Introduction to biology (a) Cells are basic structural and physiological units of all

living organisms
I. Nature of biology (b) Cells are both distinct entities and building block of more
complex organisms
Studying biology makes us aware of the realms of the
living world.
2. Living organisms: undergo metabolism
(a) Nanobe- smallest organism Require Energy
(b) Blue whale- largest organism (a) Cells use nutrients to supply energy and build
(c) Wolffia globosa- smallest flower new structures
(d) Rafflesia arnoldii- largest flower (b) Metabolism: the sum total of chemical reactions
that occur in an organism
Knowledge of physics, mathematics and chemistry
helps us understand biology 3. Living organisms: respond to stimuli
Respond
A. Biology as a science of life (a) helps ensure the survival of an organism
It is through understanding of what makes such creature (b) allows an organism to carry on daily activities
an organism
4. Living organisms: possess a capacity to grow…
Biology- the science of living things; has become a reproduce
frontier of sciences; the study of life. It is a scientific Reproduce and Develop:
field that is interested in the form, function, and (a) asexual reproduction (clonal reproduction):
behavior of all living things. produce exact replica of themselves
(b) sexual reproduction (many strategies):
B. Brief history of biology
exchange of genetic material between
Humans began studying biology in their desire to
organisms
triumph over creation; initially based on superstition
5. Living organisms have: heritable genetic
(a) Hippocrates- wrote a book of diseases
information… through natural selection, adapt to their
(b) Aristotle- listed 500 species of animals
environment
(c) Theoprhastus- founded botany and 500 species of
Heredity
plants
(a) genome – all DNA molecules in a cell
(d) Galen- last real biologist of the ancient world
(b) adaptation – an organism’s modification in
(e) Andreas Vesalius- inaugurated the modern era of
structure, function, or behavior suitable to the
western medicine
environment
(f) Leonardo da Vinci- an artist studying physiological
natural selection- When adaptations are so beneficial
and anatomical details
that they are inherited in subsequent generations
(g) Anton van Leeuwenhoek- initiated microscopy
(h) Charles Darwin- on the origin of species
6. Living organisms have: complex organization
Life Science
C. Importance of Biology (a) biology is the scientific study of life
(a) discover the relationships among humans, animals,
and plants
B. Characteristics of living things
(b) Learn to value life
(a) cellular organization
(c) Learn about sustainable development
(b) Locomotion
(d) Learn about the need to conserve
(c) Irritability
(e) Enables us to realize economic importance
(d) Matabolism
(f) Enhances our interests and appreciation
(e) Growth
(f) Reproduction
II. What is a living thing? (g) Adjustment, integration, adaptation, coordination

What are the characteristics of life?

Living organisms are a carbon- and water-based C. Life is complex!
cellular form with complex organization and heritable
1. There are levels of life:
genetic information. They undergo metabolism, possess
small molecules- large molecules- cells- tissues- organs
a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and,
- organ system- complex organisms
through natural selection, adapt to their environment in
successive generations.
2. There is diversity of life:
A. Properties of life a. Prokaryotes: single-celled organisms. each cell is an
individual organism that can live and function
1. Living organisms are: a carbon- and water-based
independently.
cellular form.
Cell Theory
 (1) Domain Bacteria- consists of all the bacterial James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered DNA
organisms structure

(2) Domain Archaea- contains the descendants of the C. The Theory of Heredity:
most primitive organisms on Earth (a) The genes of any organism are inherited as discrete
units
b. Eukaryotes: multi-celled organisms (b) Those genes are packaged up in chromosomes
(3) Domain Eukarya
Gregor Mendel – Mendelian segregation; first scientist to
(a) Kingdom Protista- first group to develop
suggest how genes are inherited
multicellularity
(b) Kingdom Plantae D. The Theory of Evolution:
(c) Kingdom Fungi (a) Organisms that can respond to the challenges of living
(d) Kingdom Animalia will leave more offspring
(b) Descent with modification!
3. There is taxonomic order to life:
domain- kingdom- phylum- class- order- family- genus- Charles Darwin – first scientist to present this idea;
species living organisms are related to one another

