Department of Electrical Engineering

National University of Computer and

Emerging Sciences,
Chiniot-Faisalabad Campus

NL110: PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

FALL 2019
Case Study Report

MAGNATIC LAVITATION

Section: A1

Group Members

MUAZZAM GHAFOOR 19F-0485

HAFIZ ZAIN UL ABIDIN 19F-0530

ZAIN UL ABIDIN 18F-0498

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CERTIFICATE
The project report concluded by Muazzam Ghafoor,
Zain ul abidin and Zain and has been completed under my
supervision and I am satisfied with the quality of student’s
project work.

Umair Akram
Assistant Professor
(Supervisor)
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF COMPUTER AND
EMERGING SCIENCES
CHINIOT-FAISALABAD CAMPUS

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DEDICATION
Dedication to our sweet parents, who always pray to
see the bud
Of their wishes Bloom into a flower to whom who
lives in my mind,
In my heart throughout the whole span of my life and
is nearest and
Deepest to me.

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MAGNETIC LAVITATION

DEFINATION :-
Magnetic levitation is a process of levitating an object with no support other than magnetic
field.
Magnetic field overcomes gravitational field and cancels it , so an object levitates in air.
Magnetic levitation can be achieved but there are two problems which should be satisfied for
levitating an object .First problem is that magnetic field should be so strong that it overcomes
the gravity and the second problem is that when we levitates an objects it is not stable.
We all have seen this effect using magnets in childhood. Magnets flip while they are
levitating. This problem is satisfied by scientists which we will discuss in next part of
presentation.
It has many uses. It is used in bullet trains, contactless welding, manglev fans in graphic
cards and other vehicles.

LIFT :-
Magnets have property to attract or repel each other
When same poles are positioned in same way they repel
each other, similarly when different poles are in same
way they attract and press each other . This is built in
property of magnets . we see this phenomena in our daily
life .
Basically a wide range of magnets have been utilized to
produce lift for attractive levitation; ferromagnetism,
electromagnets, diamagnetism, perpetual magnets,
superconducting magnets and attraction due to instigated
flows in conductors.
To ascertain the measure of lift, an attractive weight can
be characterized

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For instance, the attractive weight of an attractive field on a superconductor can be

determined by

where is the force per unit area in pascal ,

is the magnetic filed in tesla, and

= 4π×10−7 N·A−2 is the permeability of the vacuum

Lift and Drag Forces on a Moving Magnet

The force on a magnet moving over a nonmagnetic conducting plane can be conveniently
resolved into two components: a lift force perpendicular to the plane and a drag force opposite
to the direction of motion. At low velocity, the drag force is proportional to velocity v and
considerably greater than the lift force, which is proportional to v. As the velocity increases,
however, the drag force reaches a maximum (referred to as the drag peak) and then decreases
as 1/6. The lift force, on the other hand, which increases with v2 at low velocity, overtakes the
drag force as velocity increases and approaches an asymptotic value at high velocity, as shown
in the following figure . The "lift-to-drag ratio," which is of considerable practical importance,
is given by
FL /FD = v/w.

Velocity dependence of lift force FL and drag force

The lift force on a vertical dipole of moment DI moving at velocity v at a height zo above a
conducting plane can be

shown to be:
3ponl2

32Ttzo

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At high velocity, the lift force approaches the ideal lift from
2

a single image: 3pom/32Ttzo ; at low velocity, the factor in parentheses is approximately equal
to v2/2w2.
The drag force, as already pointed out, is w/v times the lift force, so the drag force is
proportional to v at low velocity. According to the thin-plate model that we have been
discussing thus far, the drag force should fall off with l/v as the lift force reaches its high-speed
limit. However, at high velocity, penetration of the eddy currents and magnetic fields are
limited to the skin depth, which is proportional to v-l/2. As a first approximation, one might
replace plate thickness by skin depth, in which case the drag force takes on a v-l/2 dependence
at high speed. The transition from thin-plate to skin depth behavior should occur at about 30
m/s in a I-cm-thick aluminum plate.

Measuring Lift and Drag Forces

Several recent papers have described experiments for measuring the velocity-dependent drag
force on a magnet
over a moving conductor with fairly simple apparatus. Byer et al. describe a superconducting
merry-go round for measuring the lift force in the laboratory.
At the AAIYP 1990 summer meeting, one of us (TR) exhibited a simple apparatus for
demonstrating and measuring both lift and drag forces on a small permanent magnet over a
rotating aluminum disk. To qualitatively demonstrate lift and drag forces, the magnet is
attached to a flexible arm, A (a hacksaw blade serves nicely), that is pivoted so that the magnet
moves freely in the vertical direction, as shown in Fig. 6. The 0.6-cm-thick aluminum disk is
rotated at a maximum speed of 1725 rpm by a 1/4-hp electric motor. When the motor is
switched on and the disk accelerates, the magnet arm bends several centimeters due to a fairly
strong drag force on the magnet. As the speed increases, the magnet begins to lift,

Simple apparatus for demonstrating and

measuring lift and drag forces on a small magnet
over a rotating aluminum disk.

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Lift and drag forces on a 12.7-mm-diameter NdFeB magnet over e rotating aluminum disk
having a thickness of 6.35 mm. The lift force increases with velocity, but the drag force
decreases at velocities above the "drag peak."
which decreases the drag force (in addition to which, the drag force diminishes slowly above
the drag peak).
A second magnet arm, B, for measuring lift and drag forces is a slightly modified
phonograph pickup arm. To measure the drag force, a string runs from this arm over a pulley
to a 20-g weight hanger. Mass is added to the magnet arm in 10-g increments, and the magnet
height is measured with a small telescope with cross hairs (as used in wall galvanometers)
attached to a micrometer slide. me velocity is varied by positioning the magnet at different
radii over the rotating disk.
Lift and drag forces measured with this apparatus are shown as functions of velocity in Fig.
7. At the maximum velocity (25 m/s), we have passed the drag peak, but the lift force is
nowhere close to its asymptotic limit.
To measure the magnetic fields due to induced eddy currents, we can position a Hall-effect
probe under the magnet. The vertical and horizontal components of the magnetic field,
measured in this way, are shown in Fig. 8. 'Ihe circles show the magnetic field as a function of
position with the disk at rest, and the squares show the field at a velocity of 23 m/s. The
difference between these two fields is the field due to induced eddy currents, shown by the
diamonds.
Ihe vertical component of the magnetic field due to eddy currents is seen to reach its maximum
value, in Fig. 8, at x -3 mm, whereas the horizontal component reaches its maximum value at

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x = 3.5 mm. Thus the eddy current pattern is somewhere between the low-velocity and high-
velocity.

(a) (b)

{Magnetic field 3 mm above the rotating disk shown in Figure above with the magnet 6 mm above the disk
(a) vertical component,
(b) horizontal component. Circles show fields at rest; squares show fields with the disk moving 23 m/s. The difference
between these fields, shown as diamonds, represents the field due to induced eddy currents in the disk. The magnet
moves in the negative x direction with respect to the disk.

Stability:-
Earnshaw's hypothesis demonstrates that utilizing just paramagnetic materials, (for example,
ferromagnetic iron) it is unthinkable for a static framework to steadily suspend against
gravity.
For instance, the most straightforward case of lift with two basic dipole magnets repulsing is
exceptionally shaky, since the top magnet can slide sideways, or flip over, and for reasons
unknown, no setup of magnets can create dependability.
However, servomechanisms, the use of diamagnetic materials, superconduction, or systems
involving eddy currents allow stability to be achieved.
Now and again the lifting power is given by attractive levitation, yet solidness is given by a
mechanical help bearing little burden. This is named pseudo-levitation.

