which would exist if there were no satura-
Underexcited Operation o1
Turbogenerators
C. G. ADAMS
ASSOCIATE AIEE
PERATION of turbogenerators at
high-power factors and even extend-
ing into the leading region is increasing.
This trend is due in some cases to the
location of large steam-electric stations
remote from the load and the transmis-
sion of their outputs at high voltage. In
other cases, it is due to the application of
corrective reactive kilovolt-amperes in
the subtransmission and distribution
areas of the system, or the use of high-
voltage cable in the transmission system.
These conditions are a natural result of
system growth and economic pressure to
more effectively use the generation and
transmission equipment in the supply of
electrical energy.
This paper reviews underexcited opera-
tion of turbogenerators from the stand-
point of limits imposed by system sta-
hility and the application of lower excita-
tion limits on voltage regulators. Re-
sults are shown for a typical turbogenera-
tor operating on an average system. A
method for readily estimating the stability
limits for other machine and system
characteristics is included in the Appen-
dix.
It is hoped that in this way reassur-
ance will be given to those who find high-
lpower factor operation of generators
desirable in planning their normal system
expansions.
Conclusions
1. Moentroeeaosmnfcue maufactued
Modernturboeneratrs
by the company with which the writers are Of the results over a wide range of system
associated may be operated successfully in conitins
the range of 60 per cent underexcited reac-cntos.c. G. ADAMS
tive kilovolt-amperes at zero kilowatt load
to 30 per cent underexcited reactive kilovolt-
amperes at rated generator kilovolt-amperes.
thereby made available to supply most sys-
tem demands.
1948, VOLUME 67 Adams, McClure- Underexcited Operation of Turbogeneraitors
tion. An equivalent synchronous react-
J. B. McCLURE
MEMBER AIEE
2. For most practical system conditions,
operation as indicated before retains ade-
quate steady-state stability margins.
3. Voltage regulator control with an auto-
matic lower limit rationally permits a
greater utilization of leading reactive capa-
bility than does manual control of excitation.
Simplified Analysis of a
Typical System
Figure 1 shows a one-line diagram of
the generator or station, under considera-
tion, supplying load to its system.
Figure 2 shows the general relations be-
tween the system, machine terminal, and
machine excitation voltages. Their
specific relation for various conditions
will be discussed later. The following
conditions have been assumed.
1. The generator is rated 0.8 power factor
0 shorircuit ratio (SCR) Maxmum
turbine output equals rated generator kilo-
volt-amperes which is 1.0 per unit.
2. Theequivalentsynchronousreactanceof
the generator is equal to the reciprocal of
short-circuit ratio.
3. The system is represented by an equiva-
lent reactance Xe.
4. Resistance in the circuit is neglected.
5. Since most turbogenerators have a
cylindrical rotor, pullout power is assumed
to occur when there are 90 degrees between
the generator excitation voltage and the
equivalent system voltage.
~~~~~These assumptions simplify the deter-
mination of operating characteristics
hl no
whle fetn hhe acuracy
ral affcting
o greaty cuay
Effect of Generator Saturation
Freao
nicrae
ata
steady-state pulllout power over that
h eibflurghoeseioE. ad.Hunstley, H.
ance equal to the reciprocal of the short-
circuit ratio has been assumed in order to
approximate the saturation effect. Re-
sults, when using this approximation,
have been found to closely agree with
those obtained by other more detailed
methods described in reference 1, par-
ticularly for the condition of pullout at
low excitation.
Representation of System by an
Equivalent Reactance
Representation of a system by an
equivalent reactance is fairly well known.
It is simple and produces practical re-
sults. B3ased on generator rating, a stiff
system may have an equivalent reactance
in the order of 15 per cent. Systems
involving long power transmission may
approach a value of 40 per cent.
A fairly good approximation to the
equivalent system reactance may be ob-
tained in the following manner. In most
cases the short circuit kilovolt-amperes
for circuit breaker application is known at
the generator bus. Reduce this kilovolt-
amperes by the amount contributed by
the generator in question. Divide twice
the rated generator kilovolt-amperes by
the reduced short circuit kilovolt-amperes.
