refer fig
4.14). The charge flows out of the capacitor and this constitutes a current and E = 0.

Fig.4.14

𝑑𝑄 𝑄
R + =0 --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑𝑄 1
=- 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅

𝑡
Integrating, log 𝑒 𝑄= − + 𝐾, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑅

When t=0, 𝑄 = 𝑄0 ∴ log 𝑒 𝑄0 = 𝐾

𝑡
log 𝑒 𝑄 = − + log 𝑒 𝑄0
𝐶𝑅

𝑄 𝑡
log 𝑒 =− + log e 𝑄0
𝑄0 𝐶𝑅

𝑄 𝑡 𝑄 𝑡
Or log 𝑒 =− or = 𝑒 − ⁄𝐶𝑅
𝑄0 𝐶𝑅 𝑄0

74
 𝑡
∴ 𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 − ⁄𝐶𝑅 --------- (2)

This shows that the charge in the capacitor decays exponentially and becomes zero
after infinite interval of time (Refer Fig.4.15)

Q0
Charge

Time
Fig.4.15

The rate of discharge is

𝑑𝑄 𝑄0 𝑄
𝐼= = − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝐶𝑅 = - --------- (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅

Thus, smaller the time-constant CR, the quicker is the discharge of the capacitor. In
Equ. (2), if we put t = CR, then Q = 𝑄0 𝑒 −1= 0.368𝑄0 . Hence time constant may also
be defined as the time taken by the current to fall from maximum to 0.368 of its
maximum value.

4.12 Growth of charge in a circuit with inductance, capacitance and

resistance

Consider a circuit containing an inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R joined

in series to a cell emf E (Refer Fig.4.16). When the key K is pressed, the capacitor is
charged. Let Q be the charge on the capacitor and I the current in the circuit at an
instant t during charging. Then, the p.d. across the capacitor is Q/C and the self-
induced emf in the inductance coil is L (dI/dt), both being opposite to the direction
of E. the potential difference across the resistance R is RI.

The equation of emf’s is

𝑑𝐼 𝑄
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + =𝐸 --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

75
 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝑑2 𝑄
But I = and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
∴ L +R + =E
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Fig.4.17

𝑑2 𝑄 𝑅 𝑑𝑄 𝑄−𝐶𝐸
+ + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 1
Putting 𝐿 = 2b and 𝐿𝐶 = K2, we have

𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
+ 2𝑏 + 𝐾 2 (𝑄 − 𝐶𝐸)=0 --------- (2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑄 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑄
Let x = Q - CE. Then = and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Equ. (2) becomes, 2 + 2𝑏 + 𝐾2𝑥 = 0 --------- (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Hence the most general solution of Equ.(3) is

2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 + B 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏

Now, CE=𝑄0 = final steady charge on the capacitor.

𝑥 = 𝑄 − 𝐶𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑄0 .

2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
Hence, 𝑄 − 𝑄0 = 𝐴𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 + B 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏

2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 + 𝐴𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 + B 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏 --------- (4)

76
 Using the initial conditions:

At t = 0, Q = 0

∴ 0 =𝑄0 + (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑜𝑟 𝐴 + 𝐵 = −𝑄0 --------- (5)

𝑑𝑄 2 −𝐾 2 )]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 )]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
= 𝐴(−𝑏+√(𝑏 +𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 +𝐵(−𝑏−√(𝑏 + 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄
At t = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

0=𝐴 [−𝑏√(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 )] +B[−𝑏√(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 )]

√(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 )] [A-B] = b (A+B) = -b𝑄0

𝑄0 𝑏
A-B = − --------- (6)
√(𝑏2 −𝐾2 )

Solving Equs (5) and (6),

1 𝑏
A = − 𝑄0 (1 + ) --------- (7)
2 √(𝑏2 − 𝐾 2 )

1 𝑏
B = − 𝑄0 (1 − ) --------- (8)
2 √(𝑏2 − 𝐾2 )

Substituting the values of A and B in Eq.(4), we have

1 𝑏 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 𝑏 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 − 2 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [(1 + ) 𝑒 √𝑏 + (1 − ) 𝑒 −√𝑏 ] -- (9)
√(𝑏 2 −𝐾2 ) √(𝑏 2 −𝐾2 )

Case I. If 𝑏 2 > 𝐾 2 , √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) is real. The charge on the capacitor grows exponentially
with time and attains the maximum value 𝑄0 asymptotically, (Refer Fig.4.18). The
charge is known as over damped or dead beat.

77
 Damped

Q0

Charge
Over damped
Critically damped

Time

Fig.4.18

Case II. If 𝑏 2 = 𝐾 2 , the charge rises to the maximum value 𝑄0 in a short time. Such a
charge is called critically damped.

Case III. If 𝑏 2 < 𝐾 2 , √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) is imaginary.

Let √𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 = 𝑖𝜔 where 𝑖 = √−1 and 𝜔 = √(𝐾 2 − 𝑏 2 )

Equ. (9) may be written as

1 𝑏 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑄0 − 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [(1 + ) 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + (1 − ) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ]
2 𝑖𝜔 𝑖𝜔

𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑏 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝑄 = 𝑄0 − 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [( ) + ( )( )]
2 𝜔 2𝑖

𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑄0 − 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [(cos 𝜔𝑡) + ( ) sin 𝜔𝑡]
𝜔

𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 [1 − ( ω cos 𝜔𝑡) + bsin 𝜔𝑡]
𝜔

Let ω = K sin α and b= k cos α so that tan α = ω/b.

𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 [1 − ( k sin α cos 𝜔𝑡) + k cos α sin 𝜔𝑡]
𝜔

78
 𝑘𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 [1 − sin (ωt − α)] --------- (10)
𝜔

𝑅 1
−2𝐿𝑡 √
𝑒 1 𝑅2 𝐿𝐶
𝑄 = 𝑄0 1 − . sin [(√ − 2 ) 𝑡 + 𝛼]
2 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿
√ 1 − 𝑅2
[ 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿 ]

This equation represents a damped oscillatory charge as shown by the curve 3. The
charge oscillates above and below 𝑄0 till it finally settles down to 𝑄0 value. The
frequency of oscillation in the circuit is given by

𝜔 √𝑘 2 − 𝑏 2 1 1 𝑅2
𝜈= = = √ −
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2

1
When R= 0, 𝜈 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

4.13 Discharge of a capacitor through an inductor and a resistor in series

(Decay of charge in LCR circuit)

Consider a circuit containing a capacitor of capacitance C, an inductance L and

a resistance R joined in series as shown in the Fig. 4.19). E is a cell. K2 is kept open. The
capacitor is charged to maximum charge 𝑄0 by closing the key K1. On opening K1 and
closing key K2, the capacitor discharge through the inductance L and resistance R. let I
be the current in the circuit and

Fig.4.19

Q be the charge in the capacitor at any instant during discharge. The circuit equation
then is

79
 𝑑𝐼 𝑄
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝑑2𝑄
But, I = and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
∴ L +R + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑2𝑄 𝑅 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
+ + =0 --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 1
Let =2b and = K2, then
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

𝑑2𝑄 𝑑𝑄
+ 2𝑏 + 𝐾 2 (𝑄) = 0 ---------- (2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The general solution of this equation is

2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 + B 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏 ---------- (3)

Where A and B are arbitrary constants,

When t = 0, 𝑄 = 𝑄0 and from Eq.(3), A + B = 𝑄0 ---------- (4)

𝑑𝑄 2 −𝐾 2 )]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 )]𝑡 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
= 𝐴(−𝑏+√(𝑏 𝑒 [−𝑏+√𝑏 +𝐵(−𝑏−√(𝑏 𝑒 [−𝑏−√𝑏
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄
When, t = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

∴ 𝐴 [−𝑏 + √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 )] +B[−𝑏 − √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 )] = 0

− 𝑏 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) (𝐴 − 𝐵)= 0

-b𝑄0 +√(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) (𝐴 − 𝐵)= 0

𝑏𝑄0
∴A−B = ---------- (5)
√(𝑏2 −𝐾 2 )

From Eqs (4) and (5), we get

80
 1 𝑏 1 𝑏
𝐴= 𝑄0 (1 + ) and B= 𝑄0 (1 − )
2 𝑏2 −𝑘 2 2 𝑏2 −𝑘 2

Putting these values of A and B in EqU.3, we get

1 𝑏 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡 𝑏 2 −𝐾 2 ]𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [(1 + ) 𝑒 √𝑏 + (1 − ) 𝑒 −√𝑏 ] --- (6)
2 √(𝑏2 −𝐾 2 ) √(𝑏2 −𝐾 2 )

Case I. If 𝑏 2 > 𝐾 2 , √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) is real and positive and the charge of the capacitor
decays exponentially, becoming zero asymptotically, (Refer Fig.4.20). This discharge
is known as over damped or dead beat.

Case II. If 𝑏 2 = 𝐾 2 , 𝑄 = 𝑄0 (1 + 𝑏𝑡)𝑒 −𝑏𝑡

This represents a non-oscillatory discharge. This discharge is known as critically

damped. The charge decreases to zero exponentially in a short time.

Q0
Over damped

Critically damped
Charge

Damped

Fig.4.20

Case III. If 𝑏 2 < 𝐾 2 , √(𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 ) is imaginary

√𝑏 2 − 𝐾 2 = 𝑖𝜔 where 𝜔 = √(𝐾 2 − 𝑏 2 )

1 𝑏 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 [(1 + ) 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + (1 − ) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ]
2 𝑖𝜔 𝑖𝜔

−𝑏𝑡
𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 b 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 [( )+ ( )]
2 ω 2𝑖

81
 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
= ( ω cos 𝜔𝑡) + bsin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔

𝜔
Let ω = K sin α and b= k cos α so that tan α = .
𝑏

𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑘
𝑄= ( cos𝜔𝑡 sin α) + k cos α sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔

𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑘
𝑄= sin (ωt + α)
𝜔

𝑅
− 𝑡
𝑄0 𝑒 2𝐿 1 𝑅2
𝑄 = [1 − sin [(√ − ) 𝑡 + 𝛼] ]----- (7)
1 𝑅2 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2
√( − )√𝐿𝐶
𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2

This equation represents a damped oscillatory charge. The charge oscillates above and
below zero till it finally settles down to zero value.

The frequency of oscillation in the circuit is given by

𝜔 √𝑘 2 − 𝑏 2 1 1 𝑅2
𝜈= = = √ −
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2

1
When R= 0, 𝜈 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

The condition for oscillatory discharge is

𝑅2 1 𝐿
< Or 𝑅 < 2√
4𝐿2 𝐿𝐶 𝐶

4.13 Measurement of High resistance by the method of Leakage

Circuit diagram

Figure.4.21 shows the circuit arrangement for measurement of high resistance by

method of leakage of a capacitor. C is a standard capacitor and R is a high resistance to
be measured.BG is a Ballistic galvanometer, K1, K2, K3 are tap keys.