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Static stability:-
Static dependability implies that any little removal away from stable equilibrium causes a net
power to drive it back to the equilbrium point.
Earnshaw's hypothesis demonstrated convincingly that it is unimaginable to expect to
suspend steadily utilizing just static, plainly visible, paramagnetic fields. The powers
following up on any paramagnetic article in any blends of gravitational, electrostatic, and
magnetostatic fields will make the item's situation, best case scenario, flimsy along in any
event one pivot, and it very well may be in precarious harmony along all tomahawks. In any
case, a few conceivable outcomes exist to make levitation feasible, for instance, the
utilization of electronic adjustment or diamagnetic materials (since relative attractive
penetrability is short of what one); it very well may be indicated that diamagnetic materials
are steady along in any event one hub, and can be steady along all tomahawks. Conductors
can have a relative penetrability to rotating attractive fields of underneath one, so a few
arrangements utilizing straightforward AC driven electromagnets are self stable.
Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability happens when the levitation framework can sodden out any vibration-like
movement that may happen.

Attractive fields are preservationist powers and consequently on a fundamental level have no
worked in damping, and by and by numerous individuals of the levitation plans are under-
damped and now and again adversely damped. This can allow vibration modes to exist that
can make the thing leave the steady locale.
Damping of motion is done in a number of ways:
• external mechanical damping (in the help, for example, dashpots, air drag and so
forth.
• eddy current damping (conductive metal impacted by field)
• tuned mass dampers in the suspended article
• electromagnets constrained by gadgets

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PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN MAGNETISM

Usage of magnetic levitation in transportation has two significant challenges: levitation
against gravity and propulsion .next are a portion of the major standards, hypotheses,
formulae and data that help us to see this idea from a superior point of view.
Attractive levitation is a procedure or technique wherein an article is suspended in air against
the gravity of earth. Here two sorts of powers which are expected; counteract the weight of
the body and the second to balance out the lifted body. Earnshaw's hypothesis expresses that
an attractively suspended body isn't self-settled

Earnshaw’s Theorem
It expresses that assortment of point charges can't be kept up in stable balance exclusively by
electrostatic force. The equivalent applies to attractive levitation. Thus some different
methods are to be utilized to magnetically lift a body. Utilization powers like gravitational,
electrostatic and magneto static powers empowers static stability . Dynamic stability can be
accomplished in different ways, for example, • External mechanical damping (in the help, for
example, dashpots, air drag and so on • Eddy current damping (conductive metal impacted by
field) • Tuned mass dampers in the suspended item • Electromagnets constrained by hardware

Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell's equations are a lot of fractional differential equations that, together with the
Lorentz power law, structure the establishment of traditional electrodynamics, old style
optics, and electric circuits. Maxwell's conditions depict how electric and magnetic fields are
produced by charges, flows and changes of one another. Gauss’s Law: Gauss's law describes
how electric fields emanate from electric charges. It expresses that the attractive field B has
disparity equivalent to zero. It is identical to the explanation that attractive monopoles don't
exist. As opposed to "attractive charges", the essential substance for attraction is the magnetic
dipole.

The equation states that the electric flux leaving a volume is proportional to the charge inside

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Gauss's law for magnetism

Gauss's law for tells magnetic fields as closed field lines.

The equation states that there are no magnetic monopoles; the total magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero

Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of induction)

This law shows the connection between electric circuit and magnetic field.

The law expresses that when the magnetic flux connecting a circuit changes, an electromotive
forceis initiated in the circuit relative to the flux linkage.

Theories for magnetic levitation.

This is a homogeneous condition portrays how the fields "circle" around their separate
sources. The condition implies that the voltage induced in a shut circuit is corresponding to
the pace of progress of the magnetic flux it encases.

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Faradays law also state that emf is change in magnetic flux.

The negative sign utilized in Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, shows that the
actuated emf ( ε ) and the change in magnetic flux ( δΦB ) have inverse signs. The heading of
the electromotive power is given by Lenz's law.

Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition)

Ampère's law with Maxwell's expansion portrays how the magnetic field "courses" around
electric flows and time shifting electric fields, while Faraday's law depicts how the electric

field "circles" around time fluctuating magnetic fields.

The condition implies that the magnetic field incited around a shut circle is corresponding to
the electric current in addition to displacement current (pace of progress of electric field) it
encases.

Lenz's Law
Lenz's law is an expansion to Faraday's law and provides the direction of induced current.

It expresses that when an EMF is created by a change in magnetic flux as per Faraday's Law,
the polarity of the induced EMF is such, that it delivers a present that is attractive field
restricts the change which produces it.

This is significant law showing up as ' for each activity there is a countering response ' type, like Newton's law, however in
Electromagnetism.

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FORCES BETWEEN MAGNETS

The force between magnets are because of minute flows of electrically charged electrons
circling cores and the inherent attraction of key particles that make up the material.

Since both these are demonstrated as tiny loops of current called magnetic dipoles, the most
rudimentary power between magnets, hence, is the attractive dipole–dipole interaction.

Gilbert model
The Gilbert model expect that the magnetic forces between magnets are because of attractive
charges close to the poles. While physically wrong, this model creates great approximations
that work even near the magnet when the attractive field turns out to be increasingly
confused.

Force between two magnetic poles

if both poles of magnet are very small they are considered as point charges poles and force
between them is given by.

Where,
F is force
qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles) μ is the
permeability of the intervening medium r is the separation

Force between two bar magnets

Force between two bar magnets is given by:

Where,
B0 is the flux density

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A is the area of each pole

L is the length of each magnet,
R is the radius of each magnet,
and x is the separation between the two magnets,
in m relates the flux density at the pole to the
magnetization of the magnet.

Force between two cylindrical magnets

Force between two cylindrical magnets is given by:

M is the magnetization and x is the distance between them.\

Ampere’s Model
In Ampere's model the calculations are finished by thinking about the minuscule or nuclear
flows in the item, henceforth this is troublesome. The magnetic force for permanent magnets
is given by:

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Gilbert's model has formula identifying with magnets being as poles, for two bar magnets and
for two round and hollow magnets while Ampere's model has characteristic estimations,
which are troublesome.
The model planned by the group depends on a bar magnet and circle magnet.
So Gilbert's model cant be applied. Since the issue proclamation is in understanding the
standards, the group has chosen that such estimations aren't required.
While gathering, one can utilize experimentation technique and fluctuate the heaviness of the
body to accomplish the necessary levitation with the track.

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Techniques to accomplish stable levitation

For fruitful levitation and control of each of the 6 axis a mix of magnets and electromagnets
or diamagnets or superconductors just as appealing and appalling fields can be utilized.

From Earnshaw's hypothesis at any rate one stable pivot must be available for the framework
to suspend effectively, however other axis can be balanced out utilizing ferromagnetism.

The essential ones utilized in maglev trains are servo-settled electromagnetic suspension
(EMS), electrodynamic suspension (EDS).

Mechanical constraint (pseudo-levitation)

With a modest quantity of mechanical limitation for stableness, accomplishing pseudo-levitation is a

generally clear way.In the event that two magnets are along same axis , for instance, if they repell ecah
other this will help in leviating . Another geometry is the place the magnets are pulled in, yet obliged from
contacting by a malleable part, for example, a string or wire.

Another model is the Zippe-type rotator where a chamber is suspended under an appealing magnet, and
settled by a needle bearing from beneath

Servomechanisms

The force of attraction from a set powefull magnet decreases with increase in distance, and
will increase at nearer distances. this technique is unstable. For a stable system, the other is
required, variations from a stable position ought to push it back to the target position.

Stable railroading are often earned by measure the position and rate of the item being
levitated, and employing a electric circuit that ceaselessly adjusts one or a lot of
electromagnets to correct the object's movement, so forming a Servomechanisms.

Many systems use attraction pull upwards against force of gravity for such sorts of systems as
this provides some inherent lateral stability, however some systems use a mix of attraction
and magnetic repulsion to push upwards or downward.

Either system represents samples of magnetic force Suspension (EMS). For a really easy
example, work surface levitation demonstrations use this principle, and therefore the object
cuts a beam of sunshine or Hall impact device technique is employed to see the position of
the item. The magnet is higher than the item being levitated; the magnet is turned off
whenever the item gets too shut, and turned back on once it falls any away. Such an easy
system isn't terribly strong way more effective management systems exist, however this
demonstrate the essential plan.