4. There is ecological order to life:

biosphere- region- landscape- ecosystem- community-
population- individuals V. Scientific Method

The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers

5. Life is interconnected and interdependent: to questions about the world around us.
a. Producers
b. Consumers The 7-step process to scientific investigations
c. Decomposers
(1) Formulate a question.
What do you want to know or explain? Use
III. The scientific process observations you have made to write a question that
To understand such a complex subject, scientists addresses the problem or topic you want to investigate.
developed the scientific method:
(2) Research the question.
(a) allows scientists to modify and correct their beliefs Researching your question lets you know if
as new observations and information becomes others have done this same experiment before and if so,
available what their data suggests. If they had a widely accepted
conclusion, you may want to try a different angle with
(b) if well supported > theory! your experiment or test a different variable.
Observations- hypothesis- experiment/observation-
conclusion- scientific theory (3)Form a hypothesis.
What do you think will happen? A hypothesis is
your prediction for the outcome of the experiment. It is
based on your observations and should be testable!
IV. Core Ideas of Biology
(4) Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.
A theory is a unifying explanation that has been well
Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis
supported time and time again; statement of fact that
to see if your prediction is correct. Record all of your
has not been disproven scientifically.
data and observations and put them into a table that is
There are four major unifying themes in the study of life. neat and organized.

A. The Cell Theory: (5) Analyze data.

(a) All organisms are composed of cells Is your data reliable? Does it make sense? Put
(b) All cells come from other cells your data into a chart or graph and look for any trends.

Robert Hooke– named cells; the first scientist to identify
a cell; honeycomb
Anton van Leeuwenhoek– the first to identify bacterial
cells, and he called them “wee animalcules.”
B. The Gene Theory:
(a) All organisms have a genome
(b) An organism’s genes determine what it will be like
(secret code!)
(6) Draw Conclusions.
Do your data and observations support your
hypothesis? If you cannot make a definite conclusion,
you may need to try the experiment again. This means
you may either need to rewrite your procedure if it was
not specific enough; you may need to change your
hypothesis.
(7) Communicate results.
Report the results of your experiment to let
others know what you have learned. This will be
 represented as either a lab report, oral presentation, or
Science Fair display board.
The Cell Theory and the Microscope
Some Random Cell Facts
(a) The average human being is composed of around 100
Trillion individual cells..
(b) It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of a
dot on the letter “i”
Discovery of Cells
Robert Hooke- 1665; English Scientist, discovered cells
while looking at a thin slice of cork; He described the
cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb; He thought that
cells only existed in plants and fungi
Anton van Leuwenhoek- 1673; used a handmade
microscope to observe pond scum & discovered single-
celled organisms; He called them “animalcules”; He also
observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, and
humans; Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
animals as well as plants
Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries and the
mid 19th century, very little cell advancements were
made. This is probably due to belief in Spontaneous
Generation. Examples: Mice from dirty clothes/corn
husks; Maggots from rotting meat
Louis Pasteur- Conclusively disprove spontaneous
generation
Development of Cell Theory
Matthias Schleiden- 1838, German Botanist, concluded
that all plant parts are made of cells
Theodor Schwann- 1839, German physiologist, who was
a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues
are composed of cells.
Rudolf Virchow- 1858, German physician, after extensive
study of cellular pathology, concluded that cells must
arise from preexisting cells.
The Cell Theory Complete
The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were now
complete:
1. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.
(Hooke)(1665)
2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Modern Cell Theory
Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition to
the original Cell Theory:
1. The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which is
passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
and metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried
out inside the cells.(movement, digestion,etc)
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
structures within the cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma
membrane)
How Has The Cell Theory Been Used? The basic
discovered truths about cells, are the basis for:
Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures(AIDS,
Cancer, Vaccines, Cloning, Stem Cell Research, etc.)
Early Microscopes
Early microscope lenses made images larger but the
image was not clear
Zacharias Janssen - made 1st compound microscope; a
Dutch maker of reading glasses (late 1500’s)
Leeuwenhoek- made a simple microscope (mid 1600’s)
magnified 270X
Leeuwenhoek's microscope
A) a screw for adjusting the height of the object being
examined
B) a metal plate serving as the body
C) a skewer to impale the object and rotate it
D) the lens itself, which was spherical
Modern Microscopes
Lens- makes an enlarged image & directs light towards
you eye
Magnification- the change in apparent size produced by
a microscope
total magnification- powers of the eyepiece (10X)
multiplied by objective lenses
simple microscope- has one lens; Similar to a
magnifying glass
compound microscope- has multiple lenses (eyepiece &
objective lenses)