The result is approximately the system
equivalent reactance in per unit. A more
accurate method is to set up the system
on a calculating board and insert a syn-
chronous reactance of all generators
equal to the reciprocal of their short cir-
cuit ratios. Find the reactance looking
into the system at the entry point of the
generator being studied. The latter
method is more complicated but more
Papera48-81 rcommlteendded by the AIEE power
technical program committee for presentation at
the
January winter general meeting,
AIEE 26-30,
i948. Pittsb.urgh.
Manuscript Pa.,
submitted
November i0, 1947; made available for printing
December 4, 1947.
and J. B. MCCLURE3 are both with the
central station engineering division of the Generat
Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.
The authors wish to acknowledge the particularly
F. s
MCloug
and HI. D. Taylor of the General Electric CCompany.
521
 4/(0rXi@aJ-08~ FORCNSTAF
GENERATOR OR
STATION
Xd X.±STATINXsX*
Ed tEt
,/l GO
GROUND
Figure 1. One line diagram of system
accurate. Since steady-state pullout
powers are not affected greatly by small
variations in equivalent system reactance,
not much effort can be justified in obtain-
ing an extremely accurate system rep-
resentation.
Generator Operating Limits
Figure 3 is a plot of reactive kilovolt-
amperes and kilowatt output for the
assumed generator operating at its rated
terminal voltage. Positive reactive kilo-
volt-amperes is supplied by an over-
excited generator. The circle ABCE is
the well known limit due to rated line
armature current. The curve IB is the
limit due to rated field current. Area
CGKL is suggested for the setting of the
operating range of lower excitation limits
being applied on modern voltage regula-
tors. Stability limits for two values of
equivalent system reactance are shown by
curves JE and DF. (See Appendix I for
curve derivation.)
The tendency for heating in the end
structure of the armatures of turbogenera-
tors with rated armature current and low
field current was recognized as long ago as
turbogenerators manufactured by the
company with which the writers are
associated operate successfully in the sug-
T gested area for voltage regulator lower
I' limit setting without excessive tempera-
tures and retain adequate stability mar-
gins. It should be recognized that for
hydrogen-cooled machines, operation with
increased hydrogen pressure permits a
higher kilovolt-ampere output under
comparable operating conditions.
Manual Control Operation
Figures 4 through 9 illustrate the fac-
tors influencing pullout power when the
generator excitation is manually con-
trolled. Referring to Figure 2, the
generator excitation voltage Ed and the
system voltage ES are determined so that
with the initial loading there is rated volt-
age at the generator terminals, except for
Figure 6 for which the initial generator
voltage is varied. Holding Ed and ES at
their initial values, the maximum pullout
power is assumed to occur when these
voltages are at 90 degrees. Figures 4
through 9 show the pullout power that
can be developed with the excitation and
system voltages unchanged from their
initial values for different initial loads,
initial power factors, system equivalent
reactances, generator short-circuit ratios,
and initial generator terminal voltages.
Figure 4 shows the pullout power versus
Figure 3. Rated
voltage generator
power factor for several constant kilowatt
loads. The power increment between the
curves and the dashed line at the kilowatt
loading for which the curve is drawn is the
power that may be picked up under the
condition of no change in excitation or
system voltage from their initial values.
These power increments have been plotted
against power factor in Figure 5. The
effect of changing generator terminal
voltage on allowable power increment is
shown in Figure 6. Pullout power as
function of initial kilowatt load for dif-
ferent initial power factors is shown in
Figure 7. The curves of Figure 8 illus-
trate the effect of system reactance on
pullout power. The effect of generator
short-circuit ratio on pullout power is
shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows the
variation in pullout power produced by a
change in system equivalent reactance for
a low short-circuit ratio generator.
The question of primary importance in
the system operation is the ability of its
component parts to endure the normally
encountered emergencies. Generators
will be required to quickly pick up load in
case a generator is tripped off; in case a
major tie-line opens; or if a high rate of
system load increase is encountered.