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EMS magnetic levitation train square measure supported this type of levitation: The train
wraps round the track, and is force upwards from below by victimisation this technique. The
servo controls keep it safely at a relentless distance from the track.

The transport system uses servomechanisms to pull the train up from underneath the track and maintains a constant
gap while travelling at high speed

Induced currents
These schemes work due to repulsion and Lenz's law. once a conductor is given with a time-
varying field of force electrical currents within the conductor ar established that produce a
field of force that causes a repulsive impact. These forms of systems usually show associate
degree inherent stability, though further damping is typically needed.

Relative motion between conductors and magnets

If one moves a base fabricated from a really smart electrical conductor like copper, aluminum
or silver about to a magnet, AN (eddy) current are going to be evoked within the conductor
which will oppose the changes within the field and build AN opposite field which will repel
the magnet (Lenz's law). At a sufficiently high rate of movement, a suspended magnet can
levitate on the metal, or the other way around with suspended metal. Litz wire fabricated
from wire diluent than the skin depth for the frequencies seen by the metal works rather more
with efficiency than solid conductors. An particularly technologically attention-grabbing case

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of this comes once one uses a Halbach array rather than one pole magnet, as this nearly
doubles the sector strength, that successively nearly doubles the strength of the eddy currents.
Infobahn result is to over triple the carry force. exploitation 2 opposed Halbach arrays will
increase the sector even more.

Halbach arrays are well-suited to rail technology and stabilisation of gyroscopes and motor
and generator spindles

Oscillating electromagnetic fields

A conductor will be levitated higher than Associate in Nursing magnet (or vice versa) with
Associate in Nursing AC flowing through it. This causes any regular conductor to behave sort
of a stuff, because of the eddy currents generated within the conductor. Since the eddy
currents produce their own fields that oppose the force field, the conductive object is repelled
from the magnet, and most of the sector lines of the force field can not penetrate the
conductive object. This result needs non-ferromagnetic however extremely conductive
materials like metal or copper, because the magnetic force ones also are powerfully interested
in the magnet (although at high frequencies the sector will still be expelled) and have a
tendency to own the next electrical phenomenon giving lower eddy currents. Again, litz wire
provides the most effective results. The result will be used for stunts like levitating a
directory by concealing Associate in Nursing metal plate among it.At high frequencies (a few
tens of kHz or so) and kW powers little quantities of metals will be levitated and dissolved
exploitation levitation melting while not the danger of the metal being contaminated by the
vessel.

One supply of periodical force field that's used is that the linear induction motor. this could
be wont to levitate moreover as give propulsion.

Aluminium foil floating above the induction cooktop thanks to eddy currents induced in it.

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Diamagnetically stabilized levitation

Earnshaw's hypothesis doesn't make a difference to diamagnets. These carry on is totaly inverse way
to typical magnets attributable to their overall penetrability of μ r < 1 (for example negative attractive
weakness). Diamagnetic levitation can be innately steady.

A lasting magnet can be steadily suspended by different arrangements of solid changeless magnets
and solid diamagnets. When utilizing superconducting magnets, the levitation of a lasting magnet can
even be balanced out by the little diamagnetism of water in human fingers.

Diamagnetic levitation
The figure shows the Diamagnetic levitation of pyrolytic carbon

Diamagnetism is the property of an article

which makes it make an attractive field
contrary to a remotely applied attractive
field, along these lines making the material
be repulsed by attractive fields.
Diamagnetic materials cause lines of
attractive transition to bend away from the
material. In particular, an outside attractive
field modifies the orbital speed of
electrons around their cores, consequently
changing the attractive dipole minute.

As indicated by Lenz's law, this

contradicts the outside field. Diamagnets
are materials with an attractive porousness
under μ0 (a relative penetrability under 1).
Thus, diamagnetism is a type of attraction
that is just displayed by a substance within
the sight of a remotely applied attractive
field. It is commonly a serious frail impact
in many materials, despite the fact that
superconductors display a solid impact
.

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Direct diamagnetic levitation

A substance that is diamagnetic repulses an attractive field. All materials have diamagnetic
properties, however the impact is exceptionally feeble, and is generally overwhelmed by the
article's magnet or attraction properties, that demonstration inside the contrary way. Any
material during which the attraction component is more grounded will be repulsed by a
magnet.

Diamagnetic levitation are frequently acclimated suspend Very light things of change nuclear
number 6 or nuclear number 83 over a tolerably powerful static magnet. As water is
prevalently attraction, this strategy has been acclimated suspend water beads and even live
creatures, similar to a grasshopper, frog and a mouse at the same time, the attractive fields
required for this ar horribly high, by and large inside the change of sixteen teslas, and along
these lines produce significant issues if attraction materials are close

The minimum criterion for diamagnetic levitation is , where:

 is the magnetic susceptibility

 is the density of the material
 is the local gravitational acceleration (−9.8 m/s2 on Earth)
 is the permeability of free space
 is the magnetic field

 is the rate of change of the magnetic field along the y-axis.

Assuming ideal conditions along the z-direction of solenoid magnet:

 Water levitates at

 Graphite levitates at

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A live frog levitates inside a

32 mm diameter vertical
bore of a Bitter solenoid in
a magnetic field of about
16 teslas

Superconductors
Superconductors is additionally contemplated great diamagnets, and totally oust attractive
fields due to the Meissner result once the electrical conduction abdominal muscle initio
structures; so superconducting levitation will be considered a particular occurrence of
attraction levitation. in an exceedingly type-II superconductor, the levitation of the magnet is
increasingly steady due to transition guarantee at interims the superconductor; this will in
general avoid the superconductor from moving concerning the field of power, however the
suspended framework is reversed.

These standards square measure abused by EDS (Electrodynamic Suspension),

superconducting course, flywheels, and so forth.

A very strong field of power is expected to suspend a train. The JR–Maglev trains have
superconducting attractive curls, anyway the JR–Maglev levitation isn't a direct result of the
Meissner result.

Rotational stabilization

A magnet or properly assembled array of magnets with a solid field are often stably levitated
against gravity once gyroscopically stable by spinning it in a very second solid field created
by a base ring of magnet(s). However, this solely works whereas the speed of precession is
between each higher and lower important thresholds—the region of stability is kind of
slender each spatially and within the needed rate of precession.

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The first discovery of this development was by Roy M. Harrigan, a Vermont discoverer
WHO proprietary a levitation device in 1983 based mostly upon it. many devices
mistreatment move stabilization (such because the in style Levitron branded levitating prime
toy) are developed citing this patent. Non-commercial devices are created for university
analysis laboratories, usually mistreatment magnets too powerful for safe public interaction.

Strong focusing

Earnshaw's hypothesis carefully exclusively applies to static fields. Substituting attractive

fields, even carefully rotating luring fields, will instigate steadiness and restrict a trip through
a field to give a levitation result. This is utilized in molecule quickening agents to keep and
convey charged particles, and has been anticipated for rail innovation prepares in like
manner.

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APPLICATION OF MAGNATIC LAVITATION

Maglev Vehicles:-

As early as 1907 Robert Goddard, better known as the father of modern rocketry, but then a
student at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, published a story in which many of the key
features of a maglev transportation system were described. In 1912, a French engineer
named Emile Bachelet proposed a magnetically levitated vehicle for delivering mail.

His vehicle was levitated by copper-wound electromagnets moving over a pair of

aluminum strips. Because of the large power consumption, however, Bachelet's proposal
was not taken very seriously, and the idea lay more or less dormant for half a century.
In 1963 J.R. Powell, a physicist at vehicle Brookhaven National Laboratory, suggested
using superconducting magnets to levitate a train over a superconducting Gliding skid
guideway.Powell and G.R. Danby proposed a system using a less expensive conducting
guideway at room tempera- guidance ture in 1967. Later, they conceived the and braking
novel idea of a "null-flux" suspension magnet system that would minimize the drag force
and thus require much less propul-sion power. levitation and During the late 1960s, groups
at the propulsion magnet.
Stanford Research Institute and at Atomic International studied the feasibility of a by
Guderjahn.25 In 1972, the group at Stanford Research Institute constructed and demonstrated
a vehicle levitated with superconducting magnets over a continuous aluminum guideway 160
m long.
At about the same time, a team from MIT, Raytheon, and United Engineers designed the
Diagneplane system, in which lightweight cylindrical vehicles, propelled by a synchronously
traveling magnetic field, travel in a curved aluminum trough. One advantage of the curved
trough is that the vehicle is free to assume the correct bank angle when negotiating curves, the
guideway itself being banked only at approxi-
mately the desired angle. The magneplane concept was tested with a 1/25-scale model system
using both permanent magnets and superconducting coils for levitation.