Stereomicroscope- creates a 3D image
Electron microscope- More powerful; some can magnify
up to 1,000,000X; Use a magnetic field in a vacuum to
bend beams of electrons; Images must be
photographed or produced electronically
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)- produces realistic
3D image ; only the surface of specimen can be
observed
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- produces 2D
image of thinly sliced specimen; detailed cell parts (only
inside a cell) can be observed
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)- able to show
arrangement of atoms
A View of the Cell
Cellular Organization
(1) Cell- basic unit of an organism
(2) Tissue – group of cells functioning together.
(3) Organ – group of tissues functioning together.
(4) Organ System – group of organs functioning together.
(5) Organism – group of organ systems functioning together.
Microscopes and Cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek- 1600’s; first described living
cells as seen through a simple microscope.
Robert Hooke- used the first compound microscope to
view thinly sliced cork cells; was the first to use the
term “cell”.
Mathias Schleiden- 1830’s; identified the first plant cells
and concluded that all plants made of cells.
Thomas Schwann- made the same conclusion about
animal cells.
Cell Theory:
(1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
(2) The cell is the basic unit of organization of all
organisms.
(3) All cells come from other cells all ready in
existence.
Two Basic Cell Types
1. Prokaryote- Lacks internal compartments; No true
nucleus; Most are single-celled (unicellular)
organisms; Examples: bacteria
2. Eukaryote- Has several internal structures
(organelles); True nucleus; Either unicellular or
multicellular; unicellular example: yeast;
multicellular examples: plants and animals
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell
1. Boundaries
(a) Plasma Membrane- serves as a boundary
between the cell and its external environment;
Allows materials to pass in and out of the cell.
(b) Cell Wall- surrounds the plasma membrane of
the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi; Plant cell
walls contain cellulose while fungi cell walls
contain chitin.
2. Controls
(a) Nucleus- Regulates cell function; Surrounded by
a double-layered membrane (nuclear
enveloped) with large pores that allow materials
to pass in and out of the nucleus; Contains
chromatin – long tangles of DNA.
(b) Nucleolus- Found in the nucleus and responsible
for ribosome production. Ribosomes are the
sites of protein production.
3. Assembly
(a) Cytoplasm- The jelly-like material that surrounds
the organelles.
4. Transport
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum- Folded membrane that
acts as the cell’s delivery system.
Smooth E.R. contains enzymes for lipid synthesis.
Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes for protein
synthesis.
(b) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)- A series of flattened
sacs where newly made lipids and proteins from the E.R.
are repackaged and shipped to the plasma membrane.
5. Storage
(a) Vacuoles- A sac of fluid surrounded by a
membrane used to store food, fluid, or waste
products.
(b) Lysosomes- Contain a digestive enzyme; Can
fuse with vacuoles to digest food, or can digest
worn cell parts; Also known as “suicide sacs”
because they can also destroy the whole cell.
6. Energy Transformers
(a) Mitochondria- Produce the energy for the cell;
Also known as the “powerhouse of the cell; Has
a highly folded inner membrane (cristae).
(b) Chloroplasts- Found in plant cells and some
protists; Transforms light energy into chemical
energy which is stored in food molecules;
 Contain chlorophyll – a green pigment that traps
light energy and gives plants their green color.
7. Support
(a) Cytoskeleton- A network of thin, fibrous materials
that act as a scaffold and support the organelles.
Microtubules – hollow filaments of protein.
Microfilaments – solid filaments of protein.
8. Locomotion
(a) Cilia- Short, numerous, hair-like projections from
the plasma membrane; Move with a coordinated
beating action.
(b) Flagella- Longer, less numerous projections from
the plasma membrane; Move with a whiplike
action.
9. Cell Division
(a) Centrioles- made of protein; play a role in the
splitting of the cell into two cells; found in
animal and fungi cells.
Cell Division
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. New
cells arise from the preexisting ones. The process by
which new cells are formed from the pre-existing cells is
called cell division.