For most system conditions, it can readily
be determined what load increases may be
expected on the several generators as a
result of any emergency. This deter-
mination should take into account any
o.e PE CYLINDRICAL ROTOR GENERATOR
SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO OF GENERATOR 0.9 z

1920. Up to that time, all machines circle diagram EQUIVALENT Xd IISCR.

MAX. TURBINE OUTPUT :1.111
r

GENERATOR KVA.
were built with magnetic materials in the 0.8 power factor +.A0A
end structures, which contributed to heat- cylindrical rotor
ing in these portions of the machine. The generator z
operation in the underexcited region of Short circuit ratio Of J
+0.8 _ _ 8_\
_ _
machines built prior to about 1925 should generator = 0.9 ~_\
be approached advisedly and preferably Equivlent Xd = +0.6 -RATED FIELD CURRENT
should be checked by temperature meas- 1/TCR=1.111LMIT
Maximum turbine
urement under actual operating condi- output = generator +0.4
tions. As a result of design progress, kilovolti i RATED PF.
experience and tests indicate that modern
X +0,2 _ ,;4 - d -1-25-
Figure 2. System vector diagram i
0H
X / KILC0.2WATTS 0.4
PER UNIT \_ 08_
L / CONSTANT FIELD CURRENT LOCUS 0.6 0 RATED ARMATURE
90 AT PULLOUT GCURRENT LIMIT
w -
0.2 AREA OF OPERATION
d PULLOUT POWER d EAd s /Y OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

/ CONSTANT\ Fy ;4/tT \1\/ { ~~~~~~~~~~~~~RATED

KVA
4 C;URRENT
LOCUS \ qa~~~~~
-0.6 /_ .5D i DASHED CURVES ARE

//I\ < -IX CONSTANT TERMiINAL ] t

VOLTAGE LOCUS -1.0 l -X* 0
E6
~~~~~~~~~STEADY STATE STABILITY LIMIT

522 AdaLms, McClure -Underexcited Operation of Turbogenerators AJEE TRANSACTIONS

 -01.8
X'e : 0.20
0.80
a. o.so5CR. 0.90s SCR 0oa
i
wa: d .1 5CR..1
0 u

0.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.0
4-1.6

KW. L OA D I0.00

__<
0.8 0.9 ~~~.0 0.9

GEN. KVA. J~~~~~~~Fgue5(aoe.Liiigvau fpoe nceetfo tbliyvr

0.80
______
0.90
______ LEAD
~~~~.00 0.008
LEAD POWER
______ FACTOR
u nta la oe atrfrdifrn nta od
OFLINITIALGLOAD.LAG
POWER FACTOR ~~LOAG .

at low generator terminal voltage is

limitations in boiler capacity; speed
governor characteristics; and the action
of any load-limiting devices which may be
employed in the control of the prime-
mover input. In this way an estimate
can be made of excitations which should
It is also apparent from Figure 5that with emphasized by the reduction in allowable
an initial 20 per cent kilowatt load at 0.9 power increment as the generator voltage
leading power factor, a 50 per cent load decreases. At 0.95 leading power factor
increase can be accepted by the generator and 0.8-kw load, the power increment at
before instability is encountered. 90 per cent generator voltage is one-half
In practical operation, the4_LEA generator its value
POWER FA TRO LAO3
rated generator voltage.
at NIILL A

be maintained for machines on manual
control in order that they may pick up
their expected share of load without loss of
synchronism.