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116-m-long synchronized guideway:-

Research groups at the Ford Motor Company Scientific Laboratories28,29 and at the
University of Toronto and Queen's and McGill Universities in Canada30,31 carefully studied
magnetic levitation and electromagnetic propulsion; although they did not construct test
vehicles, these groups contributed immensely to our understanding of the basic physics and
engineering principles involved.
Maglev systems became objects of considerable study in several other countries, most
notably Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Research in Germany, which began in the
early 1970s, was initially directed both toward electromagnetic systems using attractive
levitation forces and electrodynamic systems using repulsive forces, but in recent years only
electromagnetic systems have been seriously considered. 32,33 In Japan, research and
development efforts on electromagnetic (attractive) and electrodynamic (repulsive) systems
have been proceeded in parallel programs spearheaded by Japan Air Lines and Japan Rail,
respectively.34-36 The most successful project in the UK was the Wolfson levitation proiect
at the University of Warwick, which began about 1973.
In the United States, however, virtually all support for maglev research ended about 1975, and
very little work was done from that time until very recently. Research and development
continued in Japan and Germany (see Fig. 9 and cover photo), and full-scale vehicles have
been tested in both countries. Plans are being made to construct a system based on the German
electromagnetic (Transrapid) technology in Orlando, Florida, which will probably be the first
public maglev system in the United States.

Electromagnetic (attractiveforce) suspension (levitation)

Electromagnetic systems (EMS) depend upon the attractive forces between electromagnets
and a ferromagnetic (steel) guideway, as shown in Figure. Because the force of attraction
increases with decreasing distance, such systems are inherently unstable and the magnet
currents must be carefully controlled to maintain the desired suspension height. Furthermore,
the magnet-to-guideway spacing
needs to be small (only a few
centimeters at most). On the other
hand, it is possible to maintain
magnetic suspension even when the
vehicle is standing still, which is not
true for electrodynamic (repulsive
force) systems. In the system in Fig.
10, a separate set of electromagnets
provides horizontal guidance force,
but the levitation magnets, acted on by a moving magnetic field from the guideway, provide

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the propulsion force. The German Transrapid TR-07 vehicle is designed to carry 200
passengers at a maximum speed of 500 km/hr. The levitation height is 8 mm, and power
consumption is estimated to be 43 MW at 400 km/hr. v

How Maglev trains work

SC Maglev, or superconducting magnetic trains, were developed by the Central Japan

Railway Company and therefore the Railway Technical analysis Institute starting within
the Nineteen Seventies. rail technology trains work on the principle of magnetic
repulsion between the cars and therefore the track. The word rail technology is really a
mix of the words “magnetic” and “levitation.” The railroading, or floating of the train, is
achieved through the employment of associate electrodynamic suspension, or EDS.

The rails, or guideways,

contain 2 sets of cross
connected metal coils wound
into a “figure eight” pattern
to create electromagnets. On
the train itself area unit
superconducting
electromagnets, referred to
as bogies. once stopped, the
train rests on rubber wheels.
to start motion, the train
moves forward slowly on
these wheels, permitting the
magnets below the train to act with those of the guideway. Once the train reaches one
hundred fifty kilometers per hour (93 miles per hour), the attraction is robust enough
to raise the train a hundred milimeters (4 inches) off the bottom, eliminating friction to
permit for more and more high speeds.The same magnetic forces that raise the train
conjointly move it forward and keep it focused at intervals the guideway. this is often
constant technology employed by Tesla’s Hyperloop, that makes the ride swish and
therefore the train exceptionally safe.

Maglev top speed

What is the magnetic levitation train’s prime speed? In Gregorian calendar month 2015, a
manned superconducting magnetic levitation train bust 2 previous land speed records for rail
vehicles. The train was clocked at 603 kilometers per hour or 375 miles per hour. this can be
a lot of quicker than the magnetic levitation trains already operative in Shanghai, China, and
in Asian nation, that run at speeds of 268 to 311 miles per hour and sixty eight miles per
hour, severally.

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The magnetic levitation train has conjointly exceeded previous Shinkansen world speed
records in trials at the Miyazaki take a look at Track. Most Shinkansen trains operate at
speeds of concerning five hundred kilometers per hour (200 to 275 miles per hour). As new
technologies area unit developed and instituted, future trains could succeed even larger
velocities

ADVANCMENT IN MAGLEV TRAIN

The Chuo Shinkansen (or the Tokaido Shinkansen Bypass) could be a new route which is
able to connect Yeddo and urban center. it's being made in phases and can use with-it rail
technology (Magnetic Levitation) technology.

Once completed, the road can

offer a a lot of direct line between
the 2 cities and can scale back
time period by around five
hundredth (down to forty
minutes) compared to this
Tokaido Shinkansen line. The
route are going to be extended to
metropolis once the project
progresses – the full journey can
take simply sixty seven minutes.

Passengers are going to be able to

get tickets for the printing
operation in 2027. The trains can
travel at a most speed of 505 km/h (the record is 603 km/h). The route map can at the start
embody half dozen stations: the Shinagawa Station, the urban center Station, and therefore
the prefectures of Kanagawa, Yamanashi, Nagano, and Gifo. it'll embody 256.6 kilometer of
tunnels, 11.3 kilometer of bridges, and 4.1 kilometer of rail beds.

The Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) is overseeing the project which is able to
value Associate in Nursing calculable five.52tn yen ($52b). they need ordered fourteen new
Series L0 (L zero) rail technology trains that area unit presently conducting long-distance
trials on the Yamanashi rail technology check line.

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Extra
3. Magnetically Levitated Trains
Among useful usages of magnetic levitation technologies, the most important usage is
in operation of magnetically levitated trains. Maglev trains are undoubtedly the most
advanced vehicles currently available to railway industries. Maglev is the first
fundamental innovation in the field of railroad technology since the invention of the
railroad. Magnetically levitated train is a highly modern vehicle. Maglev vehicles use
noncontact magnetic levitation, guidance, and propulsion systems and have no wheels,
axles, and transmission. Contrary to traditional railroad vehicles, there is no direct
physical contact between maglev vehicle and its guideway. These vehicles move along
magnetic fields that are established between the vehicle and its guideway. Conditions
of no mechanical contact and no friction provided by such technology make it feasible
to reach higher speeds of travel attributed to such trains. Manned maglev vehicles have
recorded speed of travel equal to 581 km/hr. The replacement of mechanical
components by wear-free electronics overcomes the technical restrictions of wheel-on-
rail technology. Application of magnetically levitated trains has attracted numerous
transportation industries throughout the world. Magnetically levitated trains are the
most recent advancement in railway engineering specifically in transportation
industries. Maglev trains can be conveniently considered as a solution for transportation
needs of the current time as well as future needs of the world. There is variety of designs
for maglev systems and engineers keep revealing new ideas about such systems. Many
systems have been proposed in different parts of the worlds, and a number of corridors
have been selected and researched [8].
Rapid increase in traffic volume in transport systems plus the need for improving
passenger comfort have highlighted the subject of developing new transport systems.
The recent required increases in the traffic volume in transport systems, as well as a
need for the improvement of passengers’ comfort, and required reductions in track life
cycle costs, have caused the subject of the development of a new transportation system.
One of the important systems which have attracted industries is maglev transport
system. In this regard, maglev transport system turns out to be a proper choice for
transportation industries around the world. Maglev systems have been recently
developed in response to the need for rapid transit systems. The maglev system comes
off clearly better and surpasses high speed railways (HSRs) in almost most fields. These
include the pollution, noise emission, vibration level, environmental issues, land
occupations, loading, speed, acceleration and deceleration, braking, maintenance costs,
passenger comfort, safety, and travel time. With the maglev guideway it is also possible

