CL405 Process Equipment Selection

(Autumn 2021-2022)

Prof. Ranjan Kumar Malik

Professor (Adjunct) of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai 400076
rkmalik@iitb.ac.in
Materials Transfer & Fluid Handling Equipment
Selection and Design – II

Recommended Reference: Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineers, Peters,
Timmerhaus, and West, McGraw Hill (Fifth Edition).

Additional Reading: Chemical Engineering Design – Principles, Practice and Economics

of Plant and Process Design, Gavin Towler & Ray Sinnot (3rd Edition).

Must Read Article: Selecting a Centrifugal Compressor, James M. Sorokes, Chemical

Engineering Progress (AIChE Publication), June 2013.
 Materials Transfer & Fluid Handling Equipment
Most Common Means For Transferring Fluid Materials
Pumps
➢Pumps are used to transfer fluids (liquids, vapours, or gases) from
one location to another. The pump accomplishes this transfer by
increasing the pressure of the fluid and, thereby, supplying the
driving force necessary for flow.
➢The most common application of pumps is in transferring liquids
through pipes from one location to another.
Compressors, Fans, and Blowers
➢Movement of gases can be accomplished by use of fans, blowers,
vacuum pumps, and compressors.
➢Fans and blowers are used for moving gases when pressure
differences are small. For large pressure differentials, compressors
are used.

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 Compression & Expansion

Topics to be covered
Compression and Expansion: blowers and compressors,
Single or multistage compressing, Typical multistage
compressor calculations.

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 Gas/Vapor Handling Equipment
Gas/Vapor handling equipment are used to transfer materials
through pipe lines, during which just enough pressure or head
is generated to overcome line friction, or to raise or lower the
pressure to some required operating level in connected
process equipment. The main classes of this kind of
equipment are as follows:
Fans
Fans accept gases at near atmospheric pressure and raise the
pressure by approximately 3% (12in. of water), usually on air
for ventilating or circulating purposes.
Blowers
Blowers are rotating machines that raise the pressure to an
intermediate level, usually to less than 40 psig (~ 3.75 bara),
but more than accomplished by fans.
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 Gas/Vapor Handling Equipment
Compressors
Compressors are any machines that raise the pressure above the
levels for which fans are used. Thus, in modern terminology they
include blowers.
Jet Compressors
Jet compressors utilize a high pressure gas to raise other gases at
low pressure to some intermediate value by mixing with them.
Vacuum Pumps
Vacuum pumps produce sub-atmospheric pressures in process
equipment. Often they are compressors operating in reverse but
other devices also are employed.
Steam Jet Ejectors
Steam jet ejectors are used primarily to evacuate equipment but
also as pumps or compressors.

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 Gas Compressors
➢The type of Gas Compressors best suited for the transportation
of gases/vapors in pipelines depends on the flow rate, the
differential pressure required, and the operating pressure.
➢Reciprocating, centrifugal, and axial flow compressors are the
principal types used in the chemical process industries.
Reciprocating Compressors
➢Reciprocating Compressors can be employed over a wide range
of capacities and pressures, and they are used extensively in
industrial operations. Sizes of reciprocating compressors
ranging from less than 1 to 3000 hp are available, and some
types can give delivery pressures as high as 4000 atm (see
Peters & Timmerhaus).
➢Though Reciprocating Compressors can be used over a wide
range of pressures and capacities, but are normally only
specified in preference to Centrifugal Compressors where high
pressures are required at relatively low flow rates.
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 Gas Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors
➢Centrifugal Compressors are more frequently used for high
flow rates and, by multi-staging, high differential pressures
(compression ratio).
➢For optimizing the sizing, intercooling between the stages is
frequently done.

Axial Flow Compressors

➢Axial Flow Compressors are suited for high flow rates and
moderate differential pressures.
➢However, Multi-Stage Axial Flow Compressors can generate
very high flow rates and fairly high discharge pressures.
➢Multi-staging in Axial Flow Compressors is usually limited to
16 stages (due to temperature/material limitations).

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 Types of Compressors

Reference: Towler & Sinnott rkmalik@iitb.ac.in 9

Compressor
Operating
Ranges

Note the
overlap zone
for
Reciprocating
Compressor
and
Centrifugal
Compressor

Reference: Towler & Sinnott rkmalik@iitb.ac.in 10

Operating Range of Compressors and Blowers

Reference: Towler & Sinnott

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A Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor
(with an Intercooler)

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An Axial Flow Compressor
(with multi-staging)

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A Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor

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A Multistage Centrifugal Compressor (X-section)

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 Example of Seals - Labyrinth Seals
[Taken From www.bearingsplus.com]
Labyrinth seals are a critical component applied across rotating
equipment to seal high pressure areas from low pressure areas and
prevent contamination of the process. Designed as a non-contacting
seal with a precise clearance over the rotor, labyrinth seals directly
affect equipment efficiency.

