Computer Networks

Network:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices so as
to share the resources such as Data, Application, and Hardware.
Advantages:
 Sharing the resources such as data files, hardware such as printer, scanners …etc and
application installed in the central server
 Improved communication i.e. messages can be sent through internet email.
Disadvantages:
 The systems are more complex to run. An administrator is required to run the network.
 If the network is badly managed, services can become unusable and productivity fails.
 If the central server fails, entire system will fail.
 Network security is more important to protect from viruses.
Applications:
 In a network we can send and receive email.
 Remote data can be accessed.
 Resources can be shared.
Evolutions of Networks:
1. ARPANET:
 Advanced Research Projects Agencies Network.
 This was started in the year 1969.
 The goal is to connect computers at US Defense & different universities to share data.
2. NSFNET:
 National Science Foundation.
 This was started in the year 1980.
 This is used for academic and engineering research purpose.
3. INTERNET:
 This was started in the year 1990.
 It was internetworking i.e. links ARPANET, NSFNET and other private networks
resulted into internet.
 It is a worldwide network of computer networks.
 Gateways are used to connect the networks worldwide.
INTRANET:
 The word “intra” means within i.e it is a private network of computers within the
organization with its own server and firewall. It is not available outside the world.
This is used securely share organizations resources among employees.

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Components of Network:
Joining two computers with a cable will not form network. There are many other
components used to make a network.
1. Hosts/Nodes: This includes PC, Laptops, smart phones…etc required to form a network.
2. Server: It is responsible for making the networking tasks happen. Network tasks like
sharing the resources. There can be more servers in the network such as file server,
printer server, web server …etc.
3. Clients: It is a host computer requests some services from a server.
4. Network Hardware: This includes NIC attached to PC to establish network
connections. There are other connectivity devices such as Hub, Switch, Bridge, and
Router…etc.
5. Communication channel: Computer in a network interact each other through a channel
can be either wired or wireless. In the case of wired twisted-pair, coaxial cables and fibre
optics are used of communication.
6. Software: This includes protocols, network OS…etc which makes networking possible.
7. Network Services: These refer to the applications that provide different functionalities
such as DNS, file sharing, and many more services.
Types of Networks:
There are 4 types of networks based on
 Geographical Area
 Network Topology
 Component Roles
 Communication channel
1. Geographical Area: There are 4 types of networks
 Personal Area Network (PAN):
Devices are connected within 10 meters. Wi-Fi or WIMAX are used in PAN
 Local Area Network (LAN):
Within the office or building computers are connected. The key purpose is to share
the resources. It covers the distance up to 1km and always a single network. It usually
costs less to set it up.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Within a city computer are computers and covers the distance of more than 10km. It
costs more than LAN to set it up. Cable TV network spread over a city is MAN.
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
This is the highest level of network hierarchy where computer are connected all over
the world through telephone lines or satellites. It costs higher to set it up. It is usually
a network of networks. The largest WAN is called Internet.
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2. Network Topology:
The pattern of interconnecting the nodes in a network is called Topology and there are 5
types. There are 6 types topologies.
 In Star Topology computer are connected by a single path to a central server. This
is used in most of the places to share resources or voice communication.
 In Bus Topology a single length of transmission medium on to which various
nodes are connected. This topology is used in traditional data communication
networks where a host at one end of the bus communicates with several computers
attached along its length.
 In Ring Topology each node is connected to two neighboring nodes. Data is
accepted from one of the neighboring nodes and transmitted to another node.
Hence data travels in one direction only. If any one computer fails in a ring, the
entire system crashes.
 The variation of bus topology is called Tree Topology.
 In Graph Topology nodes are connected together in any arbitrary fashion. A link
may or may not connect to one or more nodes. There may be multiple links and
not necessary that all nodes are connected.
 In Mesh Topology each node connected to more than one node to provide an
alternative route in case host is too busy.
3. Component Roles:
This type of network includes based on role played by network computers in the network
operation. There are two types
i). P2P (Peer to Peer network):
 Peer refers to someone with equal role in the network.
 The computer can play role of a client or server.
 Each computer controls its own activities and plays a role of server depending upon
what needed at that point.
 Since computer works as a workstation and a server it is slower and requires more
memory.
 This type of network can have 10 systems in a network and popular in house
network and small companies.
ii). Client-Server network:
 It is suitable for bigger workstations and the access point is central server.
 One big specification computer reserved for server and help the clients in sharing
the resources. We can also have the several servers such as file server, printer
server and web server …etc.
 Client depends on the server. Client requests for the specific job and server will do
that task.
 The main drawback of this network is if server fails entire system will be
collapsed.
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4. Communication Channel:
Computer networks are formed when computers are connected with one another which
use a communication media. There are two types of communication media i.e. Guided
media and Unguided media
i) Wired computer networks: Most of the wired networks are LAN type which uses
communication media as cables. There are 3 types of cables.
 Twisted Pair cable:
This includes telephone wires, UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) used for electronic
communication such as CAT1 to CAT6 cables, STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
which is greater protection over UTP.
 Coaxial cable:
This type of cable consists of solid wire core surrounded by one or more wire
shields separated by some kind of plastic insulator. This is suitable for high speed
communication. It is better than twisted pair. This is popular for Cable TV
networks. Example such as thicknet, thinnet
 Optical Fibre:
This consists thin glass material that carry light from source at one end of fiber to
a detector at the other end. Light source used are LED’s. The speed is very high
and very expensive.
ii) Wireless computer networks: Computers are connected without cables called
unguided media. Through waves computers are connected and these waves can travel
through air, water or vacuum. These are 5 types.
 Micro waves:
It consists of transmitter, receiver and atmosphere. Data is transmitted though
waves over long distance. Microwave radiation can be used to transmit signals
such as mobile phone calls.
 Radio waves:
The transmission makes use of radio frequencies is termed as Radio waves. This
includes transmitter and receiver which uses antennas to capture the signal. Some
radio frequencies are allocated to private business and they can transmit audio,
video and data etc.
 Satellite:
It is a special case of micro wave system. A number of communication satellites
owned by both private and government organizations have been placed in the
stationary orbits about 22300 miles above the earth’s surface. The satellite accepts
signals from an earth station, amplifies them and retransmits to another earth
station.

