11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

The major goals in the development of internal combus- p 2 = Charge pressure

tion engines, namely high efficiency, i.e., low fuel con- R = Gas constant
sumption and low emissions, have been discussed at T, = Temperature behind the compressor
length in the previous chapters. Another important point
The effective output of the engine is, hence, signifi-
here is the increase in power concentration of an internal
cantly increased with the increase in the air density. Today,
combustion engine.' It is, therefore, a question of obtain-
up to 31 bar mean pressure is achieved, in particular,
ing as much power as possible from a defined engine
with diesel engines, and 19 bar mean pressure is already
volume andor a given engine weight. Under certain cir-
achieved with SI engines.
cumstances, the increase in power concentration may also
be linked to an improvement in efficiency.
The power output of an internal combustion engine is 11.1 Mechanical Supercharging
proportional to the mean effective pressure pmc,the speed
n, and the total piston displacement V,. During mechanical supercharging, the compressor is
driven mechanically by the crankshaft (see Fig. 11-1) with
the compression work having to be performed by the
Pe = pme * n - VH -
1
Z
(11.0)
engine.

(11.1)

Z = 2 Four-stroke
Z = 1 Two-stroke
P, = Effective power
pme = Mean effective pressure
n = Speed
V, = Piston displacement
p, = Density after charging
AL = Volumetric efficiency
ve = Effective efficiency
H , = Net calorific value
A = Excess air factor
L,, = Minimum excess air factor
An increase in the piston displacement results not only ~~ ~

in an increase in power but also in a significant increase in

Fig. 11-1 Principle of mechanical supercharging
the engine weight and the necessary installation space as
well as a deterioration in efficiency due to the increased
friction loss. The friction losses increase disproportionately
to the increase in engine speed with which an increase in The process now takes places at a higher pressure
power can also be achieved. level. This results in a corresponding increase in the mean
Calorific value H , and minimum excess air factor L,,, pressure, providing the air-fuel ratio remains constant.
are fuel parameters and are assumed to be fixed. Mechanical supercharging initially results in deterioration
in engine efficiency with the increase in output. If we com-
1 pare it with a naturally aspirated engine of the same output,
P ~ ~ - P z . ~ T ~ * A L (11.2)
however, the mechanically supercharged engine produces
a higher efficiency due to the lower mechanical and ther-
The mean effective pressure is, therefore, proportional
mal losses. The compressors used are generally Roofs
to the density of the air, the effective efficiency, and the
blowers (Fig. 1 I-2), screw-type (Fig. 11-3) or spiral-type
volumetric efficiency and is inversely proportional to
superchargers (Fig. 11-4). and, less frequently, radial
the excess air factor. The density of the air depends on the
compressors (with step-down gearing). Mechanical super-
charge pressure and charge air temperature.
charging is predominantly used today in car SI engines
PZ where it has the benefit that during cold starting no heat is
Pz = (11.3) taken from the exhaust gas stream that is of great impor-
~

R * T,
tance for the starting of the catalytic converter during the
pz = Density behind the charger warm-up phase.
356
Fig. 11-2 Roots blower.*
Fig. 11-3 Screw-type ~upercharger.~
11.2 Exhaust Gas Turbocharging
During exhaust gas turbocharging, the engine and the tur-
bocharger (see Fig. 11-5) are linked thermodynamically
and not mechanically. The compressor is driven by the
turbine. The turbine receives the exhaust gas stream from
the engine and, thus, covers the power requirement of the
compressor.
Ram Induction
With ram induction, a large exhaust gas line volume is
provided between turbine and compressor with the aim of
reducing the pressure hammer of the individual cylinders
11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines
Fig. 11-4 Spiral-type supercharger?
Fig. 11-5 Schematic representation of exhaust gas
turbocharging.
and of pressurizing the turbine as continuously as pos-
sible, i.e., with a constant state ps, T3.
If we assume in an initial approximation that pressure
p 3 is equal to pressure p 2 ,the engine will be operated at a
high-pressure level without any change in the thermal eff-
ciency. If we look more closely, however, we observe that
a larger volume is relieved in the turbine so that a slight
gain is possible. If p 2 > p3, part of the turbocharger work
will be output again to the crankshaft via the positive
charge cycle loop.
Pulse Turbocharging
During pulse turbocharging, the kinetic energy of the
exhaust gas is additionally used in the form of pressure
waves. Figure 11-6 shows the pressure curve of a turbine.
1 1.2 Exhaust Gas Turbocharging 357

