Cairo University Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

Second Year Mechanical

Report on:
Turbomachines

Submitted to: Dr/ Shady

Submitted by:

Name Sec. B.N.

Mahmoued Ahmed Elsayed Kassab 5 33

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 Abstract
A turbomachine is a device where A turbomachine is a device where
mechanical energy in the form mechanical energy in the form of shaft work, is
transferred either to or from a continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic
action of rotating blade rows.
The interaction between the fluid and the turbomachine blades also results in
fluid dynamic lift.
Turbomachine produces change in enthalpy of the fluid passing through it.

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 Table of contents
Page

1- Introduction………………………………………………………………….…..………….….5

2- Types of turbomachines………………………………………………………………………5

3- Turbo Pumps ………………………………………………………………..…………………6

3.1The principle…………………………………………………………………..…………....6

3.2 Design………………………………………………………………………………………6

3.3 operation sequence……………………………………………………………..…………8

4- Turbo Compressors………………………………………………………..………………….9

5- Steam, Gas and Hydraulic Turbines………………………………………………………..13

5.1 Steam turbine………………………………………………………………………..……13

5.2 Gas turbine………………………………………………………………………………..13

6- Conclusion…………………………………………………….………………….….…..……15

7- References……………………………………………………………………..……….…….15

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 List of figures
Page

1- Principle of the molecular pump ……………………………………………………...6

2- Schematic of a turbomolecular pump as designed by W. Becker……………..….6

3- Turbomolecular Drag Pumps with integrated drive unit………………………..…..7

4- Cross section, MagneticTurbo with Holweck stage……………………………..…..8

5- Roughing and backing the turbopump………………………………………..…..….9

6- Turbopump throwing out the air molecules…………………………….……..……9

7- A multistage high pressure compressor………………………………………..……10

8- Compressor casing………………………………………………………………..…..10

9- Compressor rotor………………………………………………………………………11

10- Compressor seals…………………………………………………………….………..12

11- Steam turbine…………………………………………………………………….……..13

12- Schematic cross-section gas turbine engine with a single stage reheat turbine.. 13

13- Twin-spool high bypass ratio aircraft engine (Pratt& Whitney)………….…………14

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 1. Introduction
Turbo or turbines is of Latin origin and it implies that which spins or whirls around. A
turbomachine is a rotary machine Which always involves an energy transfer between a
continuously flowing fluid and a rotor , It is a power or head generating machine and it
uses the dynamic action of the rotor or impeller or runner which changes the energy
level of the continuously flowing fluid through the rotor.
The energy transfer occurs either from rotor to the flowing fluid or from working
fluid to the rotor depending upon the type of machine.
The dynamic action of the rotating blade rows sets up forces between the blade row
and the fluid , while the components of these forces in the direction of blade motion
give rise to the energy transfer between the blades and fluid.

2. Types of turbomachines
Turbomachines are classified into two main groups, depending on whether the work
is done by fluid on the rotating element or work is done on fluid by the rotor. And
classified on the type of its motion to (axial – Centrifugal– Radial ).

Turbomachines may also be classified as:

➢ Incompressible or compressible.

➢ Axial-flow, mixed-flow or radial-flow geometry.

➢ Single stage or multi Single stage or multi –stage.

➢ Impulse, reaction or impulse-reaction.

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 3. Turbo Pumps
3.1 The principle:- a particle that hits a moving orifice contains, after leaving the
orifice, and in addition to its own thermal speed, a component in the direction of the
movement of the orifice. The overlaying of these two speeds yields a total speed and
a direction in which the particle will
move. If a second orifice is positioned
opposite the first orifice, the process is
repeated. From the undirected thermal
movement of the particle before the
collision with the orifices, there now
arises a directional movement, the
pumping process. Whereas the
additional gas speed components in the
molecular flow range contribute fully
to the pumping effect, this is lost in the
Figure 1
laminar flow range owing to the
collisions with neighboring molecules .The transition range from the molecular to the
laminar flow is in the range of 10 -3 to 10-1 Mbar. The mean free paths at 10-2 Mbar
correspond approximately to the distance between the blades on turbo-pumps. On
account of the smaller channel cross sections on the Holweck stages, the transition
range to laminar flow is approximately 1 Mbar. Because the effect of the moving
orifices on the gas particles is greatest in the molecular flow range, pumps that
operate on this principle are called molecular pumps.

3.2 Design:-
i. Classical Turbopumps:-
On the basis of his experience with the first
molecular pumps, in 1957 Becker designed a
new molecular pump that was called the
turbopump owing to the resemblance in its
construction to a turbine. turbopump
essentially comprises a casing with a rotor
and a stator.