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  Infrared waves:
It uses Infrared light to send data through air and can propagate through a room.
These waves are used in the devices such as TV remotes, wireless speakers, and
automotive garage doors.
 Laser waves:
It is much high speed than micro wave. The laser transmission requires the use of
a laser transmitter and a photo sensitive receiver at the end. It is a point to point
transmission typically between buildings. The main draw of this wave is effects
with the weather.
Network Devices:
In the smooth functioning of networks many devices play an important role.
1. NIC (Network Interface Card):
 NIC is attached to each computer or server that has unique identifying number
known as MAC (Media Access Control) address.
 MAC address is a 6 byte address with each byte separated by : (colon). First 3
bytes are manufactured id, last 3 bytes are card-no assigned by the manufacturer.
 For example: 10:B5:03:63:2E:FC
2. Wi-Fi card:
 Wi-Fi card is a either internal or external LAN adapter with built-in wireless radio
and antenna.
 This is inserted in the mother board slot of the desktops.
3. Hub:
 A Hub is a network device used to connect several computers over a telephone
lines and uses twisted pair cables to connect the systems.
 Hub is a least expensive, least intelligent and least complicated.
 Hubs are used within the network i.e. LAN.
 Hubs work in half-duplex i.e. only one device can send data at a time.
 Hubs will not store MAC address of a device when communication takes place.
 If A wants to send the message to B, it sends all other ports also which leads
security issues.
 Hubs supports 8, 12, 24 ports i.e. no. of computers connected.
4. Switch:
 Advanced Hub is called switch. It is a intelligent device i.e. if A is sending the
data to B, other nodes does not know what message sent.
 Works in Full-Duplex i.e. multiple devices can send data at a time.
 It is used within network i.e. LAN
 Switch stores IP & MAC address of a node when data communication takes place.
 Switches are available with 8, 12, 24, 48 and 64 ports.