Compared with the ram induction, this offers a gain as an The operation of the compressor is imaged in a com-
isentropic expansion to the ambient state takes place instead pressor map (Fig. 1 1-9).
of the irreversible throttling from the cylinder pressure to Compressor speed and isentropic compressor effi-
the exhaust gas counterpressure p 3 . In fact, this gain cannot ciency are plotted against the volumetric flow V , and
be completely exploited as a throttling takes place at the pressure ratio p J p , . If we follow a speed line to the left,
exhaust valves anyway, and because the turbine efficiencies
with nonstatic charging are lower than with static charging.
Compared with ram induction, pulse turbocharging has
advantages especially in part-load operation and in the
acceleration behavior.
Appropriate grouping of the cylinders with the given
ignition sequence prevents exhaust gas from being
pressed into a cylinder during the valve overlap, as this
would result in an increase in the residual gas content.
With turbocharged SI engines, the increased residual gas
content results in a greater knock tendency; this, in turn,
leads to a delayed ignition angle and, hence, to a loss of
torque and increased fuel consumption.
The exhaust gas turbocharger consists of a compres-
sor and a turbine (Fig. 11-7). The internals are shown in
Fig. 11-8.
Fig. 11-7 Exhaust gas turbocharger K 03.J

bar
2 00

1.66

1.33

1 00
180 324 468 612 756 900
'crankshaft (CS)

Fig. 11-6 Pressure wave during pulse turbocharging. Fig. 11-8 Turbocharger internak5

3.2
3.0

-
I

p
2.8

26
24
3
P 22
g 20
8
g 18
k
0
16
14

12
10
000 002 004 006 008 010 012 014 016 018 020 022
Reduced volumetric flow [m3/s]
Fig. 11-9 Compressor map.
358 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

1.6

1.4

0.6

0.74

0.72

070

50 0.68

f 0.66
g-- 0.64
0 62
0 60
1U 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Turbine pressure ratio
Fig. 11-10 Turbine map.

i.e., the compressor is increasingly throttled on the pres-

sure side, we will reach the pump limit. This must not be
reached during operation as otherwise the compressor
would be destroyed.
t
T

For the presentation of the turbine behavior, the isen-

tropic turbine efficiency and the flow coefficient are plot-
ted against the turbine pressure ratio p s / p 4 (Fig. 11-10)
with the turbine speed as a parameter.
11.3 Intercooling
If we consider an isentropic compression process from 1
to 2 (Fig. 11-1l), the temperature increases due to an
isotropic compression as in Eq. (1 1.4). I
3 Q s+

Fig. 11-11 Isentropic and polytropic compression.

T , = Temperature upline of compressor

T2 = Temperature downline of compressor
The isentropic compression efficiency vSv is calcu-
lated as
p , = Pressure upline of compressor
p 2 = Charge pressure
(11.6)
K = Isentropic exponent

Since the compression is performed polytropically h , = Enthalpy upline of compressor

instead of isentropically, a further increase in temperature
occurs [Eq. (1 1S ) ] .
(11.5)
T I = Temperature upline of compressor
T2 = Temperature downline of compressor
7)sv = Isentropic compression efficiency
r K = Cooling coefficient of the compressor
h, = Enthalpy downline of compressor
h,, = Enthalpy downline of compressor, isentropic
cp = Specific thermal capacity for p = const
The cooling coefficient T~ mentioned in Eq. (1 1.5) for
turbochargers makes allowance for the heat dissipation
via the compressor housing (particularly with large com-
pressors) to the environment and lies in the range between
1.04 and 1.1. The temperature increase associated with the
1 1.4 Interaction of Engine and Compressor 359