For a typical machine, Figure 4 shows
that a machine initially loaded to 80 per
cent kilowatts at 0.9 power factor lead
can pick up about 7 per cent in power be-
fore going out of step. It also shows that
with 80 per cent initial kilowatt load at
1.0) power factor, the pullout power ex-
ceeds the turbine capability. Margins in
permissible pwrincrement aesmall in
mintaned
thebehigher or mchies o
load regions manal
at 0.8 power0factor
voltage will probably be less than rated In Figure 7 the difference between the
when the machine is required to absorb straight line at 45degrees with the horizon-
large amounts of leading reactive kilovolt- tal axis and the curves may be interpreted
amperes. Figure 6 shows the effect at any kilowatt loading as the permissible
generator terminal voltage has on permis- power increment at that initial loading.
sible power increments for power factors. The increase in the power increment as
between 0.95 lag and 0.95 lead. The initial power factor goes from the leading
desirability of voltage regulator control to the lagging region is evident. To
when operating in the leading region and accept the maximum turbine output, an
0.6____________
SCR.,: 0.9,
F xe: O Z ||0.2
> NTA s.LA:O[13
vlcrement forostabily
l bels0.9 la atd
w 0.4 1
I Fgr
0.9the. dife05c bewenh

If the generator load increase for the X _ .95 LAG.-

most severe system disturbance is known, l5 l v o p f _ v
the required power factor for the initial sus a ld pe t
kilowatt
F igure
load may be obtained from
5. The dashed curve AB on 0.2
o |
¢ F- -| 5 t
W --r l l r
t v i
Figure 5 iS drawn through the points 0. .9 LA
where the initial kilowatt load plus the L- a tage
permissible power increase iS equal to the generator_ _ad8k ldt INITIAeLOAD w PF.
maximum turbine capability. If opera- Figure 6. Limiting |- -
tionismairintned in the region to theiright value of power in- lote 90 per c e l-
of curve AB, the generator will not pull crement foractcabl rty ioh aor is vu
out within the turbine rating. This type versus generator ter-
of operation would be most conservative. minal voltage GENERATOR TERemINAL VOLTAGE PER UNIT

1948, VOLUME 67 Adams, McClure-Underexcited Operation of Turbogenerators 523

initial 40 per cent kilowatt load may be excitation on the generator, it appears 1.6 - _ I
carried at 0.8 lagging power factor and an from Figure 10 that the available genera- UNITY PF. INITIAL LOAD
initial 75 per cent kilowatt load at 1.0 tor pullout power is about twice the maxi- l l 0 .20 °°_
x

power factor. mum turbine output for X, from 20 to 40

In Figures 8 and 9 the permissible
power increment is again the difference
between the curves and the straight 45
degree line. The change in pullout power
for an initial 1.0 power factor load result-
per cent corresponding to the average
system under normal conditions. It is 1.2
realized that these torques are seldom re- t MAX. TURBINE OUTPUT
quired or seldom exist and to that extent
are somewhat fictitious, but at the same X 0.9

ing from doubling the equivalent system time it does give an indication of the mar- LI SCR: 0.9_//
reactance is shown in Figure 8. Figure 9 gins which are available through the auto- e -f---
shows the effect of decreasing generator matic control of excitation, which are
short-circuit ratio from 0.9 to 0.6. Quali- available to meet emergency system condi- J S DA
tatively from Figures 8 and 9, the con- tions.
elusion may be drawn that generator pull- Some voltage regulators permit the 0.4
out power is not greatly affected by small INCREMENT
changes in its short circuit ratio or in sys- SCR. a 0.6
tem stiffness. 1.6 UNITY PF. INITIAL LOAD
SCR. 10.9
Voltage Regulator Operation Xd__Xd _ I_
_-_
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
When the excitation of a machine is t
under the control of a voltage regulator, 1.2 _INITIAL KW. LOAD PER. UNIT
adjusted to maintain rated voltage at the n
TRNE OTU lue99. Pullout
Figure power
oe versus initial kilowatt
Z.,r_/E.KYA. load Forulu essIiilklwt
-
machine terminals, the generator will ,, . -_ --
_ - - dKierent short-circuit ratios
stably accept the maximum turbine out- X x 0.2
put in any practical case. The curves in s voltage regulator, and machine stand-
Figure 10 assume that the excitation sys- Jpit
tem has a ceiling voltage 50 per cent in
excess of the required slip ring voltage at X_x 0.4. Transient Stability
the rating of the main generator. This is
equivalent to having an exciter of 300- 04 Since the voltage behind transient react-
volt ceiling and rated generator slip ring PERMISSI BLE POWER ance is not affected greatly by power fac-
volts of 200 which is representative of INITAL 0.8 KW LOAD 1.0 PF. tor at rated terminal voltage, transient
present day practice. Terminal voltage X 0.4 stability limits are almost unaffected by
of the generator is assumed to be 1.0; initial loading conditions. Voltage regu-
the exciter is at ceiling; 90 degrees exists 0o lators with usual rates of response and
between machine excitation voltage and 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 ceilings affect these limits by a rather
equivalent system voltage. For ceiling lNITIAL Kw. LOAD PER.UNIT minor amount. Of course, transient syn-
Figure 8. Pullout power versus initial kilo- chronizing torques are high as compared
watt load for different external reactance to the steady-state stability limits and
1.6 - 0.20 e of importance in determining whether
SCR.: 0.90 synchronism will be lost after a system
Xd R1.111 adjustment of the'lower limit of excitation shortcircuithasbeencleared.