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 5. Bridge:
 A Bridge is a network device used to connect two sub networks as part of the
same network. For example A computer lab contains 40 systems in which divided
into 20:20 in LAN. These can be connected using Bridge.
 It uses same standard LAN and protocols. Bridge stores MAC address.
6. Router:
 This works like bridge but can handle different protocols.
 Router is used to connect LAN and WAN
 It is a routing device which works in full-duplex mode.
 Router knows IP and MAC address.
 Router maintains routing table and controls the traffic. If destination is unknown,
router selects another path from routing table and sends the data to the destination.
 Routing table maintains all the available paths from source to destination
7. Gateway:
 A gateway is a device to connect two dissimilar networks.
 It operates on highest level in the hierarchy of network.
 It establishes intelligent connection between LAN’s and other networks with
completely different structure.
 In homes the gateway is ISP that connects the user to the internet.
 Worldwide all the private and public networks are connected and forms as
internet.
8. Repeater:
 A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network i.e.
it will strengthen the signal being transmitted so that messages will not lost.
 It is used in long network lines.
9. Access Point (AP/WAP):
 This device allows other Wi-Fi devices, other wired network to connect to a wired
network.
 It is configured in LAN
 A WAP also known as hotspot.
 This is used to provide network connectivity in office allowing employees to work
anywhere
Various protocols used in the Network:
 A protocol refers to a set of rules for two or more systems in a network to
communicate and share resources. Protocols are used at data level, hardware level and
Application level. Rules includes
o end to end process timely
o secure network connection
o rules for initiating process
o Controlling communication between all the hardware in the network.
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1. HTTP: (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
It is a set of rules for transferring hyper text (text, audio, video, sound…etc) on www.
2. FTP: (File Transfer Protocol)
It is used to transfer any type of file from one system to another system in a network.
3. POP3: (Post Office Protocol)
It is a mail protocol defines the rules for receiving mails from a remote server to a local
mail client. You can also download received mails on to local computer. POP3 is
suitable if you are accessing your mails using single application or a single location.
4. IMAP: (Internet Message Access Protocol)
This is same as POP3 but allows multiple applications and multiple locations.
5. SMTP: (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP3 and IMAP protocols are used for receiving mails from server to client where as
SMTP is used for sending mails across the internet.
6. VOIP: (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
VOIP enables voice communications over the internet through the compression of voice
into data packets and transmitted over network and converted to voice at the other end.
7. NFC: (Near Field Communication)
It is used to provide short range wireless connectivity between two electronic devices
within the distance of 4-5 centimeters.
8. TCP/IP: (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
It is a communication protocol of the internet. IP part of the TCP\IP uses the numeric
address joints network segments and TCP part of the TCP\IP provides reliable delivery
of the messages between networked computers.
Cellular/Wireless connectivity protocols: Modern age heavily depend on WLAN.
1. 2G/GSM:
This was started in the year 1992. This protocol allows sending some data and text
messages. The speed is 250kbps. The frequency range is 900-1800 mhz. (i.e.
frequency is the number of waves transmitted per unit measure in hertz).
2. 3G:
This was started in the year 2000. This protocol allows sending multimedia data and
voice calls. The speed is 20mbps. The frequency 2100 mhz.
3. 4G:
This was started in the year 2013. This protocol allows sending multimedia data and
voice calls. The speed is 50mbps. The frequency range is 1800 - 2300 mhz.
4. Wi-Fi:
This protocol is used to connect to the internet without a cable from your PC/Laptop
to the ISP. For this you need Internet connection, wireless router and PC.

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Cloud:
 In the bigger networks (WAN’s) there are multiple servers employed where actual
storage and work happens as per the requirements of host.
 These servers are placed at safe, secured and isolated place and end users work on
their separate places.
 The term cloud refers to the collection of servers. In modern days the cloud refers to
the internet.
 Cloud computing is internet based computing where shared resources are provided to
hosts on demand.
 Generally servers are too costly and small organizations cannot effort hence they
subscribe cloud. There are 4 types of clouds
1. Private cloud:
This is used by single organization. These are managed, controlled and hosted by
third party service provider.
2. Public cloud:
This is used by multiple organizations on shared basis and managed by third party
service provider.
3. Community cloud:
These are used by a group of related organization who wish to make use of a common
cloud computing environment. For example, all universities of given region, all the
suppliers to a large manufacturer, different branches of military.
4. Hybrid cloud:
It is a combination of private and public for a single application in order to take the
advantage of both. Application normally runs in a private cloud or local computing
environment. If the application needs additional resources (i.e. computing power,
storage etc) it can burst into public cloud and use cloud computing for those
additional devices. This is called cloud bursting.
Addresses on a Network:
There are two types of addresses used in a network.
1. Web Address (URL):
A location on a net server is called URL or website address. Website used HTTP and
HTML as language description. For example parts of URL are as follows
http://www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in/index.html.
http specifies protocol and server, www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in specifies address of the
domain server, index.html specifies path of a file.

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 2. IP Address:
The IP address is a unique numerical label as a string of numbers separated by dots
used to identify a device in a network. If address is a series containing four numbers
separated by a colon(:). Leading zeros are replaced with ::. There are two types
IPV4 IPV6
It is a 32-bit number It is a 128-bit number
The format is X.X.X.X, where X is The format is X.X.X.X.X.X.X.X, where X
octet takes 0-255 values. is hexadecimal takes 0-ffff values.
32
Number of addresses 2 Number of addresses 2128
Ex: 19.117.63.125 Ex:
2001:db8:3333:4444:cccc:dddd:eeee:ffff

Networking Tools:
When you are connected to internet, you might encounter many problems. To figure out the
problems network tools are used.
1. PING:
This command ensures network connection is established and remote machine can
receive the test packet and display. It also displays the how much time it takes to get
response from remote location. It also checks the specific website.
For example >>ping www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in
2. TRACEROUTE/TRACERT:
This command traces the route in the internet from source to destination. We can also
view the number of hops (i.e. routers passed or IP addresses) and response time to get
a remote website. You need internet connection for this.
For example >>traceout www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in
>>traceout 164.100.230.217
3. NSLOOKUP:
This command is used to diagnose the DNS name resolution problems i.e. when you
type the above command it displays default DNS server name and IP address of DNS.
For example >>nslookup
Default server: kvg.com
IP address: 202.88.149.25
>>www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in
Server: kvg.com
IP address: 202.88.149.25
4. IFCONFIG:
This command displays detailed information about the network that you are
connected such as DNS server name, IP address, DHCP enabled, MAC address etc.