increase in pressure leads to a reduction in the density as engine with the turbocharged engine and a turbocharger
shown in Eq. (1 1.3). compression ratio of 2.5 shows an increase in mean pres-
An intercooler allows the charge density and also the sure to 187%, and for the turbocharged engine with inter-
output to be increased as shown in Eq. (1 1.2). cooling to 40°C an increase in mean pressure to 234%
Example: is shown.
pI = 1 bar; TI = 293 K (20°C) Figures 11-13 and 11-14 show the maps of turbo-
Compressor: r,,= pJp, = 2.5 charged car and truck diesel engines.
rlSv = 0.85
T2 = 313 K (40°C)
11.4 Interaction of Engine and Compressor
Figure 11-12 shows a comparison between a naturally
aspirated engine, a turbocharged engine, and a turbocharged 11.4.1 Four-Stroke Engine in the
engine with intercooling to 40°C. The same air-fuel ratio Compressor Map
has been assumed for all three cases. This shows a direct
Figure 11-15 shows the displacement lines of a four-
relationship between the density and the output. The
stroke internal combustion engine. I f the engine speed n is
ambient state 1 bar and 20°C is assumed for the naturally
held constant, the volumetric flow V , shows only a slight
aspirated engine. Comparison of the naturally aspirated
linear increase with increasing compression ratio p 2 / p 1 .
The engine then operates as a volumetric displacement
machine, and its throughput increases in relation to the
increase in engine speed.
With increasing valve overlap and constant engine
Engine speed, the volumetric flow V , increases less sharply with
increasing compression ratio p 2 / p 1 .
Naturally aspirated Positive-DisplacementSuperchargers:
Some examples of positive-displacement superchargers
are piston compressors (reciprocating piston and rotary
Turbocharged engine 187% piston), roots blowers, and screw-type superchargers.

I
From Fig. 11-16 it can be seen that the throughput
Turbocharged engine
with intercooling 2.78 1 234% I increases with increasing compressor speed and drops
slightly with increasing counterpressure. At constant
speed we obtain the working points I , 2, or 3, depending
Fig. 11-12 Density and mean pressure of engines. on the counterpressure.

Specific fuel consumption[g/kWn]

I 1 I I
Fig. 11-13 Specific fuel
I
I
I
I I I i consumption of the OM 611
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
four-cylinder engine from
Engine speed [rpm]
DaimlerChrysler.6
360 1I Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

Specific fuel consumption[gkWh]

24
22
20
- 18
16
f 14
g 12
10

2;
4
2
0 Fig. 11-14 Consumption map
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 of OM 904 ~ ~ 1 k~ 2 5from
Engine speed [pm]
DaimlerChry~ler.~

i(rn3/s)
Displacement lines. 4-stroke IC engine (= piston engine)
Fig. 11-15 Displacement lines.

t"L
t
"L
;Pump limit

9, --+
9, +
Fig. 11-16 Displacement lines of positive-displacement
superchargers. Fig. 11-17 Compressor map of radial compressor.

Radial Compressors: the pump limit is an unstable compressor operation that

The radial compressor operates on the centrifugal prin-
ciple. The increase in pressure is created by the difference
in circumferential speed between the inlet and outlet at the
impeller. The kinetic energy thus admitted is converted
into pressure in the diffuser. The compressor map shown
in Fig. 11-17 is limited by the pump limit. To the left of
starts by the breakaway of the flow at the inside of the
compressor blades and results in extreme pressure fluctua-
tions that under certain circumstances may destroy the
compressor.
The speed lines drop slightly to the right of the pump
limit; towards the displacement limit they drop more
11.4 Interaction of Engine and Compressor 361

sharply. Depending on the counterpressure, this results in

t
working points 1, 2, or 3 at constant compressor speed. Mechanically
turbocharged with
radial compressor
11.4.2 Mechanical Supercharging PIW