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 Rotating and fixed disks (or blades) are arranged alternately. All disks contain
oblique channels whereby the rotor disk channels are arranged in mirror image to the
channels on the stator disks. A rotor disk together with the stator disk forms a pump
stage that generates a particular compression ratio that for air is approximately 30.
The compression effect is multiplied by the sequential switching of several pump
stages and very high ratios are attained .

ii. Enhancements (CompactTurbo) :-

There are different technical approaches used to
improve the exhaust pressure of a turbopump. The
approach we take at Pfeiffer Vacuum is to add a
Holweck drag stage downstream of the turbo stage.
This stage consists of a rotating cylinder and a
stationary part with a thread. As with the
turbomolecular stages, the Holweck stages are most
effective in the molecular flow range. The typical
dimensions of a pump channel on the Holweck stage is
Figure 3
smaller than on the turbo disks by a factor of 10 to 50.
Molecule collisions attain significance only at higher pressures. The molecular flow
is therefore retained up to a few Mbars. The pumping speed of Holweck stages is,
compared with the pumping speed for a turbomolecular stage, less because only a
relatively small entry surface can be utilized. In turbo drag pumps, the gas molecules
already compressed by the turbopump stages are easily accepted by the downstream
Holweck stages with reduced pumping speeds, where they are further compressed
and then pumped to the backing pump . Placing con- centric Holweck stages in
parallel allows the pumping speed to be increased at high pressures while reducing
the heat build-up.
This is especially advantageous when pumping high gas loads. The Holweck stages,
therefore, represent an integrated large backing pump that can expel against
approximately 10 mbar.

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iii. MagneticTurbo:-
Our standard turbopumps are normally
equipped on the fore-vacuum side with
lubricated ceramic ball bearings and on the
high vacuum side with a passive, radially
stabilizing maintenance-free permanent
magnetic bearing. Turbopumps fully equipped
with magnetic bearings have been designed for
special applications.
Fully magnetic bearing turbopumps have
been designed for special applications.
Electromagnets are used to hold the rotor
electronically suspended in the axial direction.
The radial position can be regulated either via
the permanent magnetic bearing or also
electronically. Because there is no direct
contact of the rotor with the casing, the
vibration level is extremely low. Additionally,
out of balance compensation takes place and
this reduces the vibration level even further; it
is less than for com- parable ball bearing
turbopumps by approximately an order of
magnitude of one. A further advantage besides Figure 4
the absence of oil on the fore-vacuum side is
the reduced wear and tear and the freedom of maintenance. In the event of a power
failure, the magnetic bearing is sup- plied with power by the energy from the rotor.
This ensures continuation of power supply for approximately 7 minutes.
Where longer interruptions to the power supply are involved, the rotor is brought to
a standstill at approximately 20 % of the rated rotation speed via an integrated safety
bearing. Even when the electronics malfunction, ingress of air, or earthquakes, the
rotor is brought to rest many times without venting and without damage.
Any mounting position can be selected for magnetic bearing turbopumps in turbo
drag and normal turbo-technology.

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3.3 operation sequence:-
We use mechanical pumps to remove some of the air
but there is a limit to how many air molecules that
mechanical pump can remove from the vacuum
chamber so we need to continue to pump after we use
mechanical pump to achieve much lower pressure in
the vacuum chamber since high vacuum pump don’t
function in atmospheric pressure we need to start with
mechanical pump and then use a high vacuum pump.
The turbopump is capable of reaching much lower
pressures than mechanical pump alone so first, we
rough pump the system with a mechanical pump, and
then we use the turbo pump afterwards but a Figure 5

turbopump needs a helping hand it can’t pump alone its backed by mechanical pump
this simply means that the air from the output of the turbo pump is removed by the
mechanical pump so we are going to use the mechanical pump in two different ways.
First, to rough out the vacuum system from atmosphere pressure to about 10 torr so
that we can turn on the turbo pump afterwards second, we use that mechanical pump
to back the turbo pump.
The turbopump consist of several turbines spinning at high speed air molecules are
hit by the angled turbine blades and are bounced out of the chamber and into the
turbo pump there are many turbine blades and this many
times. As the air molecules in the chamber near the pump
are decreased in number the rest of the air molecules in the
chamber diffuse toward the turbo pump where there is less
air, the air molecules that the turbo pump collects make their
way out of the outlet of the turbopump which then are
pumped by the mechanical pump that is backing.
The ability of turbopump is related to the speed of the
turbines which typically spin at 50,000 rpm compare that to
a typical mechanical pump which rotates at less that 5,000 Figure 6
rpm.