82
 Fig.4.21

Method

Keeping K2 and K3 open, the capacitor is charged by depressing the key K1. K1 is then
opened and at once K3 is closed. The capacitor discharges through the galvanometer
which records a throw𝜃0 . The throw 𝜃0 is proportional to charge flowing through it
(𝑄0 ). The capacitor is again charged to the maximum value keeping K2 and K3 open and
closing K1. K1 is then opened and K2 is closed for a known time t. Some of the charge
leaks through R. K2 is opened and at once K3 is closed. The charge Q remaining on the
capacitor then discharge through the galvanometer. The resulting throw 𝜃 is noted.

Then = 𝑄 ∝ 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑄0 ∝ 𝜃0

𝑄0 𝜃
Therefore =𝜃 ---------- (1)
𝑄 0

But equation of discharging of a capacitor through a resistance is

𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

𝑡
𝑄
= 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ---------- (2)
𝑄0

Taking log of both the sides, we get

𝑄 𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 =− 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑒
𝑄0 𝑅𝐶

83
 𝑡
𝑅=
𝜃
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 0 )
𝜃

Using equation (1), we get

𝑡
𝑅=
𝜃
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 0 )
𝜃
𝑡
𝑅= 𝜃 ---------- (3)
2.3026 𝐶 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝜃0 )

𝜃0
The experiment is repeated for different values of t and values of t corresponding is
𝜃
𝜃
found. Now a graph is plotted with t on x-axis and 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝜃0) on y-axis, which is a
𝑡
straight line. Its slope gives the mean value of 𝜃 . As C is known, the value of R
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 0)
𝜃

can be calculated.

SUMMARY

 Faraday’s experiments show that whenever there is a change in flux associated

with a conductor, an EMF is induced in the circuit.
 The change in flux can be due to change of magnetic field or area or both.
 Faraday’s Law tells us that the strength of the induced EMF in a circuit is equal
to the rare of change of a magnetic flux associated with the circuit.
 Lenz’s Law, which is simply a restatement of conservation of energy, gives us
the sign of the induced EMF as that which always opposes the change causing
it.
 Faraday’s Law in differential form relates the curl of the electric field to the
negative of the rate of change of the magnetic field.
 The magnetic field, like the electric field, has an energy density.
 The energy stored in the magnetic field for a coil or a circuit can be written in
terms of the coefficients of inductance.

84
PROBLEMS

1. A solenoid having an air core and 10cm long has 100 turns and its area of cross-
section is 5sq.cm. Find the co-efficient of self-inductance of the solenoid.
Solution:
Here, 𝑙=10cm = 0.1 m, N = 100, A = 5 sq.cm = 5 x 10-4m2
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
(4𝜋×10−7 )(100 ×100)×(5×10−4 )
= = 62.8 × 10−6 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
0.1

2. Calculate the self-inductance of a solenoid having 1000 turns and length l m. the
area of cross section is 7 cm2 and the relative permeability of the core is 1000.
Here, 𝑙=1 m, N = 1000, A = 7 x 10-4 m2, µr = 500
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴 1000 × (4𝜋 × 10−7 )(1000)2 (7 × 10−4 )
𝐿= =
𝑙 𝑙
= 0.88 henry.
3. A solenoid having a core of cross-section 4 cm2, half air and half iron (relative
permeability 500), is 22 cm long. If the number of turns on it is 1000, what will
be its self-inductance?

Here N = 1000, 𝑙= 0.22m, A1=A2=2x10-4m2 and µr=500

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴1 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴2
𝐿= +
𝑙 𝑙

(4𝜋×10−7 )(1000)2 (2×10−4 ) 500 (4𝜋×10−7 )(1000)2 (2×10−4 )

= +
0.22 0.22

= 0.57 henry.

4. Two inductances L1 and L2 of values 0.01 H and 0.03 H are joined in series. The
resultant inductance is 0.06 H when the induced emfs aid each other. What is
the value of mutual inductance? Had they been connected with coils opposed,
what would have been the inductance of combination?
L1 = 0.01 H L2 = 0.03 H L = 0.06 H
L =L1+L2+2M
0.06=0.01+0.03+2M
M=0.01 H
85
 In the second case,
L =L1+L2-2M
= 0.01 + 0.03 – 0.02
= 0.02 H.
5. Calculate the self-inductance of a toroid of rectangular cross- section of total
number of turns 1000. Given a = 5 cm, b = 10 cm, h = 1 cm
N = 1000; a = 0.05m, b = 0.1m, h = 10-2m.
𝜇𝑁 2 ℎ 𝑏
𝐿= log 𝑒 ( )
2𝜋 𝑎
(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(1000)2 × 10−2 2
× 2.303log10
2𝜋
= 1.386 x 10-3 H = 1.386 mH.

QUESTIONS

1. State and prove Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

2. State and prove the Lenz’s Law.
3. Explain the meaning of self-inductance and mutual inductance.
4. Derive an expression for the self-inductance of a long straight solenoid.
5. Define co-efficient of self-induction of a coil. Deduce a mathematical
expression for the self-inductance of a solenoid.
6. Describe Rayleigh’s method of determining the self-inductance of a coil of
wire.
7. Define mutual inductance.
8. Find an expression for mutual inductance between two solenoids wound
over each other or two coaxial coils.
9. Define mutual inductance between a pair of coils.
10. Find the self-inductance in henry of a solenoid of 100 turns wound on a paper
tube, 25cm long and 4 cm radius.
11. Define coefficient of coupling.
12. Define time constant of an RC circuit.
13. Define time constant of LR circuit.
14. What is the maximum allowed value of resistance in LCR circuit for
oscillatory discharge?
86
15. Discuss the growth of current in LR circuit.
16. Show that the rate of growth of current in a LR circuit is complimentary to
the rate of decay of current in the circuit.
17. What is the principle of measuring high resistance by the method of leakage?
18. Discuss the phenomenon of charging of a capacitor through a series
resistance.
19. Discuss with relevant theory the method of determining high resistance by
the method of leakage.
20. Discuss the phenomenon of growth and decay of current in a circuit
containing inductance and resistance in series.
21. A circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance in series are
connected across a cell. Find an expression for the growth of current in the
circuit.
22. A charged capacitor discharges through a circuit containing inductance and
resistance in series. Discuss the nature of discharge with special reference to
oscillating one.
23. Describe the discharge of a capacitor in series resistor.
24. Find the measurement of high resistance by leakage method.