In unicellular organisms, the cell division directly
produces two individuals and thus, represents a type of
reproduction (multiplication).
In multicellular organisms, there are two types of cells;
the somatic cells or the body cells (which form the body
of the organism) and the reproductive cells (such as
gamete-producing cells and-spore producing cells).
The somatic cells divide by mitosis (equational division)
and the reproductive cells divide by meiosis (reduction
division). Mitosis helps in growth and development of an
organism. Meiosis produces gametes in sexual
reproduction and spores in asexual reproduction.
All eukaryotic organisms, plants as well as animals,
show great regularity as well as similarity in the cell
divisions. Generally, a cell increases in size before
dividing. This is mainly due to the synthesis of proteins,
RNA and DNA. This is followed by division of the cell
nucleus (karyokinesis) and finally the division of the cell
cytoplasm (cytokinesis). All these events collectively
form a cell cycle.
The cell cycle, also called generation time, is the
sequence of events in the life of a cell. The cell cycle
starts immediately after one cell division and ends with
the completion of the next division.
The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells is classified into
1. Interphase- the preparatory phase during which
the cell is metabolically very active and
prepares itself for the division.
Three important processes occur in interphase,
a. replication of chromosomal DNA, synthesis of RNA and
the basic nuclear proteins (histones)
b. synthesis of energy rich compounds which provide energy
for mitosis and
c. in animal cells, division of the centriole.
On the basis of DNA synthesis, interphase is subdivided
into following three stages:
a. G1 (Gap1) : It starts immediately after the previous
division. Therefore G1 is called gap phase or first growth
phase. Synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place. The
cell grows in volume.
b. S phase (Synthesis phase) : It is the period during which
DNA synthesis occurs, i.e. replication of chromosomal
DNA takes place. This results in doubling of the
chromosomal threads.
c. G2 (Gap 2) : It is the last part of interphase and occurs
just before the new cell division. Hence G2 is called pre-
division gap phase or second growth phase. It begins
after completion of DNA synthesis in the S phase and
ends when new division (karyokinesis) commences.
During G2, synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place
and the nuclear volume increases.
2. Karyokinesis- the division of the parent nucleus
into daughter nuclei.
3. Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm. It
occurs after karyokinesis and divides the parent
cell into daughter cells.
Karyokinesis and cytokinesis together form the M phase
(i.e. cell division).
The total duration of a cell cycle varies greatly in
different organisms and under different conditions, e.g.
it may be as short as 20-30 minutes in the bacterium
 Escherichia coli or may take 12-24 hours as in most (a) Chromosomes uncoil
higher plants and animals. (b) Spindle fibres disintegrate
(c) Centrioles replicate
The time required for completion of each phase in the (d) Nucleur membrane forms
cell cycle varies greatly. In general, actual cell division (e) Cell divides
(M-phase) occupies only a short span of the total cycle
while the major span is occupied by the interphase. Stages of mitosis
Normally, time duration of S and G2 phases is more or (1) Early prophase- DNA begins to condense
less equal. The duration of G1 is longer in cells which do (2) Late prophase- centriole pairs move apart; nuclear
not divide frequently, and is very short in cells which envelope starts to break up
divide repeatedly in close succession. (3) Transition to metaphase- spindle apparatus form
G0 stage : It is a stage during which cell cycle is (4) Metaphase- chromosomes line up at the spindle equator.
arrested for an indefinite period. (5) Anaphase- sister chromatid (DNA) move apart
(6) Telophase- cytoplasmic division occurs
Significance of cell cycle (7) Interphase- cytokinesis; after mitosis, two diploid
(1) In multicellular organism, the 'cycling type' of cells daughter cells have formed.
(dividing cells) help in reproduction, growth and
replacement of dead cells, healing of wounds, etc.
(2) The interphase allows time for synthesis and growth of
the dividing cell.
(3) Properly controlled and regulated cell cycle results in
normal and proportionate growth of organisms.
(4) Loss of control over the cell cycle can lead to cancerous
growth