Positive-Displacement Supercharger-Mechanically I Naturallv asDirated

engine
Linked to the Four-Stroke Engine (Fig. 11-18)
With a given transmission ratio, we obtain the operating
curve 1-2-3-4 shown. By changing the transmission ratio,
we can also create the operating curve 1'-2'-3'-4' that
leads to an increase in the mean working pressure.
Fig. 11-20 Mean pressure curve over speed.
Radial Compressor-Mechanically Linked to the
Four-Stroke Engine
consider the power balance at the turbocharger shaft, the
As shown in Fig. 11-19, air throughput and charge pres- change in the angular velocity can be calculated as
sure increase at roughly the square of the rise in speed.
This results in the mean pressure curve over speed shown (11.7)
in Fig. 11-20.
11.4.3 Exhaust Gas firbocharging --
dWTL - Change in the heat propagation rate turbocharger
dt
During exhaust gas turbocharging, the engine and exhaust JTL = Turbocharger polar inertia moment
gas turbocharger are linked thermodynamically. The wrL = Angular velocity turbocharger
respective turbocharger speed is set depending on the P, = Compressor power
power balance between compressor and turbine. If we P, = Turbine power

114 nm 1/2 nm 3/4 nL

T
ZL

Fig. 11-18 Mechanical linking

of positive-displacement turbo-
charger and four-stroke engine.

t
=L

Fig. 11-19 Mechanical linking

of radial compressor and four-
stroke engine.
362 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

For the static state the left-hand side of the equation is 0 If we assume h T / i = v 1.03 - 1.07,then the com-
pressor pressure ratio is a function of the following factors:
PV + PT =0 (11.8)
kv + h B = hr (11.9) (11.17)
mT = Turbine mass flow The charge pressure p2thus increases with increasing
iv= Compressor mass flow exhaust gas temperature T, and increasing pressure in
hjlg
= Fuel mass flow front of the turbine p3 (where the change in group effi-
and the operating point lies on the engine displacement ciency as a function of T3 and p, has still been neglected).
line. The power balance can thus be developed further. The pressure p , is obtained with a given turbine as a
function of the mass throughput and gas state and can be
(11.10) calculated for the ram induction as
mT = AT * TJ-I (11.18)
AhsV = Isentropic enthalpy gradient in compressor
vrv = Isentropic compressor efficiency
7),v = Mechanical compressor efficiency
(11.19)
PT = m T ' AhsT ' 7)sT * 7)mT (1 1.1 1)
ATred= Turbine equivalent cross section
AhsT = Isentropic enthalpy gradient in turbine JIT = Flow function
T,,,~ = Mechanical turbine efficiency K~ = Isentropic exponent of the exhaust gas
If we consider the turbine as the throttle point (with p3
upline andp, downline of the throttle point), we obtain the
following relationship:
R, = Gas constant upline of compressor
T , = Temperature upline of compressor
K~ = Isentropic exponent upline of compressor
p1 = Pressure upline of compressor (11.20)
p2 = Charge pressure p2 = Density downline of the turbocharger

Ah,T = R3 * T3 * - K3
K3 - 1
I!%):(
* [l - (11.13)
p3
vj
A,,,
= Density upline of the turbine
= Flow velocity, turbine
= Turbine equivalent cross section
Ah,T = Isentropic enthalpy gradient in turbine nu = Engine speed
R, = Gas constant upline of turbine V, = Piston displacement
T, = Temperature upline of turbine The mass throughput mT through the turbine depends
K~ = Isentropic exponent of exhaust gas in a first approximation on the gas state at the intake
p, = Exhaust gas counterpressure organs (p2, T2), on the engine speed nu (displacement
p, = Pressure downline of turbine line), and on the density p,. The reduced turbine cross-
The group efficiency 7 j - L is defined as the overall effi- sectional area A, red has been assumed to be constant in
ciency of the charge group: this consideration. The following relationship thus exists:

7 ) T L = 7 m V ' 7)sV ' 7)mT * 7sT (11.14) (11.21)