87
 UNIT-V: AC CIRCUITS
Learning Objectives:
After reading this chapter, every student should be able to:

 Distinguish between the mean value, peak value and the root mean square value
of an alternating current and establish the relation between them.
 Explain the method of solving alternating current problems with the aid of
complex quantities.
 Discuss series and parallel resonance circuits and their uses.

5.1 EMF induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns and of length a and width b rotating with
uniform angular velocity ω about its axis in a uniform magnetic field B (Refer Fig.5.1).

Fig.5.1
The axis of rotation is at right angles to the field. As the coil rotates, the magnetic
flux passing through it changes. Hence an emf is induced in the coil.

⃗
𝐵
𝜃
Coil
Normal

Fig.5.2
Suppose we start timing from the instant when the plane of the coil is at right
angles to the field B. i.e., when the angle between the normal to the plane of the coil

88
and the direction of the field is zero. Then, at an instant t, the normal to the plane of the
coil will make angles θ (=ωt) with the direction of B (Refer Fig.5.2).
The magnetic flux linked with N turns of the coil is

ɸ=NBA cosθ = NBA cos ωt

Where A (= ab) is the area of the coil.
The instantaneous induced emf,

𝑑𝜙 𝑑
𝐸=− =− (𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 (𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Here, E0 = NBAω, called the peak value of the e.m.f.

Now, ω = 2π𝜈 where, 𝜈 = frequency of alternating voltage.

Thus when ωt = 0, sinωt = 0 and E = 0,ωt = π/2, sinωt =1 and E= E0,ωt =π, sin ωt = 0 and
E = 0,ωt =3π/2, sin ωt = -1 and E = -E0 and ωt = 2π, sin ωt = 0 and E = 0 again.
In the Fig. 5.3, a graph of E against ωt is a sine curve. Such an e.m.f. is called an
‘alternating e.m.f.’ the resulting current in the coil, if the coil is part of a closed circuit,
is the ‘alternating current.’

E0

+E
EE 𝜋
0 2𝜋 3𝜋 𝜔𝑡
-E

Fig.5.3
The corresponding current I through the circuit is given by

I=I0 sin ωt
The time of one cycle is known as time period T, the number of cycles per second
the frequency ν (=1/T), the peak value of current or voltage the amplitude. Peak value
of alternating current or emf. The maximum value of alternating current or emf in the
positive or negative direction is called peak value of alternating current or emf. It is
denoted by I0 or E0.

89
 Mean value of alternating current. Mean value of alternating current is defined
as its average over half a cycle.
𝑇 𝜋
∫02 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝜔
∫0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 𝜋
𝑇
2 𝜔
𝜋⁄
𝐼0 𝜔 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝜔
= [ ]
𝜋 𝜔 0
𝐼
= − 0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − cos 0]
𝜋
2𝐼0
= = 0.637 𝐼0
𝜋
Similarly, Emean = 0.637 E0

5.2 Root mean square value of an alternating current

It is defined as the square root of the average of I2 during a complete cycle.

2𝜋 2𝜋
∫0𝜔 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡 ∫0𝜔 𝐼02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 2̅ =
2𝜋 = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝜔

2𝜋
𝐼2𝜔 1
= 0 ∫ 𝜔 (1
0
− cos 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 2

2𝜋
𝐼2𝜔
= 0
sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜔
[𝑡 − ]
4𝜋 2𝜔 0

2
𝐼 𝜔 2𝜋 𝐼02
= 0 [ ] =
4𝜋 𝜔 2

𝐼0
Irms = √𝐼 2̅ = = 0.707 I0
√2

𝐸0
Similarly, Erms= =0.707 E0
√2

90
Form factor

The form factor gives an indication of the wave shape of the alternating voltage
or current. It is defined as the ratio of the virtual or rms value to the average value of
alternating current or voltage. Thus in the case of a sinusoidal current (or voltage), form
factor is,

𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝐸𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 0.707 𝐸0

Form factor = = = =1.11
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 0.637 𝐸0

5.3 Effective value or virtual value of an A.C.

The rms value of an alternating current can also be defined as that direct current
which produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance. Therefore, the rms value
of alternating current is also called as the effective or the virtual value of the current.

𝐼0
𝐼𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
√2
Suppose an alternating current of instantaneous value I = I0 sinωt is flowing through a
circuit of resistance R.

Total quantity of heat produced over the complete cycle = H =

𝑇
∫0 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 ---------- (1)

Let Iv stand for the root mean square or virtual value of the current. Then the heat
produced in time T is given by

H=I2v RT ---------- (2)

Comparing Equs. (1) and (2)

𝐼2 𝑇
𝑣 𝑅𝑇=∫0 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑇
𝐼𝑣2 T=∫0 𝐼2 dt

91
 𝑇 𝐼02 𝑇
𝐼𝑣2 =∫0 𝐼02 sin2 ωt dt = ∫0 2 sin2 ωt dt
2

𝐼02 𝑇 𝐼02 sin 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑇

= ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ωt dt = [𝑡 − ]
2 0 2 2𝜔 0

𝐼02 𝜔 2𝜋
= ((( − 0)) − (0)))
4𝜋 𝜔

𝐼02 𝜔 2𝜋 𝐼02
= × =
4𝜋 𝜔 2

𝐼02
𝐼𝑣2 =
2

𝐼0
Iv = = 0.707 I0
√2

Similarly, the r.m.s value of an alternating voltage can be defined as that direct voltage
which produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance. The r.m.s value of
alternating voltage is also called as the ‘effective’ or the ‘virtual’ value of the voltage.