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 5. WHOIS:
This command is used to get the registration records about the domain such as who
registered, when it was registered, expiry data etc. For example
>>whois www.gomtinagar.kvs.ac.in
Owner: KV Gomtinagar
Registered date: 20-03-2011
Expiry date: 14-08-2020
6. SPEEDTEST:
To check the down load and up load speeds of a network connects type speedtest.net
in the browser address bar, click on GO button.
Working of Email:
When you send a email from hps@gmail.com to cbse@hotmail.com
 Your email client contacts SMTP server of Gmail (since your email account is on
gamil.com)
 The SMTP at Gmail checks your email for cbse@hotmail.com and is extracted.
 Next the Gmail SMTP server looks for the MX (domain registration) records of
hotmail.com from DNS.
 The Gmail SMTP server will retrieve the address of SMTP server of hotmail.com
from its MX records and sends email to SMTP server of hotmail.com
 The SMTP server of hotmail.com receives the email message.
 Finally SMTP server of hotmail.com checks ‘cbse’ exists on server hotmail.com. If
exists forward the email to its own IMAP/POP3(mail delivery agent) server to store
the email.
Get MX records of domain
Sending
Email Client from DNS server
Server

SMTP
Internet

Recipient Receiving
Inbox Server

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Internet of Things (IoT):
 IoT is a phenomenon that connects the things to the internet over wired or wireless
connections. i.e. called as smart devices.
 Thing is a smart device such as computers, smart phones, home appliances,
wearable’s, vehicles, factory machines and consumables etc.
 To connect all the above things to internet we use a device in the things and they are
1. RFID (Radio Frequencies Identification):
This uses radio waves to capture information stored in tag called RFID tag attached to
the object. It tracks data on the “things”.
2. Sensors:
A sensor is a device that is able to detect changes an environment and transform it
into an electric signal. This allows us to collect the data about the “thing”.
- Temperature sensor, Optical sensor, Smoke sensor, Gas sensor, Humidity censor
3. Smart technologies:
This includes additional functionally to a “thing” such as turning off or on, stopping
vehicle, locking & unlocking door, adjusting the temperature.
4. Software:
Software part is very important in the success of any device. It provides solutions for
connecting, taking actions and solving issues.
5. Network connectivity:
IoT is formed interconnections of devices to the internet hence secured connectivity is
more important.
RFID tag is used in the following devices.
 Home Appliances:- fridge, cookers, coffee maker, heaters, TV’s etc.
 Wearable’s:- cloths, shoes, hats, watches etc
 Vehicles:- scooter, car, bus, train etc
 Factories:- machineries, robots, tools, ware house shelves
 Agriculture:- farm animals and plants, humidity temperature sensors
 Food:- sensors for monitoring the condition of food.
Conclusion of IoT:
 Data security and privacy are major concerns related to IoT. Like other networks
there is a chance of cyber-attacks, hackers and unauthorized access to IoT as well.
 These devices are vulnerable (i.e. physically, emotionally or mentally hurt, influenced
or attacked) to hacking and cloud end points could be used by hackers to attack
servers.

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Secure Communication:
Sharing information is the vital feature of the web and this feature makes vulnerable to
attacks and makes insecure too. Every day people share lots of private information such as
banking info, credit/debit cards info, login id’s, passwords, social media accounts, email
accounts etc.
To ensure safety of the information being transmitted over the web encryption is the one of
the measure and highly recommended too.
Encryption is the technique that translates original data into a form which is not readable.
The encrypted data must be decoded or decrypted to bring back to the original form.
HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a combination of HTTP and SSL
which provides encrypted communication and secure identification of a network web server.
It ensures protected data transfer over the internet and hackers cannot understand the
encrypted data. HTTPS connections are more secure for online transactions compared to
HTTP. For example https://www.andhrabank.in
Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
It is a mechanism of safe and secure data transfer over the internet. It encrypts the data so
that third party cannot view data being transmitted. The working of SSL requires that the
website has SSL certificate installed which ensure authenticity. Without SSL the attackers
can steal personal information given to the website. The SSL certificate can be obtained
from the domain registration vendor.
Network Applications:
Computers are connected all over the world and it is possible to work in a computer even if
you are not physically next to it. There are two network applications which makes possible.