7)sT = Isentropic turbine efficiency
T2 = Temperature downline of the compressor
Using Eqs. ( 1 1.9) to ( 1 1.13), the power balance solved
Whereas in the case of an engine with a mechanically
for r Vis calculated as
driven turbocharger and constant transmission ratio the
Pv = P21Pl (11.15) charge pressure and, hence, the maximum torque are only a
rv= Compressor pressure ratio question of the engine speed, it is possible-as shown by
Eq. (1 1.20)-to increase the exhaust gas counterpressure
and with p3 through a further reduction in the reduced turbine cross
KL = 1.4 section AT& As a result, the enthalpy gradient at the turbine
increases. The turbocharger output and speed are increased,
the turbocharger main equation is
and, consequently, the charge pressure also increases.
Different operating points for the same ATredfunda-
mentally result in a different enthalpy gradient at the turbine
and, thus, also a different charge pressure. This thermody-
(11.16)
namic interaction of the engine and exhaust gas turbo-
K, = Constant [-I charger is now discussed, taking three borderline cases as
qTL= Group efficiency examples.
11.4 Interaction of Engine and Compressor 363

1. Generator Mode
In “generator mode,” the speed nM has to be kept as con-
stant as possible in view of the high demands on the con- t
=L Working curve
stant rotational frequency of the generator (Fig. 11-21). during generator
For the engine with a mechanical turbocharger, we I mode
stay at one operating point, as nM = const (Fig. 11-22).

t n, = constant
he= variable

Pine
n Full-load curve

Fig. 11-23 Engine displacement line and generator mode.

nin
t
Pine Full-load curve

Fig. 11-21 Generator mode.

pine const

t
=L

Working point during Fig. 11-24 Speed reduction.

(Fig. 11-25); i.e., with decreasing speed the operating

point moves toward the pump limit (Danger!). This mode
of speed reduction also occurs roughly in vehicle mode
along the full-load line and makes the highest demands on
exhaust gas turbocharging.

3. Propellor Mode nM = variable,p,, N nZM

Fig. 11-22 Operating point in generator mode. In ship drives with a fixed propeller, the propeller torque
taken up depends on the square of the propeller speed. In

For the exhaust gas turbocharged engine, the change

in load results in a different p 3 and T3 and, hence, in a dif- Pump limit
ferent turbine power and different charge pressure.
The operating points 1, 2, and 3 all lie on the engine tI
=t
I a Constant
mean pressure

b Propellor
displacement line that belongs to the generator speed
mode
(Fig. 11-23).
With an increase in load (increase in fuel injection), c Generator
mode
p 3 , T3, and, hence, the turbine power increase. The tur-
bocharger speed increases, as do charge pressure p 2 and = const
mass throughput.

I
I
2. Speed Reductionp,, = constant, nM = variable
As illustrated in Fig. 11-24, the mean pressure moves
along a horizontal line for different engine speeds. This Fig. 11-25 Operating line between generator mode and
results in a flatter operating line (a) in the compressor map speed reduction.
364 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

the compressor map, Fig. 11-25, the operating line lies

between generator mode and speed reduction.
Figure 11-26 shows a superimposition of all lines of
I tI l Full load Exhaust gas

F2
constant load and constant speed. In vehicle mode, the turbocharging
Pm
(unregulated)
whole range is thus covered, which requires wider com-
pressor maps. Figure 11-27 shows the mean pressure Mechanically
turbocharge-?
curve for the full-load line of naturally aspirated, mechani-
cally turbocharged, and exhaust gas turbocharged engines. Naturally
aspirated
This latter line shows a highly unfavorable behavior as the
torque also drops with decreasing speed. For good accel-
eration behavior in vehicle mode, however, a rise in the
I I engine

mean pressure curve is required with decreasing speed. This I n d

can be achieved by external controlling of the turbocharger.
Fig. 11-27 Full-load curves for various engine variants.