𝐸0
Evirtual = = Erms
√2

Impedance: In any circuit the ratio of the effective voltage to the effective current is
defined as the impedance Z of the circuit.

5.4 Alternating EMF applied to circuits containing L and R in series

Let an alternating emf 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 is applied to a circuit containing inductance L

and resistance R in series as shown in the figure 5.4.

Fig.5.4

92
The potential drop across resistance is 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑅𝐼 and the potential drop across
inductance is 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼 . Here, I is the current at any instant t

𝐸 = 𝑅𝐼 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼
Current in the circuit
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
But,
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑍
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿

𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
√𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃
𝐸0
𝐼= 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝜃)
√𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝜔𝐿
Where tan 𝜃 =
𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝜃)
𝐸0
Here, 𝐼0 =
√𝑅 +𝜔2 𝐿2
2

It represents the peak value of the current through the circuit. The impedance Z of the
circuit is given by the term√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 . The current lag as in phase behind the emf by
𝜔𝐿
an angle θ = tan−1 . The variation of instantaneous values of emf and current with
𝑅
time are shown in the figure 5.5.

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔𝑡
E

or
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃
I

T/2 T
Time

Fig.5.5

93
5.5 Alternating EMF applied to circuits containing C and R in series

Let an alternating emf 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 is applied to a circuit containing capacitance

C and resistance R in series as shown in the figure 5.6. Let I be the current through the
circuit and q, the charge on the plates of the capacitor at any instant. Then

Fig.5.6

1
𝐼 [𝑅 + ] = 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝐸
𝐼=
1
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝐸
But 𝐼 = 𝑍

Impedance of series R-C circuit,

1
𝑍= 𝑅+
𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑗
𝑍= 𝑅−
𝜔𝐶
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑗
𝑅 − 𝜔𝐶

𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
√[(𝑅 2 + 1
)] 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
𝜔2𝐶 2
1/𝜔𝐶
Here, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑅

𝐸0
𝐼= 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)
√[(𝑅 2 + 1
)] 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
𝜔2𝐶 2
94
The current in the above circuit thus leads the applied voltage by an angle 𝜃 as shown
in the figure 5.7.

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
E or I

2T
T t

Fig.5.7

1 2
The impedance of RC circuit, Z=√(𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐶 )

The actual current in the circuit is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡+ 𝜃)

5.6 Alternating EMF applied to circuits containing L, C and R : Series

Resonance Circuit

Let an alternating emf E = E0 sin ωt be applied to a circuit containing a resistance

R, inductance L and capacitance C in series as shown in the figure 5.8. Let at any
instant, I be the current in the circuit and Q be the charge on the capacitor.

Fig.5.8
The potential drop across the resistance = RI

𝑑𝐼
The E.M.F. induced in the Inductance = L𝑑𝑡

The potential across the plates of the capacitor = Q/C.

95
 𝑑𝐼 𝑄
L + RI + = E0 sin ωt
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Differentiating with respect to time (t),

𝑑2 𝐼 𝑑𝐼 1 𝑄
L 2 + R + = E0 ω cos ωt ---------- (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶

Let the trial solution be of the form

I = I0 sin (ωt-ϕ) ---------- (2)

Where I0 and ϕ are constants to be determined.

𝑑𝐼
= I0 ω cos (ωt- ϕ)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝐼
And = - I0 ω 2sin (ωt- ϕ)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝐼 𝑑2 𝐼
Substituting these values of I, 𝑑𝑡 and , in Equ. (1), we get
𝑑𝑡 2

𝐼0
= -LI0ω2sin (ωt- ϕ) + RI0 ω cos (ωt- ϕ) + sin (ωt- ϕ) = E0ω cos ωt
𝐶

1
= (-Lω2 + ) I0 sin (ωt- ϕ) + RωI0 ω cos (ωt- ϕ) = E0ω [cos (ωt- ϕ) + ϕ]
𝐶

= E0ω [cos (ωt- ϕ) cos ϕ - sin (ωt- ϕ) sin ϕ]

Equating the coefficients of sin (ωt- ϕ) and cos (ωt- ϕ) on either side,

1
= (-Lω2 + ) I0 = - E0 ω sin ϕ ---------- (3)
𝐶

and RωI0 = E0ωcos ϕ ---------- (4)

Dividing Eq.(3) by Eq.(4), we get

1 1
(−L𝜔2 +𝐶) 𝜔𝐿−𝐶𝜔
tan ϕ = - = ---------- (5)
𝑅𝜔 𝑅

Squaring and adding Eqs (3) and (4), we get

96
 1 2
𝐼02 [(−L𝜔2 + ) + R2 ω2 ] = 𝐸02 𝜔2
𝐶

1 2
𝐼02 [R2 + (ωL − ) ] = 𝐸02
𝜔𝐶

𝐸0
I0 = 2
---------- (6)
√R2 +(ωL− 1 )
𝜔𝐶

Substituting the value of I0 in Equ.2, we get

𝐸0
I0= 1
sin (ωt-ɸ) ---------- (7)
√R2 +(ωL− )2
𝜔𝐶

1
ωL−
Where ϕ =tan −1 𝜔𝐶
𝑅

Equ. (7) represents the current at any instant.

1 2
The quantity [√[R2 + (ωL − 𝜔𝐶) ] ] impedance Z of the circuit.