1. Remote Desktop:
The remote desktop is a type of network application that allows sitting at local
computer and connect to a remote computer which is in different location. Remote
computer is called host computer and local computer is called client computer. The
remote desktop application displays the desktop of the host computer and you can
work as it is like his/her computer.
2. Remote Login:
The remote login is a network application that permits a user to work on a program
on a different computer based on valid credentials. There are two programs TELNET
and SSH that facilitate remote login on the network. If you specify the remote
machine on which you want to work, these programs help you to connect to network
after entering valid username and password

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Abbreviations:
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
FTP File Transfer Protocol
POP3 Post Office Protocol version3
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secured
SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol
PPP Point to Point Protocol
NCP Network Control Protocol
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
URL Uniform Resource Locator
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
DHTML Dynamic HTML
XML eXtensible Markup Language
PHP Hypertext Pre Processor
ASP Active Server Page
JSP Java Server Page
DNS Domain Name Server
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
ISP Internet Service Provider
NFC Near Field Communication
MX Mail Exchange Records
SSL Secure Socket Layer
NIC Network Interface Card
VGM Voice Grade Medium
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
STP Shielded Twisted Pair
PDA Personal Data Assistant
GSM Global System Mobile Communication
SIP Session Initiation protocol
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
IDEN Integrated Digital Enhanced Network
WLL Wireless Local Loop
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
SMS Short Message Service
SMSC Short Message Service Centre
HDTV High Definition Television
WWW World Wide Web
SSH Secured Shell
IVRS Interactive Voice Response System

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CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
PAN Permanent Account Number
ATM Automated Teller Machine
PDF Portable Document Format
IFSC Indian Financial System Code
GOOGLE Global Organization Of Oriented Group Language Of Earth
YAHOO Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle
WINDOW Wide Interactive Network Development for Office work Solution
VIRUS Vital Information Resources Under Siege
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity
ESN Electronic Serial Number
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
VPN Virtual Private Network
HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface
APN Access Point Name
LED Light Emitting Diode
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read Only Memory
VGA Video Graphics Array
USB Universal serial Bus
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
SNS Social Network Service
HS HOTSPOT
DVD Digital Video Disk
DTP Desk Top Publishing
GPS Global Positioning System
APK Authenticated Public Key
J2ME Java 2 Micro Edition
DELL Digital Electronic Link Library
ACER Acquisition Collaboration Experimentation Reflection
MPEG Moving Pictures Experts Group
TFT Thin Film Transistor
VPN Virtual Private Network
OSS Open Source Software
FLOSS Free Libre and Open Source Software
GNU Not Unix
FSF Free Software Foundation
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
GPL General Public License
LGPL Lesser General Public License
SDLC System Development Life Cycle
WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
BSD License Berkeley Source Distribution
MIT License Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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 Cyber Safety, Crime & Security

Internet made many things easier but the same time there are many security risks too. We
are going to talk about risks and threats in the internet and safety measures to avoid them.
I. Cyber Safety
Cyber safety refers to safe and responsible use of internet to ensure safety and security of
personal information and not posting threat to anyone else’s information. There are many
ways websites tracks you using advertising networks like, asking political choices, asking
feedback, asking to click the links for free gifts etc.
 IP Address:
Whenever you visit a website, your browser will share your device IP address with the
other networked devices. From your IP address a website can determine your rough
geographical location.
 Cookies:
Cookies are small text files stored in your computer which contains information related
to your online habits. For example when you sign into online-banking, changing a
website settings or online activities that you do etc.
 HTTP Referrer:
When you click a link, your browser loads the web page linked to it and tells the website
where you came from. When link is clicked, linked website will get all the details such
as IP address, location, your web browser, machine type etc known as HTTP referrer.
 Anonymous (unknown) browsing:
Anonymous browsers allow users to view websites without revealing any personal
information of the user like IP address, machine type, location etc. It can be used as a
tool for governments, journalists and everyday security-conscious surfers.
 Private browsing:
A type of browsing wherein browser opens in under another name or through VPN, and
does not store cookies about your online activity.
 Confidentiality of information:
This ensures that only authorized users get access to sensitive and protected data. The
best practices used to ensure confidentiality
- Use firewall that only authentic users can connect to it.
- Control default browser settings to exclude cookies.
- Browse privately using VPN or under another name.
- Be careful while posting on social sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram etc.
- Ensure safe sites (HTTPS sites) while entering crucial information.
- Carefully handle emails.
- Do not give information on wireless networks because these are not encrypted.
- Avoid using public computers. It may save login information, saves the history.
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Social Networking Sites:
A social networking site is a web application or online platform where people can setup
their profile publicly and make connections with other people online called online friends.
There are many social networking sites where you can setup your profile and post
comments, photos, share views in newsgroup etc.
1. Facebook:
In this web application you can setup your page where you can share your ideas in the
form of posts, share your photos, video’s etc. It also allows to view images and
videos shared by other friends and comment.
2. Twitter:
This allows you to post small messages up to 280 characters.
3. LinkedIn:
This is a professional web application to share your resumes, educational related
information, work experience or work related information.
4. Instagram:
This is most popular web application for online sharing photos and videos.
Digital Footprints:
The information about a particular person that exists on the internet as a result of their
online activity. There are several ways to ensure your digital footprint doesn't damage your
reputation or any future employment opportunities". It includes your interactions on social
media, your friend circle on social media sites, sites you visit, online purchase, locations
visited etc will be recorded. This is also called as digital shadow.
For all types of social websites you always set-up privacy settings such as
 Be Authentic i.e be honest about your identity
 Use a Disclaimer i.e if you are working in an organization and sharing your views, do
make it clear that are personal and not representing any organization.
 Don’t pick fights online.
 Don’t use fake name i.e act as someone else.
 Protect your identity.
 Respect your audience i.e don’t use abusive words or personal insults.
 Respect others sentiments related to religion.
 Monitor comments i.e people welcome the comments what they posted messages.
II. Cyber Crime:
Cyber crime is any criminal offence involves the use of electronic communication,
computer or internet. The term “Cybercrime” that covers phishing, Identity theft, credit card
frauds, illegal downloading, child pornography, cyber bullying, cyber trolls, cyber stalking,
cyber terrorism, distribution of viruses, spam, and industrial intelligence and so on.