Mitosis-division of somatic (body) cells.

Meiosis-division of gametes (sex cells)

Mitosis

"Mitosis is an equational division, dividing the mother

cell into two daughter cells which are identical to each
other and also to the original mother cell in every
respect. In mitosis, the chromosomes of the mother cell
are duplicated and distributed equally to the two
daughter cells."

Stages of Mitosis (IPMAT)

1. Interphase- phase of mitosis where the cell

performs its normal activities for life; DNA is in
Summary of mitosis
the chromatin state; Interesting things happen!
(1) It can take place in haploid as well as diploid cells.
(a) Cell preparing to divide
(2) Both the daughter cells formed through mitosis
(b) Genetic material doubles
receive similar characters and number of chromosomes
as that of the mother cell.
2. Prophase- Chromosome pair up!
(3) The original structure of the chromosomes remains
(a) Chromosomes thicken and shorten; become visible; 2 unchanged in both the daughter nuclei.
chromatids joined by a centromere (4) Hence, it is an equational division and the resulting
(b) Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus daughter cells are identical qualitatively and
(c) Nucleolus disappears quantitatively.
(d) Nuclear membrane disintegrate
3. Metaphase-Chromosomes meet in the middle!

(a) Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell

(b) Become attached to spindle fibres by centromeres
(c) Homologous chromosomes do not associate
4. Anaphase- Chromosomes get pulled apart;
Spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids to the
opposite poles of the cell
5. Telophase- Now there are two!
Significance of Mitosis
(1) It is an equational division which maintains equal
distribution of the chromosomes after each cell cycle.
(2) The resulting daughter cells inherit identical
chromosomal material (hereditary material) both in
quantity (i.e., number) and quality (i.e., genetic make
up or characters).
(3) Mitosis maintains a constant number of
chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
(4) It helps to maintain the equilibrium in the amount of
DNA and RNA contents of a cell, as well as the nuclear
and cytoplasmic balance in the cell.
(5) Dead cells are replaced by newly formed cells
through mitosis. It thus helps in the repair of the body.
(6) It helps asexual reproduction, growth and
development of organisms.
Meiosis
In the sexually reproducing organisms, two important
phenomena regulate the number of chromosomes in the
life cycle. These are meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is
the reduction division in which the diploid (2n) number
of chromosomes is reduced to haploid (n) during
gamete formation (or spore formation). Whereas, in
fertilization, the two haploid gametes fuse to form a
diploid zygote. In this way, the diploid condition is
restored again in the life cycle.
3. The karyokinesis of meiosis consists of two complete
nuclear divisions called first meiotic division (Meiosis-I
or M-I) and second meiosis division (Meiosis-II or M-II).
4. M-I is reduction division involving separation of
homologous chromosomes.
5. M-II is equational division like mitosis which involves
duplication of chromosomes.
6. The four daughter nuclei are haploid due to the
reduction division (M-I). Moreover, they differ from each
other in the characters of chromosomes due to ’crossing
over’ during Prophase-I of M-I.
7. Cytokinesis may be successive or simultaneous
dividing the diploid mother cell into four haploid
daughter cells.

"Meiosis is a special type of division characteristic of

reproductive cells in which the diploid number of
chromosomes is reduced to haploid in the daughter
cells. In meiosis, chromosomes divide once while the
nucleus (and in some cases the cytoplasm also) divides
twice. Four haploid daughter cells result from one
diploid mother cell. These differ from each other as well
as from the mother cell."