Lω and 1/ωC respectively inductive reactance XL and capacitance reactance XC. Thus

Z=√[R2 + ( XL − XC )2].

The current lags in phase behind e.m.f. by an angle

1
ωL−𝜔𝐶 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
ϕ =tan−1 = tan−1
𝑅 𝑅

The following three cases arise:

i. When XL > XC, ϕ is positive so that the current lags behind the applied emf.
ii. When XL < XC, ϕ is negative, so that the current leads the applied emf.
iii. When XL = XC, ϕ = 0, and the current is in phase with the emf.

The value of current at any instant in a series LCR circuit is given by

97
 𝐸0
I= sin (ωt- ϕ) ---------- (8)
1 2
√{ R2 +(ωL− ) }
𝜔𝐶

1 2
Where √{ R2 + (ωL −
𝜔𝐶
) } = Z, is called the impedance of the circuit.

1
At a particular frequency, ωL = 𝜔𝐶 so that the impedance becomes minimum being

given by Z = R. This particular frequency 𝜗0 at which the impedance of the circuit

becomes minimum and, therefore the current becomes maximum, is called the
resonant frequency of the circuit. Such a circuit which admits maximum current is
called series resonant circuit. Thus at 𝜗0 , we have

1
ωL=
𝜔𝐶

1
2𝜋 𝜗0 L =
2π𝜗0 C

1
𝜗0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

The maximum current in the circuit = I0 =E0/R. the variation of current with frequency
of applied voltage is shown in the figure 5.9. The sharpness of peak depends upon the
resistance R of the circuit. For low resistance, the peak is sharp. The more quickly
current amplitude falls for changes of frequency on both sides of the resonant
frequency, the sharper is said to be the resonance. The sharpness of resonance of a
circuit is described by its quality factor.

When R is low

When R is high
Current I

Resonant
frequency

Frequency 𝜐

Fig.5.9

98
5.7 The Q-factor

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝜔0

Q-factor = =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑅

Q- Factor determines the degree of selectivity of the circuit while tuning. This is
because, for larger values of Q-factor the frequency response curve of the circuit is a
steep narrow peak. For smaller values of Q-factor, the frequency response curve is quite
flat (Refer Fig.5.10).

When R =0
Infinite Q
When
R is low
High Q
When R is high
Current I

low Q

Resonant
frequency

Frequency 𝜐

Fig.5.10

5.8 Parallel resonant circuit

Here capacitor C is connected in parallel to the series combination of resistance

R and inductance L. the combination is connected across the AC source as shown in the
figure 5.11. The applied voltage is sinusoidal, represented by

Fig.5.11
99
E=E0ejωt

Complex impedance of L-branch

Z1 = R+ jLω

Complex impedance of C-branch

1
Z2 = 𝑗𝐶𝜔

Z1 and Z2 are in parallel.

1 1 1 1
= +1 = + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑍 𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿 ⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿

𝑅−𝑗𝜔𝐿
= (𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝑥(𝑅−𝑗𝜔𝐿) + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑅 𝐿𝜔
= + 𝑗 [𝐶𝜔 − ]
𝑅2 +(𝐿𝜔)2 𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2

1
The current I = E/Z = E x
𝑍

𝑅 𝐿𝜔
I = E[ + 𝑗 (𝐶𝜔 − )]
𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2 𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2

𝑅 𝐿𝜔
Let A cosϕ = ; A sinϕ= Cω -
𝑅2 +(𝐿𝜔)2 𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2

I= E (A cos ϕ + j sinϕ) = E Aejϕ=E0 A ej(ωt + ϕ)

𝐿𝜔
𝐶𝜔−( 2 )
−1 𝑅 +(𝐿𝜔)2
Where ϕ = tan 𝑅
( 2 )
𝑅 +(𝐿𝜔)2

𝑅2 𝐿𝜔 2
A2 = ( ) + (𝐶𝜔 − )
𝑅 2 +(𝜔2 𝐿2 )2 𝑅 2 +𝜔2 𝐿2

The magnitude of the admittance

1 √[𝑅 2 +(𝜔𝐶𝑅 2 +𝜔3 𝐿2 𝐶−𝜔𝐿)2 ]

Y= =
𝑍 𝑅 2 +𝜔2 𝐿2

100
The admittance will be minimum, when

ωCR2 + ω3L2C - ωL=0,

1 𝑅2
ω = ω0 = √ −
𝐿𝐶 𝐿2

1 1 𝑅2
υ0 = √ −
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝐿2

This is the resonant frequency of the circuit.

𝑅2 1
If R is very small so that is negligible compared to ,
𝐿2 𝐿𝐶

1
υ0=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

At such a minimum admittance, i.e. Maximum impedance, the circuit current is

minimum.The graph between current and frequency is shown in fig 5.12.

Impedance at resonance
Current I

Resonant
Frequency

Frequency 𝜐

Fig.5.12

𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2
At resonance, Z = ( )
𝑅

𝐿
But 𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔)2 = at resonance
𝐶

101
 𝐿
Z=
𝑅𝐶

Thus smaller the resistance R, larger is the impedance. If R is negligible, the impedance
is infinite at resonance.

5.9 Comparison between series and parallel resonant circuits

The behaviour of a parallel resonant circuit is strikingly different from that of a series
resonant circuit. In both cases the impedance is resistive but, whereas parallel
resonance implies maximum impedance series resonance implies minimum
impedance.