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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
For mechanically reversible processes, the work required for
compression of gases/vapours can be calculated from the
following expression:

The above equation, however, is valid only for the ideal-gas

state, for constant heat capacities, and for adiabatic,
mechanically reversible, closed-system processes. For open-
systems (flow systems), one should use the energy balance
(the First Law of Thermodynamics):

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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
Steady State Compression Process
In a compression process, the
isentropic work (adiabatic reversible) is
the minimum shaft work required for
compression of a gas from a given
initial state to a given discharge
pressure.
Thus we define a compressor efficiency
as:
η ≡ Ws(isentropic) / Ws
This is also given by:
η ≡ (ΔH)S / ΔH
Compressor efficiencies are usually in
the range of 0.7 to 0.8.
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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
If a Mollier diagram (enthalpy-
pressure – temperature - entropy
chart) is available for the working
fluid, the isentropic work can be
easily calculated:
W = H1 − H2
where H1 is the specific enthalpy
(per unit mass) at the pressure
and temperature corresponding
to point 1, the initial gas
conditions, and H2 is the specific
enthalpy corresponding to point
2, the final gas condition. Point 2
is found from point 1 by tracing a
path (line) of constant entropy on
the diagram. (See a solved
example in Towler & Sinnott).
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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
If no Mollier diagram is available, it is more difficult to estimate
the ideal work in compression (or even expansion processes, -
expansion by a turbine is also adiabatic reversible process and
under ideal conditions it is isentropic)
Polytropic Compression and Expansion
In industrial compressors or expanders, the compression or
expansion path will be “polytropic,” which can be
approximated by the expression, where n is the
polytropic expansion coefficient. The work required (or
produced) can be given by the following expression:

The value of n will depend on the design and operation of the

machine.
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Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
Compressibility Factor as a Function of Reduced
Temperature and Reduced Pressure

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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
The energy required to compress a gas (or the energy obtained
from expansion) can be estimated by calculating the ideal work
and applying a suitable efficiency value. For reciprocating
compressors the isentropic work is normally used (n = γ, where
γ is the ratio of heat capacities); and for centrifugal or axial
machines the polytropic work is calculated.

Approximate Polytropic
Efficiencies of Centrifugal and
Axial-flow Compressors

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Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
Typical Efficiencies for Reciprocating
Compressors

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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
Relationship Between Polytropic
Coefficient n and Ratio of Ideal
Gas Heat Capacities

Calculation
of Outlet
Temperature

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 Thermodynamic Theory of Compression
A simple Illustrative Example (For details, see Towler & Sinnott)
The Problem
Estimate the power required to compress 5000 kmol/h of HCl at 5 bar, 15
°C, to 15 bar.
Step by Step Solution
1. For HCl, the critical conditions are Pc = 82 bar, Tc = 324.6 K.
2. Estimate outlet temperature from T2 = T1 (P2 / P1 )**m
3. For diatomic gases γ ≈ 1.4. (Note: γ could be estimated
from the relationship γ = Cp / Cv )
4. From the Efficiency Chart, Ep = 0.73.
5. At mean conditions Z = 0.98

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Drivers for Fans, Blowers, & Gas Compressors
Fans & Blowers
Fans & Blowers are normally run using integral electric motors
Gas Compressors
Four different types of drivers that are used in the process
industry for gas compressors are:
➢Electric Motors
➢Gas Expanders
➢Steam Turbines, and
➢Internal-combustion Engines

Unless the Horse Power requirement is very high, normally

Electric Motors are used as drivers

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 Working of Expanders (Turbines)
Basic Principle
➢The expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high-velocity
stream is a process that converts internal energy into kinetic
energy, which in turn is converted into shaft work when the
stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft. This
principle is used in Expanders (Turbines).
➢Thus an expander (or Turbine) consists of alternate sets of
nozzles and rotating blades through which vapor or gas flows
in a steady-state expansion process. The overall result is the
conversion of the internal energy of a high-pressure stream
into shaft work.
➢When steam provides the motive force as in most power
plants, the device is called a turbine
➢When it is a high-pressure gas, such as ammonia or ethylene
in a chemical plant, the device is usually called an expander.
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Steam Turbine Components

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 Steam Turbine Types
Back-Pressure Steam Turbine
A back-pressure steam turbine reduces the pressure of the inlet
steam to the steam turbine’s design back pressure. The exhaust
steam from the turbine can then be used for process
requirements e.g. heating tanks, distillation column reboilers, etc.
Back pressure steam turbines are commonly used in industrial
plants that require a large amount of process steam e.g. oil seed
extraction plants and crude oil refineries. Note that back-pressure
steam turbines are a type of non-condensing turbine.
Condensing steam turbines
Condensing steam turbines are used if the turbine is utilised
solely for power generation, i.e., it is connected to a generator
and does not provide process steam to the plant. Unfortunately,
the exhaust steam of condenser steam turbines must be
condensed prior to being returned to the boiler (this is where
condenser turbines obtain their name).
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Thermodynamic Theory of Expander (Turbine)

High Pressure
Steam [If the changes in PE and KE are Neglected]

Shaft Work

Adiabatic Reversible Process

(Isentropic)
Low Pressure
Steam

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Thermodynamic Theory of Expander (Turbine)

Coupling of Air Compressor with Gas Expander

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Thermodynamic Theory of Expander (Turbine)

Energy Recovery From Exhaust Gases

to Preheat Ai-Fuel Mixture

Heat Combustor
Exchanger
Common Shaft

Compressor Expander Load

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