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to reach to the minimal radiuses for the horizontal and vertical curves. A maglev vehicle
can as well travel at the steeper gradients compared with the HSR systems. This
considerably reduces the total length of track for the maglev routes compared to the
HSR systems. The possibility of traveling with the higher grade angles also reduces the
number of tunnels that are required to travel through the mountainous areas. This can
also shorten the total length for the maglev route. Therefore, construction of the maglev
routes in the hilly areas, in addition to many other advantageous of these systems, can
be considered as an attractive choice for the transportation industries. The lower energy
consumption of the maglev vehicles in comparison with the HSR systems is also among
major characteristics of the magnetically levitated trains. This can be easily associated
with the absence of the wheels and the resulting situation of no physical contact between
the maglev vehicle and its guideway. Therefore, the energy loss due to the unwanted
friction is out of the equations. Furthermore, the vehicle weight is lower due to the
absence of wheels, axles, and engine. On the other hand, reduction in the travel time
considerably reduces the energy consumption. The limited energy resources that are
currently available to the nation have highlighted the fact that every individual has to
be the energy conscious. The government had to take steps, and it started by setting the
preventative rules and the tightening access to the cheap energy resources. Clearly, the
widespread application of the magnetically levitated trains for the public transport, in
short and long distances, can provide the nation with huge saving in the energy
consumption. This is not a fact that can be easily ignored nor can it be bypassed [9, 10].
Maglev suspension systems are divided into two groups of ElectroMagnetic Suspension
(EMS) and ElectroDynamic Suspension (EDS). There are varieties of vehicles that are
manufactured based on these two types of systems. Vehicle paths in EMS and EDS
systems are called guideway and track, respectively. Basically, there are two main
elements in a maglev system including its vehicle and the guideway. The three primary
functions in maglev technology are levitation, propulsion, and guidance. Magnetic
forces perform all of these. Magnets are used to generate such magnetic forces. For
EMS systems, these magnets are located within the vehicle while for EDS systems
magnets are located in the track. Performance of EMS system is based on attractive
magnetic forces, while EDS system works with repulsive magnetic forces. In EDS
system, the vehicle is levitated about 1 to 10 cm above the track using repulsive forces
as presented in Figure 13. In EMS system, the vehicle is levitated about 1 to 2 cm above
the guideway using attractive forces as presented in Figure 14. In EMS system, the
electromagnets on the vehicle interact with and are attracted to levitation rails on the
guideway. Electromagnets attached to the vehicle are directed up toward the guideway,
which levitates the vehicle above the guideway and keeps the vehicle levitated. Control
of allowed air gaps between the guideway and vehicle is achieved by using highly
advanced control systems. Figures 13 and 14 show the components of the guideway and
track, including beam and levitation and guidance systems in aforementioned maglev
systems [11].

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Figure 13: Schematic diagram of EDS maglev system.

Figure 14: Schematic diagram of EMS maglev system.

Maglev is a system in which the vehicle runs levitated from the guideway
(corresponding to the rail tracks of conventional railways) by using electromagnetic
forces between superconducting magnets on board the vehicle and coils on the ground.
The levitation coils are installed on the sidewalls of the guideway. When the on-board
superconducting magnets pass at a high speed about several centimeters below the
center of these coils, an electric current is induced within the coils, which then act as
electromagnets temporarily. As a result, there are forces which push the
superconducting magnet upwards and ones which pull them upwards simultaneously,
thereby levitating the maglev vehicle. The levitation coils facing each other are
connected under the guideway, constituting a loop. When a running maglev vehicle,
that is a superconducting magnet, displaces laterally, an electric current is induced in
the loop, resulting in a repulsive force acting on the levitation coils of the side near the
car and an attractive force acting on the levitation coils of the side farther apart from the
car. Thus, a running car is always located at the center of the guideway. A repulsive
force and an attractive force induced between the magnets are used to propel the vehicle
(superconducting magnet). The propulsion coils located on the sidewalls on both sides
of the guideway are energized by a three-phase alternating current from a substation,
creating a shifting magnetic field on the guideway. The on-board superconducting
magnets are attracted and pushed by the shifting field, propelling the maglev vehicle.
The guideway is the structure that maglev vehicles move over it and are supported and
guided by it. Its main roles are to direct the movement of the vehicle, to support the
vehicle load, and to transfer the load to the ground. It is the function of the guideway
structure to endure applied loads from the vehicle and transfer them to the foundations.
It is the main element in maglev system and holds big share of costs for the system. It
is vital for maglev trains [12]. Maglev train levitates over single or double track
guideway. Guideway can be mounted either at-grade or elevated on columns and
consists of individual steel or concrete beams. Elevated guideways occupy the least
amount of land on the ground. Moreover, with such systems there is guarantee of
meeting no obstacle along the route. To guarantee safety for maglev trains necessitates
guarantee that there will be no intersection between guideway and other forms of traffic
routes. To serve the purpose, general proposition is to have elevated guideways.
Guideway provides guidance for the movement of the vehicle, to support the vehicle
load, and to transfer the load to the ground. In maglev guideways contrary to traditional
railroad tracks, there is no need to ballast, sleeper, rail pad, and rail fastenings to
stabilize the rail gauge. Guideway consists of superstructures and substructures. A
guideway consists of a beam (girder) and two levitation (guidance) rails. Guideways

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can be constructed at grade (ground-level) or elevated including columns with concrete,

steel, or hybrid beams. Maglev elevated guideways minimize land occupation and
prevent collision with other forms of traffic at-grade intersections. Guideways are
designed and constructed as single or double tracks (Figure 15). Guideways can be U-
shaped, I-shaped, T-shaped, Box, Truss, and so forth. A majority of cross-sections of
guideway girders are also U-shaped. The rail gauges (track gauges) and spans are
mostly 2.8 m and 24.8 m, respectively [13].

Figure 15: Standard guideway types.

The most important part in the analysis and design of guideway is structural loading.
The loading of the maglev vehicle is an important parameter in the practical application.
It is related to the magnetic forces. The guideway must carry a dead load due to its own
weight, and live loads including the vehicle loads. To incorporate the dynamic
interaction between the guideway and the vehicle, the live load is multiplied by a
dynamic amplification factor. Lateral and longitudinal loads including wind and
earthquake loads may also need to be considered. The guideway loadings are modeled
as dynamic and uniformly distributed magnetic forces to account for the dynamic
coupling between the vehicle and the guideway. As maglev vehicle speeds increase to
300–500 km/h, the dynamic interactions between vehicle and guideway become an
important problem and will play a dominant role in establishing vehicle suspension
requirements. Magnetic forces are generated by the maglev vehicle and cause structural
loading that transmits to the guideway. This can happen whilst such a vehicle is
stationary or in motion.
Guideways are designed and constructed with concrete or steel girders. Concrete
guideway girders can be as reinforced or prestressed. Guideway girder is evaluated for
different load cases. As an example, the Shanghai guideway girder was evaluated with
respect to as many as 14,000 load cases by consideration of the deflection, dynamic
strength, and thermal expansion. The guideway girder for Urban Maglev Program in
Korea was also evaluated for five load cases that are combinations of the dead load, live
load, and the prestressing forces of the tendon [14, 15].
Despite high speeds, passengers are safer in maglev vehicles than in other transportation
systems. The electromagnetically suspended vehicle is wrapped around the guideway
and therefore virtually impossible to derail. Elevated guideways ensure that no obstacles
can be in the way. In order to prevent contact between the vehicle and the guideway and
maintain the required gap between them, the system is continuously under Operation
Control System (OCS) command. The Operation Control System (OCS) comprises all
technical facilities for planning, monitoring, and safeguarding of vehicle operation [16].