Series resonant circuit Parallel resonant circuit

An acceptor circuit. A rejector circuit
1 1
Resonant frequency 𝜗𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 Resonant frequency 𝜗𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

At resonance the impedance is a minimum At resonance the impedance is maximum

equal to the resistance in the circuit. nearly equal to infinity.
Selective Selective
Used in the tuning circuit to separate the Used to present maximum impedance to the
wanted frequency from the incoming wanted frequency, usually in the plate
frequencies by offering low impedance at circuit of valves.
that frequency.

5.10 Power in ac circuit containing resistance, inductance and

capacitance

Consider an ac circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance. E and I vary

continuously with time. Therefore power is calculated at any instant and then its mean
is calculated over a complete cycle.The instantaneous values of the voltage and current
are given by E=E0 sinωt and I=I0 sin (ωt-ϕ). Where ϕ is the phase difference between
current and voltage.

Hence power at any instant is

102
 E x I=E0I0sin ωt sin (ωt-ϕ)
1
= 𝐸0 𝐼0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)] ---------- (1)
2

Average power consumed over one complete cycle is

𝑇
∫0 𝐸 𝐼𝑑𝑡
P= 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1
∫0 2 𝐸0 𝐼0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙−cos(2𝜔𝑡−𝜙)]𝑑𝑡
=
𝑇

1 𝐸0 𝐼0 sin(2𝜔𝑡−𝜙) 𝑇
= [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡]
2 𝑇 2𝜔 0
1 𝐸0 𝐼0 sin(2𝜔𝑇−𝜙) sin(−𝜙)
= [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)𝑇 − 0 − + ]
2 𝑇 2𝜔 2𝜔
2𝜋
Now T = and sin (4π - ϕ) = sin (- ϕ)
𝜔

1 𝐸0 𝐼0 𝜔 2𝜋 sin(−𝜙) sin(−𝜙)
P = [(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)𝑇 − + ]
2 2𝜋 𝜔 2𝜔 2𝜔
1
= E0I0cosϕ
2
𝐸0 𝐼0
= x x cosϕ
√2 √2

=Er.m.s Ir.m.s.cosϕ ---------- (2)

Average power= (virtual volts) x (virtual amperes) x cosϕ

The term (virtual volts) x (virtual amperes) is called apparent power and cos ϕ is called
the power factor. Thus
True power = apparent power x power factor
Obviously, the power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent power.

As cos ϕ is the factor by which the product of the rms values of the voltage and current
must be multiplied to give the power dissipated, it is known as the ‘power Factor’ of
the circuit. For a circuit containing resistance, capacitance and inductance in series,

1
𝜔𝐿−
𝜔𝐶
tan ϕ=
𝑅

103
 From figure 5.13, the expression for the power factor is

𝜔𝐶
1
𝜔𝐿 −

Fig.5.13

𝑅
cos ϕ =
1 2
√{𝑅 2 +(𝜔𝐿− ) }
𝜔𝐶

Special cases:

1. In a purely resistive circuit, ϕ=0 or cos ϕ=1. True power = Ev x Iv.

2. In a purely inductive circuit, current lags behind the applied emf by 90° so that ϕ = -
90° or cosϕ=0. Thus true power consumed =0
3. In a purely capacitive circuit, current leads the applied voltage by 90° so that ϕ= -90°
or cos (-90°) = cos 90°=0: True power =0
4. In an ac circuit containing a resistance and inductance in series, Power factor

𝑅
cos ϕ=
√𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔)2

5. In an ac circuit containing a capacitance C and a resistance R in series,

𝑅
cos ϕ= 1
√( 2 2+𝑅 2 )
𝐶 𝜔

5.11 Wattless current

The average power dissipated during a complete cycle is Ev Iv. cos ϕ. The current in
A.C. circuit is said to be wattless when the average power consumed in the circuit is
zero.

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If an ac circuit is purely inductive or purely capacitive with no ohmic resistance, phase
angle ϕ = π/2 so that cos ϕ = 0 or the power consumed is zero. The current in such a
circuit does not perform any useful work and is rightly called the wattless or idle
current. In this situation, the circuit does not consume any power, though it offers a
resistance to the flow of alternating current in it. It is the principle of choke coil.

SUMMARY

1
 An LC circuit shows oscillatory behaviour with a frequency given by . The
√𝐿𝐶

energy in the system oscillates between the energy stored in the capacitor and
the inductor.
 An LCR circuit has either damped currents or damped oscillations depending
on the values of L, C and R.
 Inductive and capacitive elements in a circuit can be thought of as having
complex impedances. Their presence in the circuit leads to a phase shift between
the voltage and the current.

PROBLEMS

1. An alternating potential of 100 volt and 50 hertz is applied across a series circuit
having an inductance of 5 Henry, a resistance of 100 ohm and a variable
capacitance. At what value of capacitance will the current in the circuit be in
phase with the applied voltage? Calculate the current in this condition. What
will be the potential differences across the resistance, inductance and
capacitance?

1 1
For resonance, 𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶 or 𝐶 = 𝜔2 𝐿

Here, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 = 100π, L = 5H

1
∴ 𝐶 = (100𝜋)2 𝑥5 = 2 x 10-6 farad = 2µF
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 100
The current at resonance = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 1.0𝐴
𝑅 100

P.D. across R= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑥 𝑅 = 1.0 𝑥 100 = 100 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)

P.D.across L=𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑥 𝜔𝐿 = 1.0 𝑥 (100𝜋)𝑥 5 = 1570 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)
1 1
P.D. across C = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑥 𝐶𝜔 = 1.0𝑥 (2𝑥10−6 )𝑥100𝜋 = 1570 volt (rms)