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1. Identity theft:
When we buy or sell goods using social media or we give out private data to business
for the right usage. Personal data or login details cannot be used for harmful reasons
like posting comments on someone else with stolen identity is called identity theft.
2. Cyber Trolls:
Posting insulted messages online targeting people is called cyber trolls. It is closely
related to cyber bullying.
3. Cyber Bullying:
Harassing people or acting like someone or posting negative comments to someone or
acting like someone using modern technologies such as internet, email, cell phone,
instant massagers’, social networks etc is called as Cyber Bullying.
4. Cyber Stalking:
Cyber stalking is a crime in which the attacker harasses a specific victim using
electronic communication such as email or online message. Stalkers know their
victims and they attack online instead resolving issues off line.
5. Phishing:
Phishing is a cyber attack that uses email or website as a weapon trick the email
recipient into believing that the message is something they want or need — a request
from their bank, to click a link or download an attachment. They try to gather
personal information or debit/credit card information.
6. Child pornography:
Chile Pornography is defined as any visual or written representation including images
or video that depicts sexual activity of anyone under the age of 18. Child
pornography is sometimes called "child sexual abuse images".
III. Cyber Security:
Internet is a place where lot of information is available in the web. People can access
information anytime whatever they need. Unfortunately this resulted in increased
security concerns. Cyber security talks about the threats associated with online access
and measures to prevent and counter them.
Vulnerability is a cyber-security term that refers to a flaw in a system that can leave it
open to attack. Vulnerability may also refer to any type of weakness in a computer
system itself, in a set of procedures, or in anything that leaves information security
exposed to a threat.

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A threat is a potential violation of security. When a threat is actually executed it becomes
attack. Some common threat is “Malware”.
A malware is software that someone wants to run on your computer. It infects your
computer data files, hardware, OS and application programs. Malware includes such as to
viruses, worms, spyware, adware, PC Intrusion.
1. Viruses:
A computer virus is a program that damages data files, OS boot files and applications on
your system, it also slow down your computer. These are two types
 A Warm is a self-replication program which eats entire disk space and
memory. It creates copies of its own until all disk space is filled.
 A Trojan Horse is a program that appears harmless but deletes your files.
2. Spyware:
Spyware is a software which is installed on your to spy your computer activities to the
hacker. This is installed in your computer without your concern when you download the
files from the internet.
 It slow down your system,
 Alters the PC setting.
 Monitors online activities.
3. Adware:
Adware is a program that delivers unwanted ads to your computer in the form of pop-
ups. It is similar to spyware. It tracks your information and slowdown our system. It keep
on displays the pop-ups when you open a browser.
Active Protection:
 Install the Anti-Virus software.
 Download updates regularly.
 Run frequent full-system scan.
Preventive Measures:
 Keep your OS up-to-date because viruses always see the loop holes in OS.
 Use HTTPS websites to download the files from the internet.
 Be careful with emails.
 Disable cookies.
4. Spamming:
Spam refers to the sending bulk-mail by an identified or unidentified source. In non-
malicious form bulk advertising mail is sent to many accounts where as in malicious
form the attacker sends the bulk mails until the mail server runs out of disk space.
 It slow down the email performance.
 Spam eats your time to delete all the unwanted mails.
 Spam messages also contain fraudulent material.