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HYPER LOOP

A Hyperloop may be a planned mode of rider and/or freight transportation, initial wont to
describe AN ASCII text file vactrain style discharged by a joint team from Tesla and SpaceX.
Drawing heavily from Henry Martyn Robert Goddard's vactrain and therefore the Swiss
research Swissmetro, a hyperloop may be a sealed tube or system of tubes through that a pod
might travel freed from air resistance or friction conveyance of title folks or objects at high
speed whereas being terribly economical, thereby drastically reducing travel times over
medium-range distances.

Elon Musk's version of the conception, initial in public mentioned in 2012,incorporates

reduced-pressure tubes within which pressurised capsules ride on air bearings driven by
linear induction motors and axial compressors.

The Hyperloop Alpha

conception was initial revealed
in August 2013, proposing and
examining a route running
from the l. a. region to the
point of entry Bay space,
roughly following the
interstate five passageway. The
Hyperloop Genesis paper
planned of a hyperloop system
that might propel passengers
on the 350-mile (560 km) route
at a speed of 760 mph (1,200
km/h), granting a period of
thirty five minutes, that is
significantly quicker than current rail or aviation times.

Preliminary value estimates for this LA–SF advised route were enclosed within the white
paper—US$6 billion for a passenger-only version, and US$7.5 billion for a somewhat larger-
diameter version transporting passengers and vehicles[1]—although transportation analysts
had doubts that the system can be created on it budget; some analysts claimed that the
Hyperloop would be many billion bucks overbudget, taking into thought construction,
development, and operation prices.

The Hyperloop conception has been expressly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, et al.
are inspired to require the concepts and additional develop them.

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To that finish, many corporations are fashioned, and several other knowledge domain
student-led groups area unit operating to advance the technology. SpaceX designed AN close
to 1-mile-long (1.6 km) subscale track for its pod style competition at its headquarters in
author, California.

Some specialists area unit skeptical, expression that the proposals ignore the expenses and
risks of developing the technology which the thought is "completely impractical"..Claims
have conjointly been created that the Hyperloop is simply too vulnerable to disruption from
an influence outage or terrorist attacks to be thought-about safe.

Hyperloop Transportation Technologies

Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) is that the 1st Hyperloop company created
(founded in 2013), with a current force of over 800 engineers and professionals set round the
world.[104] Some collaborate part-time; others ar regular workers and contributors. Some
members ar regular paid employees; others add exchange for remuneration and stock
choices.[105]
After Musk's Hyperloop
idea proposal in 2012,
Jumpstarter, opposition
founder sticker Ahlborn
placed a 'call to action'
on his Jumpstarter
platform. Jumpstarter
started pooling resources
and assembled 420 folks
to the team.
HTT declared in might
2015 that a deal had been
finalized with
landowners to make a
five-mile (8 km) check
track on a stretch of road close to interstate 5 between l. a. and point of entry.[107] In Dec
2016, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies and therefore the government of United Arab
Emirates's capital declared plans to conduct a feasibleness study on a Hyperloop link between
the UAE capital and Al own, reducing time period between United Arab Emirates's capital
and Al own to simply underneath 10-minutes.[108] In Sept 2017, HTT declared associate
degreed signed an agreement with the Andhra Pradesh regime of India to make a track from
Amaravathi to Vijayawada during a public-private partnership, and urged that the over one
hour trip may be reduced to five minutes through the project.[109][110] For however covert

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reason, neither the check track that HTT declared in might 2015 nor the other check track has
been inbuilt the last three years.
In Gregorian calendar month 2018, land's Infrastructure Ministry reached associate degree
agreement with Hyperloop Transportation Technologies to develop its high-speed vacuum
transport technology in Ukraine.[111] in line with minister, Volodymyr Omelyan, a joint
analysis and development center are created in Kyiv or Dnipro, which is able to not solely
work on Hyperloop however new “materials and parts for contemporary transportation
systems.”

Later in 2018, the corporate signed associate degree agreement with the Guizhou province of
China to make a Hyperloop. In its China deal, HTT can offer technology, engineering
experience, and essential instrumentation within the venture, whereas Tongren can lead of
relevant certifications, restrictive framework, and construction of the system, the
announcement same. The venture are a public personal partnership within which fifty p.c of
the funds can return directly from Tongren . it added.
In might 2019, the corporate and TÜV SÜD conferred the EU with generic pointers for
hyperloop style, operation and certification. In Gregorian calendar month 2019 ,Hyperloop
Transportation Technologies met with officers from the u. s. Department of Transportation,
USDOT, at Hyperloop TT 's analysis facilities in city, France. at the same time, different
members of Hyperloop TT met with the USDOT at the agency's offices in Washington D.C.
presenting a technical summary of Hyperloop technology and therefore the certification
guideline completed by TÜV SÜD.
Hyperloop TT is currently starting the method of desegregation their complete traveller
capsule for human trials in 2020.

Extra:
The speed of conventional trains — and all land based transport — is
limited by friction, both against the air ahead and the ground beneath.
Hyperloop drastically reduces friction in both of these areas.

First, the tunnels through which it operates have most of their air
removed. They are not complete vacuums, but much less air means
reduced friction and less energy is required to reach a higher speed.
Secondly, Musk's design saw the hyperloop pods, each containing a handful of passengers, held above the ground by a layer
of air, similar to how the puck of an air hockey table floats across its surface.

Musk suggested that the power required to remove air from the tunnels and propel the pods along would come from solar panels on
the roof of the tunnel. He also claimed that ticket prices for the Los Angeles to San Francisco route would be as low as $20, and the
journey would take just 35 minutes

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Next:

Maglev fan:
5. Maglev Fan
The maglev fan provides superior performance, low noise, and long life. By using
magnetic levitation forces, these fans feature zero friction with no contact between shaft
and bearing. With excellent rotational stability, the maglev fan eliminates vibration and
typical wobble and shaking typically experienced in fan motors. The maglev fan also
provides excellent high temperature endurance that results in long life, and the maglev
fan models also feature all-plastic manufacture of major items for optimal insulation
resistance and electrostatic discharge (ESD) performance. The maglev fan offers a true

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solution to equipment and systems cooling, with the promise of lower cost of ownership
and long service life. The maglev fan overcomes the problems of noise, abrasion, and
short service life that beset traditional fan motors. The maglev motor fan features zero
friction and no contact between the shaft and bearing during operation. The maglev fan
design is based on magnetic principles and forces that not only propel the fan but also
ensure stable rotation over its entire 360 degrees of movement. Utilizing the attraction
of the magnetic levitation force, maglev eliminates the wobbling and shaking problems
of traditional motor fans. With this new technology, the maglev fan propeller is
suspended in air during rotation so that the shaft and bearing do not come into direct
contact with each other to create friction. The result is a new and improved fan with a
low noise level, high temperature endurance, and long life. Maglev fans can be used in
various industries and products that require high-level heat transfer, such as notebook
computers, servers, projectors, and stereo systems. Traditional fans apply the principle
of like-pole repulsion to rotate. But with no control exerted over blade trajectory, the
fan blades tend to produce irregular shuddering and vibrations. After long-term use, the
shaft will cause severe abrasion on the bearings, distorting them into a horn shape. The
worn-out fan then starts to produce mechanical noises and its life-time is shortened. The
unique feature of the maglev fan is that the path of the fan blades during operation is
magnetically controlled. The result is that the shaft and bearing have no direct contact
during operation and so experience no friction no matter how the fan is oriented. This
means that the characteristic abrasion noises of worn-out components are not produced
and also allow a service life of 50,000 hours or even longer at room temperature (see
Figure 19).

Figure 19: Maglev fan.