Optimum Torque Curve by Adaptation of the Charge

Pumplimit . Pressure
T
ZL
In order to achieve a high charge pressure even at low
engine speeds (SI < 2000 rpm, diesel car < 1800 rpm,
truck diesel < 1100 rpm), a small turbine neck cross sec-
tion A,, is chosen; this increases the pressure upline of
the turbine. With increasing speed, however, the charge
pressure increases also because of the increasing exhaust
gas enthalpy stream so that the maximum pressure in the
cylinder also rises. To limit the associated component load,
the charge pressure is controlled to a constant value by

-
allowing the excess exhaust gas enthalpy stream to bypass
r
the turbine (waste gate) and, thus, to escape unused to the
exhaust pipe (Fig. 11-28), representing a loss for the
P, engine. The charge pressure curve along the full-load line
and the effective mean pressure are shown in Fig. 11-29
Fig. 11-26 Superimposition of maps. for an Audi 2.7 1 Biturbo engine.

Fig. 11-28 Waste gate.5 (See

color section.)
11.4 Interaction of Engine and Compressor 365

-
30
4 5

302
t-
2160
I I

$140 25 $
Y)

e!
L120 20;

2
5100
80
1 5 r
:
0

60 10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 llrnin 7000
Enginespeed d

Fig. 11-29 Mean pressure and charge pressure curves of

an AUDI V6 2.7 1 Biturbo engine.8

Fig. 11-30 Variable turbine geometry, blade position

With the variable turbine geometry (cf. Fig. 11-30), it
is possible to set the reduced turbine cross section very
small even at low speeds. This generates higher exhaust
gas counterpressures,and a correspondingly higher charge
pressure is achieved.
With higher speed and, thus, increasing mass through-
put, the blades are turned in the direction of maximum
contact cross section (blade position shown in Fig. 11-30).
A similar effect is achieved with the variable slide
valve turbine (Fig. 11-31). A coaxial bush covers one
channel of the two-stage turbine when moving towards
the turbine wheel.
Figure 11-32 shows a turbocharged SI engine with
two exhaust gas turbochargers and two intercoolers, while
Fig. 11-33 shows a turbocharged medium-speed ship diesel
open.5
engine, and Fig. 11-34 shows a corresponding exhaust gas
turbocharger with axial turbine.
For the dual-stage turbocharging (Fig. 11-35), two
exhaust gas turbochargers are connected in series, where
the compressed air is aftercooled behind the first com-
pressor and cooled again behind the high-pressure com-
pressor. This dual-stage compression with aftercooling
produces a good compression efficiency and with a com-
pressor pressure ratio >5 also produces a correspondingly
high mean pressure of up to 30 bar.
The high degree of integration of the turbocharger
group can be seen in the boxed detail in Fig. 11-36.

Fig. 11-31 Variable slide valve

turbine? (See color secrion.)
366 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

Audi RS4 Motor

Fig. 11-32 AUDI RS4 engine.9

Fig. 11-33 Queen Elizabeth 2, diesel electric plant 9 X 9

L 58/64 95.5 MW.12

Fig. 11-35 Schematic of two-stage turbocharging.