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 4. Turbo Compressors
The function of a compressor is to elevate the total pressure of the working fluid.
According to the conservation law of energy, this total pressure increase requires
external energy input which must be added to the system in the form of mechanical
energy.
The compressor rotor which is driven either by an electric motor or a turbine, exerts
forces on the fluid medium and therefore increases its pressure. Compressors are
utilized, among others, in pipeline systems, chemical industry, steel production for
blowing oxygen and oxygen enrichment of blast furnace air, biological sewage
treatments, and gas liquefaction. In power generation and aircraft gas turbines the
compressor component provides the pressure ratio essential for maintaining the
process of power or thrust generation.

Figure 7

Gas path components:-

➢ Casing.

➢ Guide vanes (stators).

➢ Rotor (impeller (blades) and shaft).

➢ Diaphragms (diffuser and return channel).

➢ Stage seals (impeller and shaft).

Figure 8

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 i. The casing
The function of the turbo-compressor casing is defined as it can be either
horizontally or vertically (barrel type) split.
Generally, barrel type casings are used above 600 Psi (40 Bar) pressure or for
mixed gases with a high hydrogen content. From a maintenance standpoint
horizontally split casings with bottom connections are preferred.
The major problem connected with casing design is distortion of the casing
caused by excessive piping or foundation forces. During construction or
whenever piping is removed from the casing, dial indicators mounted
external to the casing should be positioned on the shaft in the horizontal and
vertical planes. Movement of more than 0.002 inch (0.05mm) when piping is
bolted up to the casing should require correction to the piping system (pipe
flange alignment or spring support modification). The only way for the turbo-
compressor shaft to move is if the piping or foundation cause excessive casing
strain.
ii. The inlet guide vanes:-
The function of compressor inlet guide vanes is defined as the Centrifugal
compressor guide vanes are usually fixed. Plant and instrument air
compressors can be supplied with adjustable guide vanes.
And its function is to directs and distributes the gas to each impeller. centrifugal
compressors guide vanes are fixed. axial compressor guide vanes can be
adjustable while operating.
Adjustable guide vanes alter the dynamic compressor performance curve
by changing the velocity and direction of the gas relative to the compressor
impeller blades. Impact of the gas velocity vector with the blades (counter
rotation) will increase the gas tangential velocity and produce greater energy
(head). Leading the gas velocity vector (pre-rotation) will decrease the gas
tangential velocity and produce less energy (head).
iii. The rotor:-
Dynamic compressor rotors can contain axial and/or centrifugal
impellers. Centrifugal impellers can handle flows from 100 to over 100,000
CFM. Axial impellers (blading rows) are usually used above 100,000 CFM. The
head produced by a centrifugal stage can vary from approximately 5,000 to
25,000 FT/LBF/LBM- An axial stage usually produces approximately 3,000
FT/LBF/LBM of head. The most common problems associated with rotors are;
component unbalance, rotor unbalance caused by improper impeller assembly,
excessive blade or impeller stress and rotor system natural frequencies.
Function: the rotor which consists of the shaft. impellers, thrust disc and
balance drum rotates thus increasing the energy of the gas.

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Figure 9
iv. Diaphragms:-
Diaphragms can be manufactured of either cast iron or cast steel. Both
materials are acceptable. However, in the event of severe axial rubs caused by
excessive continuous surge, cast iron diaphragms can crack and will require
replacement. Since centrifugal diaphragms are rarely spared, failure will cause
long periods of downtime and loss of product revenue. Diffusers are usually
vaneless (parallel walled) but can be vaned or scrolled to increase head
produced per stage.
Older designs with vaned or scrolled diffusers often encountered problems
with impeller side wall breakage caused by fatigue of the impeller side plates
resulting form alternating pressures at the impeller discharge. This phenomena
was caused by the pressure build up and decay resulting from blade passing
interference between the impeller and diffuser vanes. The classic fix is to "scroll"
the impeller wheel between each vane. A modified impeller is called a
"cabbage cutter wheel" due to its appearance. The idea behind this modification
is to remove the effect (side plate cracks) by removing the affected material.
This modification has proven successful and does not significantly effect
impeller efficiency.