In a traditional fan, the embedded magnets of the rotor and the stator exert repulsive
forces, and it is this continuous force of repulsion that makes the fan spin. This is the
basic principle behind all cooling fans. If we visualize the magnetic forces between the
stator and the rotor, we see only dense lines of standard magnetic flux running without
any control mechanism to stabilize vibration of the blade rotor during the repulsion-
driven operation. The maglev fan includes just such a control mechanism in its design.
This requires that each fan, in addition to standard magnetic flux, contains maglev flux
required to sustain for the unique maglev orbit in its design. A maglev cross-section
view reveals a uniquely designed set of conductive elements on the main board—the
maglev plate. This maglev plate and the embedded magnets in the fan blades together
generate comprehensive vertical magnetic forces, which is the maglev flux. From the
cross-section, the standard magnetic flux and maglev flux form a 90-degree vertical
angle, in others words, the maglev flux acts perpendicular to the standard magnetic flux.
This is the first key trait to use to identify a maglev fan. The design of vertically
intersected standard magnetic flux and maglev flux ensures that the rotator is affixed to
the maglev orbit. Therefore, regardless of the mounting angle of the fan, the shaft will

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always rotate around a fixed point and at a constant distance from the bearing without
coming in contact with it to produce friction or mechanical noise. The problem of
bearings being worn down into an oval shape or horn aperture after long use is
effectively resolved. The greatest benefit with maglev flux is in fact the 360-degree
complete force of attraction between the conductive element (maglev plate) and the
rotor above it. This ensures an evenly distributed force of attraction to help keep the
optimal balance of the rotor during operation and to avoid shuddering or instability.
Fans with well-balanced blades not only last longer but produce a steady air flow. In
short, the second easy trait for identification of the maglev fan is that the maglev system
creates 360° attraction on the rotor, which results in stable rotation (see Figure 20).

Figure 20: Comparison between maglev fan and traditional fan. (a) Maglev fan
possesses 3 important factors: the magnet plate, the magnet, and the stator. The resulting
interaction between the magnet plate and the magnet pulls the rotor downward in a full
360 degrees. Through the lower center of gravity, the rotor runs stably in a consistent
orbit. (b) Traditional fan possesses 2 factors: the magnet and the stator. The
conventional fan utilizes a deviating magnetic center to attract the rotor downwards.
This kind of technology causes the rotor to vibrate violently due to both the lack of a
consistent orbit and a deviation of the magnetic center.
In the traditional DC brush-less fan motor design, the impeller rotor (simply called
Rotor) by means of a shaft which extended through the bore of oil-impregnated bearing,
or sleeve bearing, pivotally held in the center position of motor stator. A suitable air gap
was maintained between the rotor and the stator. Of course, there must be gap between
shaft and bearing bore, otherwise, the shaft would be tight-locked and unable to rotate.
The stator assembly (simply called stator) after connection to power supply will
generate induced magnet flux between rotor and stator. With the control of driving
circuitry the fan motor will start to rotate. In a traditional fan motor structure, there is
an impeller rotor, a motor stator, and a driving circuitry. The rotor is pivotally joined to
the stator by the rotor shaft and bearing system. The rotor is driven to rotate by the
induced magnetic field between stator and rotor as shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21: Sleeve bearing.

Advantages of sleeve bearing are the following.(i)More impact-resistant, less damage
resulted during delivery.(ii)Sleeve bearings cost much lower in comparison with ball
bearings.
Imperfections of sleeve bearing are the following.(i)Dust from outside may penetrate
into bearing and mix with nitride particles to clog the motor, which may result in noise
and much slower operation of the motor. The inner surface of bearing bore easily gets

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worn and influences the performance. The space between the shaft and sleeve-bearing
bore is small this results in rough uneven start-ups.
Ball bearing workings utilize small metal balls for rotation. Since they have only point-
contacts, rotation can be started easily. With the use of springs to hold the outer metal
ring of the ball bearing above, the weight of the entire rotor can sit on the ball bearing,
indirectly supported by the springs. Therefore, ball bearings are ideal for use in portable
devices with various mounting angles. However, caution should be used to prevent the
product from falling and impact damaging the ball bearing, which could lead to noise
and shortened product life-time (see Figure 22).

Figure 22: Ball bearing.

Advantages of ball bearing are the following.(i)Steel ball bearings have an operating
life much longer than that of sleeve bearings.(ii)However, the product must avoid rough
handling or being dropped on the ground.
Imperfections of ball bearing are the following.(i)Ball bearings are quite weak. It cannot
bear any external impact.(ii)When the fan motor is operating, the steel balls inside will
generate a higher rotational noise than that of a sleeve bearing.(iii)High price makes it
uneasy to compete with sleeve bearings.(iv)Limitation on both supply sources and
supply quantities makes it unacceptable for mass production needs.(v)The use of tiny
assemblies, such as springs, results in inefficiencies for mass production.
When a spinning top (a kind of toy) is thrown, the top continues to accelerate even as it
hits the ground. During this acceleration the top tilts and sways until a consistent speed
is obtained. At this point, the top will balance itself, for example, the swaying and tilting
have faded and have become fixed perpendicular to the ground. This is the simple
concept that maglev fan system roots form (see Figure 23).

Figure 23: Performance of maglev fan system roots.

From the illustration above, we know that no matter how the motor fan is mounted, the
force induced by the existing magnet inside the hub and the magnetic plate that is added
to the PCB of the fan attracts the rotor continually. This results in the rotor rotating
perpendicular to the ground with a constant distance between bearing and shaft without
any contact. Therefore, no rubs or noise can occur. The operating life of the motor fan
is extremely long (see Figure 24).(1)Maglev system helps the impeller to rotate evenly
in a fixed orbit within the orbit center. Consequently, the shaft inside the Vapo bearing
bore turns without creating friction. The bearing bore is hardly ever abraded into
irregular or oval shapes such as seen in conventional fans. Hence the operating life of
the bearing becomes very long.(2)The shaft inside the bearing bore is in friction with
nothing except air, and the fan motor starts up easily.(3)This new system removes the
use of oil rings and washers, thus leaving space for the release of gas occurred during

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normal operation. There are no more clogging problems. Hence, the fan motor may
operate smoothly for quite a long time.(4)The use of magnet flux and supporting cap
creates the same function as ball bearing; therefore, no matter how the fan is placed, no
slanting and wobbling occurred, which means it is suitable for design in portable
applications.(5)Vapo bearings are made of a material specially treated for wear-
resistance and impact-resistance. When used in conjunction with the maglev, it creates
a spring function, which helps the fan motor to bear impact.(6)Vapo bearing with
maglev is capable of an operating temperature of more than 70°C. It also performs very
well in a low temperature environment.(7)The elimination of washer and oil ring may
also allow the automatic production thus brings manufacturing efficiency.(8)The dust
cap prevents dust penetrating into bearing and mixing with nitride particles to clog the
motor, which may result in noise and slower motor operation.

Figure 24: Vapo bearing.

With the combination of maglev design and Vapo bearing, all the advantages of ball
and sleeve bearings are maintained, while eradicating all the imperfections.
Vapo Bearing can be explained as follows.(i)Vapo bearings are made of a material
specially treated for wear-resistance and impact-resistance. When used in conjunction
with the maglev, it creates a spring function, which helps the fan motor to bear
impact.(ii)Maglev design helps the rotor to rotate evenly in a fixed orbit within the orbit
center without any friction with the bearing bore. No vibration occurred.(iii)This new
system eliminates the use of oil rings and washers, thus leaving space for the release of
gas occurring during normal operation. There are no more clogging problems. Vapo
bearing is named after this character.
Maglev fans prevent the defects of conventional fans (see Table 1).

Table 1: The defects of conventional fans.

There is no friction and contact between the shaft and the bearing during operation.
They have become favorite due to its superior features such as low noise, high
temperature endurance, and super long life.
The axial-flow radial-flux permanent magnet motor along with an iron strip segment,
as shown in Figure 25, has been used for small-power cooling fan applications [23].
This motor is equipped with only one set of axial stator winding that can supply the
desired radial flux through adequate stator pole design, and such structure design is
quite promising for applications with limited spaces. With the undesired vibration
forces mainly generated in the motor radial direction, the concept is to provide adequate
flux path such that a passive magnetic suspension can be established. As can be

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observed from Figure 25(b), the magnetic fluxes generated from the motor stator
winding will first flowing through its stator center shaft, getting out of the stator pole
pairs at its top/bottom part, and then coming back to the bottom/top part stator pole pairs
after passing through the corresponding rotor magnets. With the pole pairs on the stator
top and bottom parts being perpendicular to one another, undesired vibration forces
mainly generated in the motor radial direction will be exhibited. The resultant frictions
applied onto motor bearing system will certainly generate extra heat and energy losses
and thus reduce the reliability and lifetime of this motor [24, 25].