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 The voltage across the inductor and capacitor are much greater than the applied
voltage. But they differ in phase by 180° . So their algebraic sum is zero.
2. An alternating voltage of 10 volts at 100Hz is applied to a choke of inductance 5
Henry and of resistance 200 ohms. Find the power factor of the coil and the
power absorbed.
Here, 𝐸𝑣 = 10𝑉, 𝜐 = 100𝐻𝑧, 𝐿 = 5𝐻, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 200𝛺
𝑅 200
Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = √𝑅2 =
+𝜔2 𝐿2 √(200)2 +(2𝜋×100×5)2

= 0.062.
𝐸𝑣
Power absorbed = 𝐸𝑣 . 𝐼𝑣 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝐸𝑣 . cos 𝜑
𝑍

(𝐸𝑣 )2 10 × 10(0.062)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 =
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 √(200)2 + (2𝜋 × 100 × 5)2
= 0.00189𝑊
3. A coil has an inductance of 0.1H and a resistance of 12 ohms. It is connected to
a 220V, 50Hz mains. Determine the (1) reactance of the coil, (2) impedance of the
coil, and (3) the reading of the wattmeter.
Reactance of coil= 𝐿𝜔 = 0.1 × 2𝜋 × 50𝛺 = 31.43𝛺

Z= impedance of coil = √𝑅 2 + 𝐿2 𝜔 2

= √(12)2 + 4𝜋 2 × (0.1)2 × (50)2 = 33.6𝛺

2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
Reading of watt meter = 𝑃̅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑍
(220)2 12
= × (33.6)=514.5 W
33.6

4. There is no dissipation of power when an alternating emf is applied to a purely

inductive circuit. Explain.
The power used by the source in one part of a cycle to create the magnetic field
of L is delivered back to the source in the remaining part of the cycle. Thus the
inductance acts like storage of magnetic energy in the circuit. This storage gets
filled up and emptied alternately, as the voltage source drives the circuit. No
energy is wasted in this process. In the resistive part (R) of the coil, some losses
occur by way of heat dissipation.
5. An inductance of 500 mH and a resistance of 5 ohms are connected in series with
an e.m.f of 10 volts. Find the final current. If now the cell is removed and the two
terminals are connected together, find the current after(i) 0.05 sec and (ii) 0.2 sec.
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 𝐸 10
Final current 𝐼0 = 𝑅 = = 2𝐴
5

During discharge, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

𝑅 5
Now 𝐿 = 500×10−3 = 10

(i) When t = 0.05 sec., 𝐼 = 2𝑒 −10𝑥0.05 = 1.213A

(ii) When t = 0.2 sec., 𝐼 = 2𝑒 −10𝑥0.2 = 0.271 A
6. An e.m.f 10 volts is applied to a circuit having a resistance of 10 ohms and an
inductance of 0.5 henry. Find the time required by the current to attain 63.2% of
its final value. What is the time constant of the circuit?
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 )
𝐼 63.2 𝑅 10
= ; = 0.5 = 20
𝐼0 100 𝐿

63.2
= 1 − 𝑒 −20𝑡
100
𝑒 −20𝑡 = 1 − 0.632 = 0.368

1
𝑒 20𝑡 = = 2.717
0.368

20𝑡 = log 𝑒 2.717

1
𝑡= × 2.3026 × log10 2.717
20

2.32026×0.4341
= = 0.05 sec.
20

The time constant of the circuit is

𝑳 𝟎.𝟓 𝟏
= = 𝟐𝟎 Second
𝑹 𝟏𝟎

QUESTIONS

1. What is alternating current?

2. Define Root mean square value of an alternating current.
3. What is the form factor?
4. Define the Effective value or virtual value of an A.C.
5. What is impedance?
6. What is the frequency of ac and dc in India?
107
7. What is called acceptor circuit?
8. What is power factor in ac circuit? When it is zero?
9. A series circuit contains pure inductance L and pure capacitance C. What is the
power loss in the circuit?
10. What is power factor?
11. When a current can be wattless?
12. What is called wattless current?
13. Define the term Q factor and sharpness of resonance for a resonant circuit.
14. What will happen to series resonant circuit if the resistance of the circuit is
doubled? What will be the effect on resonant frequency?
15. Explain why a series LCR resonance circuit is called acceptor circuit.
16. Explain why a parallel LCR resonance circuit is called rejector circuit.
17. What is meant by sharpness of resonance, bandwidth and quality factor in LCR
series resonance circuit?
18. What are the frequencies of series and parallel resonant circuits?
19. Explain the Parallel resonant circuit.
20. Compare series with parallel resonant circuits.
21. An alternating voltage is applied to a circuit containing an inductor, capacitor
and resistor in series. Obtain expressions for the current, impedance and phase
of current. Obtain the condition for the current to be in resonance with the
applied voltage. Obtain the resonant frequency.
22. Explain the method of solving alternating current problems with the help of
complex quantities. Investigate by such a method the behavior of a resonant
circuit consisting of a capacitance C in parallel with a coil of inductance L and
resistance R.
23. Find an expression for the power in ac circuit containing resistance, inductance
and capacitance. Determine the condition that the current in the circuit may be
wattles.
24. Obtain an expression for current in ac circuit having inductance and resistance.
25. Obtain an expression for current in ac circuit having capacitance and resistance.

108
REFERENCES

1. Brijlal and Subramaniyam – Electricity and Magnetism – S.Chand & Co.

2. R.Murugesan, Electricity and Magnetism, S.Chand & Co.
3. Narayanamoorthy and Nagaratnam, Electricity and Magnetism NPC, Chennai.
4. Sathya Prakash, Electricity and Magnetism, A Pragathi Edition, 2010.

Web Resources
5. https://www.qsstudy.com/physics
6. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
7. https://www.khanacademy.org/
8. https://www.physicsclassroom.com/
9. https://www.topperlearning.com/

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