v. Inter-stage seals:-
Each impeller diaphragm contains one eye seal and one
shaft seal. These seals are designed to minimize leakage
from the diffuser to the inlet of the impeller (eye seal)
and to the inlet of the next stage (shaft seal).
Interstage seals are usually manufactured of aluminum
to assure that contact with the rotor does not result in an
external excitation to cause vibration. However, certain
gases and saturated gas mixtures require that alternative Figure 10
materials be used.
Since the early 1970's various abradable material interstage seals have
been used. Abradable seals allow for contact with the rotor without
causing excitation to the rotor system. This type of interstage sealing
system had it's origin in the aircraft engine industry. The advantage of
an abradable seal is increased efficiency. Increases in stage efficiency as high
as 3% have been obtained. Frequently used abradable seal materials are fluorisint
(mica impregnated teflon) and honeycomb arrangements of hastelloy.
The temperature limits of these materials are approximately 350°F and 1100°F
respectively.
Usually, the labyrinth (knife edges) are positioned on the rotors whenever
abradable seals are used. It has proven cost effective not to attempt to
machine knife edges in the abradable material.
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5. Steam, Gas and Hydraulic Turbines
5.1 Steam turbine:-
Steam turbines serve as power producing devices
a large steam turbine used for base load power
generation. It consists of an integrated high
pressure (HP), an intermediate pressure (IP), and
two identical low pressure (LP) components.
Each component incorporates a number of stages
consisting of stator- and rotor- blading. Steam at a
Figure 11
given level of total energy, enters the HP-turbine component,
passes through the first stator row, and undergoes a certain degree of deflection, which
is necessary to provide appropriate inlet conditions for the rotor row that follows. The
stator blades are attached to the inner casing, which is under higher pressure than the
outer one. During the course of deflection, the working fluid is accelerated. As a
result, the potential energy of steam is partially converted into kinetic energy, which is
used in the following rotor blading. Due to the rotational motion of the rotor, a part of
the total energy is converted into mechanical energy, generating shaft power. This
process is repeated in the following stages until the exit conditions are reached. The
HP-turbine component is characterized by a relatively small blade height compared to
the LP component. the cross sections of the integrated HP- and IP-part, experience
only a moderate change due to a moderate increase in specific volume. In contrast, the
specific volume changes drastically within the LP-part, requiring an excessive
opening of the cross section to accommodate large blade heights.

5.2 Gas turbine:-

Another important
application field of
turbomachines is gas
turbine technology.
A gas turbine engine
incorporates
compressor and
turbine components.
As power generating
units, gas turbines are Figure 12
used to cover the
electric energy demand during peak load periods. The thermal energy of exhaust gases
of a gas turbine can be used to generate steam for additional power generation.
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This is accomplished by a combined cycle which exhibits an efficient device for base
load power generation with an overall thermal efficiency of over 55%.
Power generation gas turbine engine with a thermal efficiency close to 33%. To
substantially improve the thermal efficiency without a significant increase in turbine
inlet temperature, a well-known reheat principle as a classical method for thermal
efficiency augmentation is applied. This standard efficiency improvement method is
routinely applied in steam turbine power generation, and for the first time, in 1948, it
was applied to a power generation gas turbine plant in Beznau, Switzerland.
The plant is still operational after almost half a century, has a turbine inlet temperature
of 600 °C, and an efficiency of 30%, which is remarkably high for this very low
turbine inlet temperature.
Despite the predicted high efficiency at the conventional turbine inlet temperature,
the sequential combustion did not find its way into the aircraft and power generation
gas turbine design. The reason was the inherent problem of integrating two
combustion chambers into a conventionally designed gas turbine engine.
Besides power generation, gas turbines play an important role in transportation.
Aircraft gas turbines are the main propulsion systems of large, medium, and small size
aircrafts.

Figure 13

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6. Conclusion
Turbomachines are devices within which conversion of total energy of a working
medium into mechanical energy and vice versa takes place.
Turbomachines are generally divided into two main categories. The first category is
used primarily to produce power. It includes, among others, steam turbines, gas
turbines, and hydraulic turbines.
The main function of the second category is to increase the total pressure of the
working fluid by consuming power. It includes compressors, pumps, and fans.

7. Reference
1- Frutschi, H.U., 1994, “Advanced Cycle System with new GT24 and GT26

Gas Turbines, Historical Background,” ABB Review 1/94.

2- S.M.Yahya Turbines, Compressors & fans, TMH 2nd edition (2002).

3- H.Cohen, GFC Rogers , & HIH Saravanamuttoo, Gas turbine theory,

Thomson press India Ltd.,4th Edition (1998).

4- Turbo-compressor mechanical design overview (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://kundoc.com

5- Liquid Rocket Engines (J-2X, RS-25, general) (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://blogs.nasa.gov

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