11.5 Dynamic Behavior

The internal combustion engine forms part of a drive sys-
tem from which a rapid response behavior is demanded."
This applies to all applications. Emergency power gener-
ators have to be able to assume the full power from a
standstill within the shortest possible time (<I5 s).
In vehicle operation, the internal combustion engine
also has to spontaneously develop its maximum torque
even under extreme load conditions (such as a car with a
trailer starting in the mountains). Naturally aspirated
engines control the torque more or less directly with the
throttle plate angle (SI) or via the fuel injection volume
(diesel engine).
If we calculate the twist equation for a roughly tor-
sionally rigid drive system [Eq. ( I 1.22)], then we see that
Fig. 11-34 MAN-exhaust gas turbocharger with axial with a given consumer torque M , (= load) the effective
turbine.I0 engine torque MMe and the polar inertia moment of the
11.5 Dynamic Behavior
whole drive system JgssA = JM + JA significantly influence
the gradient of the crankshaft angular velocity.
(1 1.22)
JM = Polar mass moment of inertia of engine
JA = Polar mass moment of inertia of drive
dwM
-= Change in crankshaft angular velocity
dt
MMe = Effective engine torque
M , = Consumer torque
Figure 11-37 shows an elasticity test for a vehicle
with a turbocharged SI engine for acceleration from 60 to
100 km/h in 5th gear on the highly dynamic test rig.
It takes almost 3.5 s for the intake manifold pressure,
and, hence, the mean pressure, to reach its static value.
Figure 11-38 shows further measurements for a load
shift in a dynamic SI engine at constant engine speed
(2000 rpm = const) on the highly dynamic engine test rig,
where the mean pressure has been standardized to the
static maximum value. The measured load signal rises rec-
tangularly at 1 s to 100%. After a dead time, the naturally
aspirated engine produces an equally spontaneous rise.
The exhaust gas turbocharged SI engine rises with the
same spontaneity up to approximately 55% of the achiev-
able static mean pressure. The subsequent slow rise of
13%/s is attributable to the acceleration of the turbo-
charger internals. The engine reaches its maximum mean
pressure after approximately 3 s. Before we proceed to
discuss measures for improving the torque development in
the exhaust gas turbocharged internal combustion engine,
we see in Fig. 11-39 the acceleration behavior of a
367
Fig. 11-36 20 V 1163 TB 73 L,
6500 kW at 1250-1300 rpm.I2
mechanically supercharged engine that achieves a signifi-
cantly faster buildup of mean pressure compared with the
exhaust gas turbocharger.
Improvement Measures:
Adjustment devices such as exhaust gas turbocharger with
waste gate or variable turbine geometry enable the charge
pressure to be built up significantly faster during an accel-
eration phase. In addition, the dynamic charge pressure
buildup during nonstatic processes can be improved by
using smaller impellers for turbine and compressor. The
influence of the polar mass moment of inertia J , of the
internals can be seen in the twist equation [Eq. (1 1.23)]
for the exhaust gas turbocharger shaft.
In V-engines, for example, the dynamic behavior can
be improved by grouping the cylinders on the exhaust gas
side into a bank feeding two smaller turbines; on the air
intake side, the two compressors are connected to a com-
mon intake pipe.
~ W T-
L
- - Change in angular velocity ATL
d9
wTL = Angular velocity ATL
J, = Polar mass inertia moment of turbocharger
P , = Turbine output
P , = Compressor output
Brief injection of additional air into the compressor
means, on the one hand, that the internal combustion engine
is adequately supplied with air immediately after a load
demand and that the increased fuel injection volume
368 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

105
100
95
90
5r 8580
Ti 75
$ 70
65
60
55
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
Time [s]

18
5 16
14
12
g 1
1
2 08
C
- 06
04
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
lime [s]

18
16
14
f 12
10
i 8
5 6
$ 4
2 Fig. 11-37 Elasticity test (60-
0 100 km/h in 5th gear) highly
0 1 2 3 4
lo l1 dynamic test rig and turbo-
lime [s]
charged SI engine.

110 110
100 100
-E 90
80
90
80
-
0, 70 70
$ 60 60 E
Actual load signal
-
- 50 50 8
J 40
3 30
20
Turbocharged
engine
Naturally aspirated
40
30
20
’F

engine
10 10 Fig. 11-38 Comparison of
0 0 naturally aspirated and turbo-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 charged SI engine; load shift at
Time [s] n = 2000 rpm = const.

corresponding to the limit air ratio provides a rapid increase
in torque. On the other hand, the blow compressor wheel
is accelerated so that the compressor delivers correspond-
ingly more air with the increasing speed. The air injection
is terminated when the turbine takes over the compressor
work and the additional acceleration work required.
Electric Support for Exhaust Gas Turbocharging:
Since the internal combustion engine does not sponta-
neously provide sufficient acceleration power for the turbo-
charger internals in response to a torque demand, it is
expedient to use stored electrical energy to accelerate the
turbocharger intemals using an electric motor connected
between compressor and turbine (“euATL”) (Fig. 11-40).13
The electric motor must also withstand the high turbo-
charger speeds when switched off and have sufficient
torque for the acceleration of the internals (compressor
and turbine wheel).
11.5 Dynamic Behavior 369

Fig. 11-39 Comparison of

mechanical supercharging using a
Roots blower and exhaust gas tur-
04 I bocharging on the vehicle accel-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 eration process in the car SI
Time Is]
engine (elasticity test).