Meiosis- 4 daughter cells produced; Each daughter cell

has half the chromosomes of the parent; 2 sets of cell
division involved

Summary of Meiosis
1. Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells only.
2. It occurs in diploid cells.
The Chemical Basis of Life
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
2.1 The emergence of biological function starts at the
chemical
 Everything an organism is and does depends on
chemistry
 Chemistry is in turn dependent on the arrangement
of atoms in molecules
 In order to understand the whole, biologists study
the parts (reductionism)
 Molecules and ecosystems are at opposite ends of
the biological hierarchy;
-Each level of organization in the biological
hierarchy builds on the one below it;
- At each level, new properties emerge
2.2 Life requires about 25 chemical elements
 A chemical element is a substance that cannot be
broken down to other substances by ordinary
chemical means
 About 25 different chemical elements are essential
to life
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up
the bulk of living matter, but there are other
elements necessary for life
 Goiters are caused by iodine deficiency
2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds
 Chemical elements combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds; Example: sodium + chlorine  sodium
chloride
2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons
 The smallest particle of an element is an atom
 Different elements have different types of atoms
 An atom is made up of protons and neutrons
located in a central nucleus
 The nucleus is surrounded by electrons
 Each atom is held together by attractions between
the positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons
 Neutrons are electrically neutral
 Atoms of each element are distinguished by a
specific number of protons
- The number of neutrons may vary
- Variant forms of an element are called isotopes;
Some isotopes are radioactive
2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical
properties of an atom
 Electrons are arranged in shells
-The outermost shell determines the chemical
properties of an atom
-In most atoms, a full outer shell holds eight
electrons
 Atoms whose shells are not full tend to interact with
other atoms and gain, lose, or share electrons
2.7 Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of
opposite charge
 When atoms gain or lose electrons, charged atoms
called ions are created
- An electrical attraction between ions with opposite
charges results in an ionic bond
 Sodium and chloride ions bond to form sodium
chloride, common table salt
2.8 Covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons, join atoms
into molecules
 Some atoms share outer shell electrons with other
atoms, forming covalent bonds
- Atoms joined together by covalent bonds form
molecules
 Molecules can be represented in many ways
- molecular formula, electron configuration,
structural formula
2.9 Water is a polar molecule
 Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share
electrons equally, creating a nonpolar molecule
 If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule
is created
 In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull
on the shared electrons than hydrogen
- This makes the oxygen end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged
- The hydrogen end of the molecule is slightly
positively charged
2.10 Overview: Water’s polarity leads to hydrogen
bonding and other unusual properties
 The charged regions on water molecules are
attracted to the oppositely charged regions on
nearby molecules
- This attraction forms weak bonds called hydrogen
bonds
 Like no other common substance, water exists in
nature in all three physical states: solid, liquid, gas
2.11 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive
 Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules can
move from a plant’s roots to its leaves
 Insects can walk on water due to surface tension
created by cohesive water molecules
2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and
basic conditions
 A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an
acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in solution is a
base
 Acidity is measured on the pH scale: 0-7 is acidic ,
8-14 is basic ; Pure water and solutions that are
neither basic nor acidic are neutral, with a pH of 7

2.12 Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature

 It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds
- Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of
heat energy without a large increase in
temperature
- As water cools, a slight drop in temperature
releases a large amount of heat
- A water molecule takes a large amount of energy
with it when it evaporates; this leads to evaporative
cooling

2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water

 Molecules in ice are farther apart than those in  Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers
liquid water  Buffers are substances that resist pH change
- Ice is therefore less dense than liquid water, which
- They accept H+ ions when they are in excess and
causes it to float
donate H+ ions when they are depleted
- If ice sank, it would seldom have a chance to thaw
- Buffers are not foolproof
- Ponds, lakes, and oceans would eventually freeze
solid
2.17 Chemical reactions rearrange matter
 In a chemical reaction:
2.14 Water is a versatile solvent
- reactants interact
 Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to
- atoms rearrange
stick to water molecules dissolve in water
- products result
- They form aqueous solutions
- Living cells carry out thousands of chemical
reactions that rearrange matter in significant ways