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5. Eavesdropping:
The attacker monitors the other people’s communication through communication
medium and gets the information about the content of the message. This can be done
through all communication devices such as telephones, mobiles, emails, chat rooms,
social networking sites etc.
Active Protection:
 Two methods are used for anti spam i.e Digital Certificates and Digital
Signatures.
 Digital Certificates contains digital information issued to website used to
identify message sender.
 Digital Signatures for authenticating identify of creator of digital information.
It is like handwritten signature that allows buying and selling online or signing
legal contracts.
 Keyword fltering allows filtering the email messages that contain certain
keywords or phrases which are defined by you or others.
Preventive Measures:
 Keep your emails private not to give to unknown.
 Use HTTPS websites for online transactions.
6. PC Intrusion:
This is another type of virus that deletes all the data files form your system. A hacker
gets the passwords of a system and get into your system for causing damage to system.
Active Protection:
 Asking the user a legal login-id called authorization.
 Authentication is the password-protection that the authorized user asked to
provide a valid password.
 Firewall prevents unauthorized access to your private network.
Preventive Measures:
 Use file access permission to read, write and execute files.
 Disconnect the internet when away.
7. Pharming:
Pharming is an website attack in which hacker attempts to redirect a website traffic to
another by changing the URL i.e fake website. Even if the URL entered is correct, it can
still redirect to a fake website.
Active Protection:
 Take the computer off-line.
 Take the backup copy of your hardisk.
 List the data given to phishing or pharming attackers
 Run anti-virus software.
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 Preventive Measures:
 Do not open unknown emails.
 Check the security guidelines of the website.
FIREWALL – AN IMPORTANT SOLUTION FOR COMPUTER SECURITY
A Firewall is a network security system either a hardware or software that controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on a set of rules. Software firewall protects
from viruses where hardware firewall protects your system or server people who intend to
damage or take over servers.
SOCIETY, LAW & ETHICS
Information is the means to acquire knowledge. However there are many ethical issues
involved with the usage of information.
Intellectual property rights:
Intellectual property rights are the rights of the owner of information to decide how much
information is to be exchanged, shared or distributed. It also gives the owner a right to
decide price for information exchange, shared or distributed. The ethical issue involved is
that
 Encourages individuals to create new software’s.
 New ideas and technologies are widely distributed.
 Promotes investment in the national economy.
Plagiarism:
Plagiarism means stealing. Plagiarism is defined as stealing someone else’s intellectual
work and representing it as your own work without citing or naming the source of
information. Plagiarism is a fraud and violation of intellectual property rights. Since
intellectual property holds legal entity status, violating owners right is a legally punishable
offence.
Digital Property:
Digital property or assets refers to any information about you or created by you that exists in
digital form, either online or in electronic storage device. Examples include: online
personal accounts such as email, social media accounts, on-line storage accounts.
To protect your digital content
 Use Anti-Temper solutions which ensures your digital property is tamper-proof
which prevents from hackers from hacking the property.
 Add legal clause in your property for the reuse of digital property.
 Share the digital property with trusted individuals only.

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Free Software:
Free software means that the software is available free of cost without source code. Further
it allows modifying (i.e. software can be modified with new requirements), copying or
redistributed.
Freeware:
The term freeware is generally used for software for free of cost which is ready to run.
Freeware allows copying and further distribution but not modification whose source code is
not available. The licensing is free.
Open Source Sotware:
OSS is the software whose source code is available which can be copied, modified and
redistributed. For OSS charges may or may not be paid. For example Linux. Licensing is
applicable to OSS.
Proprietary Software:
Proprietary software is the software that is neither open nor freely available. Its use is
regulated and further distributed and modification is illegal or not allowed or it requires
special permission by the supplier or vendor. Source code of proprietary software is
normally not available.
Shareware:
Shareware is software which is made available with the right to distribute copies, intend to
use the software in a given time period, then after licensing fee should be paid. The
objective of shareware is to make software available to try for as many users and later pay
for it. The software is distributed in binary form often includes built-in mechanism and
limits the functionality after trial period usually one to three months.
Licenses of OSS:
These licenses allow OSS to be freely used, modified and shared.
1. GPL: The General Public License is a widely-used license for open-source projects.
It allows users to legally copy, distribute and modify software.
2. LGPL: A Lesser General Public License (LGPL) is a license for open-source
software that allows for provisions for including elements of free software in either
free or proprietary software. It offers lesser rights then GPL.
3. BSD: The BSD License lets you freely modify and distribute your software’s code in
the source or binary format as long as you retain a copy of the copyright notice, list
of conditions, and the disclaimer.(BSD) licenses are used for the distribution of
many freeware, shareware and open source software.
4. MIT: The MIT License is a free software license that was created at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology grants the software end user rights such as
copying, modifying, merging, distributing, etc. It has the restriction that as long as
you have license can do anything with the software.