I I
t Fig. 11-40 Schematic diagram of
the electrically supported exhaust
gas turbocharger.

If an electrically driven compressor (“eBooster”) is
connected in series (Fig. 11-41) that briefly takes over the
air supply to the internal combustion engine, the electric
motor has to accelerate only the compressor wheel whose
polar mass moment of inertia is only 1/3 of that of the tur-
bine wheel. With an appropriate design of the eBooster
compressor, the maximum speed is lower than with the
euATL, hence, offering benefits for the design of
the eBooster (Fig. 11-42). The wider compressor map of
this two-stage controlled supercharging also offers the

Fig. 11-41 Schematic diagram

of the eBooster supercharging
system.
370 11 Supercharging of Internal Combustion Engines

Fig. 11-42 Sectional view of the

eBooster unit.

possibility of correspondingly raising the charge pressure
and, hence, the torque of the internal combustion engine
in the lower speed range, provided that sufficient electri-
cal energy is available.
11.6 Additional Measures for Supercharged
Internal Combustion Engines
11.6.1 SI Engines
With the turbocharged SI engines, the higher charge pres-
sure results in higher ultimate compression temperatures.
This increases the risk of autoignition and of knocking.
For this reason, it can be necessary to lower the compres-
sion ratio. In any case, the start of ignition of the SI engine
must be shifted towards "retard" in order to avoid imper-
missibly high ignition pressures and knocking combustion
(Fig. 11-43).
70
60
High exhaust gas recirculation rates increase the risk
of knocking, particularly if an unfavorable exhaust pipe
design exists in front of the turbine inlet.
In part-load operation, the mass flow of turbocharged
SI engines is throttled by the throttle plate positioned
downline of the compressor. The open-air circulation plate
creates a bypass around the compressor so that the mass
flow not required by the engine (part load) is returned
in front of the compressor. As a result, no pressure is built
up behind the compressor. This is also used for exhaust
gas turbocharged SI engines, but is more important for
mechanically supercharged engines because of the dis-
placement characteristic of the turbocharger.
The turbine materials used today are high temperature
steels (NiCr steels). With an exhaust gas temperature of
T3 > 950°C however, the strength drops sharply. Since
the exhaust gas temperature of a turbocharged SI engine at
full load can exceed 1OOO"C, the engine is enriched. This
is performed in the engine controller using an additional
control loop with exhaust gas temperature sensors. In the
meantime, turbine materials are available that can with-
stand temperatures of up to 1050°C.

11.6.2 Diesel Engines

-b 50
In diesel engines, the high charge pressure also results in
40
very high ultimate compression pressures with compres-
f sion ratios of E > 14. Depending on the mechanical
30
n. strength, the start of injection, therefore, has to be set very
20 late in diesel engines so that under certain circumstances
the compression pressure can be equal to or higher than
10 the ignition pressure.
With medium-speed diesel engines, high charge pres-
0 sures are used in conjunction with large valve overlaps (of
-90 -45 0 45 90 135 up to 120" on the crankshaft) also to reduce the thermal
Crankshaft angle ["CS] load on the engine. The medium-speed engine is operated
with high excess air factors ( A = 2).
Fig. 11-43 Pressure curve of a turbocharged SI engine With turbocharged diesel engines, the external
with retarded ignition angle. exhaust gas recirculation demands additional measures in
11.6 Additional Measures for Supercharged Internal Combustion Engines
the form of a clocked control valve and software to con-
trol the charge pressure and the exhaust gas recirculation
rate. Measures must also be taken to ensure that a negative
scavenging gradient ( p z - p 3 ) < 0 exists at all times.
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