Figure 25: An axial-flow radial-flux permanent magnet motor with a stator iron strip
segment.
The major concerns on cooling fan motor manufactures are low
construction/maintenance cost and high operational reliability [26]. In addition, to
satisfy these construction prerequisites, it is also desired that the overall performance of
such motors can preserve their market competitions without implementing complicate
sensor and driver control devices. A magnetic suspension will be established through
the extra flux path being provided. Though it is anticipated that the attraction force
between the rotor permanent magnet and the passive magnetic suspension segment will
be induced to stabilize the rotor vibrations, intuitively it is also suspected that this
segment with high permeability might yield the motor rotational performance [25].

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Ways Magnetic
Levitation Could
Shape the Future

Floating Cities
Our planet can be a
crowded, polluted, crazy
place. But a new design
concept proposes that we
rise above it all, literally, by
moving to a magnetically
levitated island in the sky,
complete with green forests,
mountains, and urban
centers. The concept, called
Heaven and Earth, was
created by Chinese architect Wei Zhao and won an honorable mention in eVolo's 2012
Skyscraper Competition. Zhao has proposed that the massive donut-shaped platform could
hold magnets on its underside that would repulse the earth's magnetic field to hold the island
aloft. The floating platform would rotate, generating energy as it spins and theoretically
fueling a completely sustainable society. Unfortunately, like most utopias, this idea is likely
to remain a pie in the sky.

Space Launch System

For years, NASA has been researching the possibility of using the high speeds of maglev
transportation to fling spacecraft into
low Earth orbit. "It would really open up
space to human exploration and
commercialization," Powell says. "It's
something we can't do now because it's
too expensive."

Powell and his colleagues have

proposed two generations of space
launching technology. The first is a
cargo-only launch track that could be
built into a mountainside to reach a
height of 20,000 feet. Magnets could

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allow a spacecraft traveling along the track to reach speeds around 18,000 miles per hour—
enough to fly into space. Of course, such a track would cost an astronomical $20 billion to
build. That's quite an up-front cost, but some, like Powell, argue that it could actually save
money in the long run. It currently costs $10,000 to launch every kilogram of payload into
low Earth orbit. StarTram could do the same for less than $50 per kilogram, he says.

And that's just the first generation. A similar launch track for passengers might cost $60
billion and would need to be 1000 miles long, 12 miles high, and use magnetic levitation both
to support the track and propel the train forward at speeds of 5.6 miles per second. Where
companies like Virgin Galactic promise to take passengers into space for $200,000 per
person, StarTram may charge as little as $50,000 per person.

Flying Cars

It's not exactly what The Jetsons led us to expect, but SkyTran pods promise to bring maglev
transportation to the skies. Each private pod, suspended from an elevated guideway, could
carry three passengers and would use maglev technology to reach speeds of up to 150 mph.
Theoretically, SkyTran could bring passengers anywhere they wanted to go along the route of
the guideway, without making unnecessary stops for other passengers. The system could
work using technology that is already available, and claims to be able to eliminate congestion
while reducing carbon-
dioxide emissions and
dependence on foreign oil.

NASA has shown an

interest in this technology,
and in 2009 it partnered
with Unimodal (the
creators of SkyTran) to
evaluate advanced
transportation software.

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3D Cell Cultures

Cells grown in flat petri dishes are not always the most accurate models for three-dimensional
human bodies. That's what drove a group of medical researchers at the University of Texas
and Rice University to levitate their cell cultures and allow them to develop in three-
dimensional space.

The experiment was

surprisingly easy. The
researchers simply injected
cancerous cells with
magnetic iron oxide and
gold nanoparticles, then
added these cells to a
regular petri dish. Then they
put a coin-sized magnet on
top of the petri dish and let
the cells grow.

It turned out that the magnet

could lift the cells off the
bottom of the petri dish, and that the cells grew as they were suspended in the liquid.
Compared to cells grown in regular petri dishes, the maglev cancer cells have a more similar
structure and produce similar proteins to tumors in living animals. These tumor models could
help researchers to develop better cancer treatments. The 3D development allowed by
magnetic levitation may also be used to grow more realistic organs in the lab one day, the
researchers say.

Efficient Wind Power

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Standard wind turbines convert only 1

percent of wind energy into usable
power, and part of that glaring
inefficiency stems from the loss of
energy due to friction as the turbine
spins. Researchers at the Guangzhou
Energy Research Institute have
estimated that magnetically levitated
turbines could boost wind energy
generation by as much as 20 percent
over traditional turbines.

The researchers proposed using a

colossal turbine with vertical blades that
are suspended above the base of the
turbine using neodymium magnets. Because the moving parts wouldn't touch, the turbines
would be virtually frictionless and could capture energy from winds as slow as 1.5 meters (5
feet) per second. Maglev turbines could lower the price of wind energy to less than 5 cents
per kilowatt-hour, which is on par with coal-generated electricity and only about half the
typical cost of wind power.

The researchers say that a 1-gigawatt maglev turbine would cost $53 million to build and
may require 100 acres of land, but it
could supply electricity to 750,00
homes. In comparison, it would cost
hundreds of millions of dollars to
build a wind farm of similar
capacity using traditional turbines,
and it would require 64,000 acres of
land to house the 1000 turbines.

Studying Weightlessness

Being weightless can have serious

health consequences for astronauts.
For every month that an astronaut
spends in zero gravity, he loses one to two percent of his bone density (compared to the same
amount per year for people on Earth). Muscles deteriorate, fluids redistribute throughout the
body, and the immune system becomes weakened. Using magnetic levitation to simulate
weightlessness here on Earth, scientists can better understand these changes and their
consequences.

For many years, NASA scientists have used superconducting magnets to levitate insects,
frogs, and mice. Cells are largely made of water, which is weakly diamagnetic. So in the
presence of a strong magnet, water's electrons rearrange to oppose the magnet. When

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researchers expose living organisms to superconducting magnets, this molecular effect causes
the organisms to levitate.

Just a few months ago, floating fruit flies

helped scientists to discover that
weightlessness can change expression in
over 200 fly genes. The genes most
affected were responsible for
metabolism, immune functioning, and
cell signaling. It's possible that humans
show similar expression changes during
weightlessness. By understanding how
the body reacts to weightlessness, this
research could eventually make
prolonged spaceflight—such as a
journey to Mars—safer for humans.

Magnetic Bearings

Magnetic levitation isn't just for far-out technologies; it's already being used in down-to-earth
applications. Industrial equipment such as pumps, generators, motors, and compressors use
levitation to support moving machinery without physical contact. The same bearings used to
support maglev trains are used in electric power generation, petroleum refining, machine-tool
operation, and natural gas pipelines.

These bearings also eliminate the need for lubrication, which is important in machines where
lubricants can be a source of contamination, or in evacuated tubes where lubrication would
fail. Magnetic bearings tend to be complex and custom-tailored to the machine, which can
drive prices up by as much as $45,000 per bearing, but these low-friction parts could play
increasingly important roles in industrial applications if their price comes down.

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OUR HYPOTHESIS:-

We can use maglev

technique in electric
power generation. A lot of
energy is loosed due to
friction. We can make
certain changes in typical
hydro-power turbine
system to minimize the
friction and thus we can
generate the more power
and power loss can be
reduced by over coming
the friction.

It can be used in entertainment industry.

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CONLUSION:-

MAGNATIC LAITATION HAS A GRAT SCOPE IN

ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNOLOGY. BY USING
TECHNIQUE OF MAGLEV WE CAN OVER COME THE
FORCE OF FRICTION AND THUS POWER LOSS CAN BE
REDUCED.

IT HAS A GREAT FUTURE IN OUR TRANSPORTATION

SYSYTEM LEVITATING CITY , LAVITATING SPACE
STATIONS, FLYING CARS,
AND EFFECTIVE WIND POWER.

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