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 5. Apache: The Apache Software License (ASL) is a license scheme for free and open-
source computer software (FOSS) written by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF).
ASL allows projects and software to be freely downloaded and used. The code is
distributed openly and is allowed to be freely modified, redistributed or studied.
Through open-source code, Apache encourages users to voluntarily improve the
design of the software.
ONLINE FRAUD:
Fraud committed using the internet is called online fraud and may occur in many ways
 Non-delivery goods
 Non-existent companies
 Stealing information
 Fraudulent payments etc.
Digital Forensics:
It refers to methods used for interpretation of computer media for digital evidence.
Cyber Law and IT Act:
Cyber law refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of internet and WWW. Cyber law
touches all the transactions and activities of internet, WWW.
In India cyber law was enforced through IT Act, 2000 based on UNCITRAL (United
Nations Commission for International Trade Related Laws). It purpose is to provide legal
recognition to electronic commerce.
The Act was later amended in December 2008 to provide additional focus on information
security i.e. It Act, 2008. Major amended are
 Digital Signatures i.e authentication of electronic records.
 Electronic Governance i.e. E-documents get legal recognition.
 The maximum penalty for any damage to computers is fine up to 1 crore.
 Other amended acts such as IPC 1860, 1872, 1891 and 1934.
Technology & Society:
Technologies whose value and impact arise primarily from their use in economic and social
sectors. The impacts of ICT have had on the development of economies, societies and
culture include
 Economic impacts include the globalization of production in goods and services,
changes in international trade and distribution network, changes in pattern of
consumption, virtualization of some products and behaviors and growing the
importance of ICT sector within the world. The economic benefit include
o Secure transactions, Ease of availability, Net banking, Global market
 Social impact include mass market access to an increased information resources,
enhanced, new pattern of work and human settlement and changes in the relationships
between government, citizen and the state.

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E-Waste Management:
Electronic waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. “Electronic waste”
may also be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment
device electronics, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators. This includes used
electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal.
Electrical and Electronic equipment contains metallic and non metallic elements such as
Copper, Aluminum, Gold, Silver, Palladium, Platinum, Nickel, Tin, Lead, Iron, Sulphur,
Phosphorous, Arsenic etc.
The recycle and recovery includes the following unit operations
 Dismantling involves removal of parts containing dangerous substances, parts
containing valuable substances.
 Separation of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal and plastic.
 Repair and reuse.
 Recovery of valuable materials.
 Disposal of dangerous materials.
The e-waste disposal and recycling is very much necessary and important for the benefit of
people, environment and the nation. The key benefits are
 Allows for recovery of valuable precious metals
 Protects public health and water quality.
 Creates jobs
 Toxic waste
 Saves landfill space.
GENDER ISSUES WHILE TEACHING COMPUTERS:
It has been observed that for many years in schools and colleges more number of boys are
opted computer science subject than girls. There are many reasons behind this.
Under Representation
 Boys are better at technical things; girls are good at humanities and arts. Girls must
take up a career keeping in mind that they have to raise a family. Teaching is the best
option for girls as it gives ample no.of holidays so that they can easily take care of
family. Parents also play an important role to decide the subjects directly/indirectly
and finally girls end up taking other subjects than computer science.
 During initial stage children often play games on computers and smart phones. Most
of the games are boys-centric that increases their interest in computers.
 Girls are always told directly/indirectly in households that you have to play important
family role later on and computer science consume most of your time.

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  Girls are pressurised to choose a career option which will give them ‘work life
balance’ in favour of family roles. Girls always told directly/indirectly in households
that you have to play important family role later on and computer science will always
consume more time and not advisable.
 Girls are less of role models in the field of ‘Computer Science’ whom they can
imitate. If you see a woman as team member there are 10 males, in a movie, TV or
advertisements, but technical fields like ‘Computer Science’ who are males. All
these things influence the girls.
 The teacher should encourage the girls in a class for most assignments and not to pin
point on their roles in society such ‘girls will get married and may not take it up as
career’
Not Girl-Friendly Work-Culture:
As per the study it has been observed that in schools work-partners are chosen boys over
girls. Even a girl & a boy are made work-partners, boys work actively and girls silent
observers. The problems mentioned by girls in computer room are like insufficient access
time and peripherals available etc. contrary problems mentioned by boys are software not
usable, poor quality of help etc.
DISABILITY ISSUES WHILE TEACHING COMPUTERS:
To promote the technology and computer science for students in today’s classroom there are
many things are considered for special needs students or students with different disabilities.
There can be one or more disabilities such as
 Locomotor – polio, leprosy
 Hearing and speech disabilities
 Specific learning deficits
 Low vision, blindness
Unavailability of Teaching Materials/Aids:
Students with different disabilities need different types of study material. For instance class
9-10 there are two alternative for programming concepts: Python for visually impaired
students and scratch for other. Similarly hearing impaired students need more visual input,
oratory instructions should be available in sign language. For low vision students special
key board readers are required, for locomotor disabilities a virtual key board is needed.
Lack of Special Needs Teachers:
For hearing impaired students a teacher who can converse in sign language, for low vision
students a teacher is needed who can explain different types of hardware’s such as Braille
keyboards, monitors, printers etc.
Lack of Supporting Curriculum:
Computer Science curriculum should be designed for all types of students. There always
should be possible alternatives keeping in mind special needs for the students. Software and
programs should be so used so that the disabled students can easily work on that.
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