MAX. TUJRBINE $ |,- as a function of turbine kilowatt load or of For a turbogenerator on an average
.- 1.2
OUTPUT = GEN. KVA.>N
.1 the generator kilovar output. Area system operation at unit; or in the leading
1 CGKL on Figure 3 suggests a range for power factor region will have a small
PR:0.B LAG -1 .041efc pntanin iis With ihmn
a: PZ L |\| the setting of these limits which will in effect upon transient limits. man-
i.0 0 *_,:
PF
5 most cases leave a considerable margin ual control of excitation, generators should
between system requirements and ma- be operated with sufficient excitation so
w
0.80.8 /T <OP.BLEAD
/ | chineincapability.
I ;//
tion this Manualthecontrol opera-
region
allows generatorsto that they can
increment after stably
the transient phaseload
accept their is
0 _ _ _ _ |_ |
accept a reasonable load increase before
pullingoutofstep; however, itshouldbe
over. Vo'tage regulators
excitation rap dly enough during the
can adjust
_J pullI | realized that Figure 3 represents condi- transient perioe, so that any load may be
|J ;/ .\ tions for rated generator terminal voltage, assumed up to the generator rating.
0.4 | ASPERMISSIBLE POWER | and that allowable power increments are Voltage regulator control permits opera-
|/ INCREMENT reduced as the generator voltage is de- tion closer to the steady-state stability
PE PNfLEADIONAG 04K8|
creased. Voltage regulator control ration- .limit.
/l 0 | | ~~~~ally permits operation closer to the steady-
___ ___ __l_l _ state stability limit and possibly beyond Nomenclature
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 those shown by operation in the "dy- UntKa=uiklol-mprssth
INITIAL KW. LOAD PER UNIT namic" stability region. However, opera- generKatori ralvoted kilvot-mpre
pee
Figure 7. Pullout power versus initial load at tion below the line GC on Figure 3 should which is equal to the maximum rated
different power factors be approached advisedly from the system, turbine output

524 Adams, McClure-Underexc'ited Operation of Turbogenterators ATEE TRANSACTIONS

 2.5 GCEILING EXGITATION 5Eds
3/2 EXCITATION ATMACHINE RATING QEgE4J(
p+jQ =- e 2 (11)
Et 1.0 Xd Xd
IMAGINARY AXIS For constant values of Ed and Et, equation
11 is a circle with its center on the negative
2.0 \ -_/_\ reactive axis at Et2/Xd and with a radius of
EtEd/Xd. Applying to Figure 3, the center
of circle IB is on the negative reactive axis
____ jo;_A____ at Ei5/Xd=1/l-ll=0.9, and its radius is
\ 129- V/sn EtEd/Xd= (1)(1.89) /1.111 = 1.70. Circles
1.5 \ ____
. for other constant field currents than rated
may be easily drawn by keeping the same
SCR. s0.6 center and varying the length of the radius
t___ ____ ____ 1.667 in proportion to the field current.

o°0. IC'° 1 i__ __ \_

t REAL AXIS
o// Steady-State Stability Limit
MAX. TURBINE OUTPUT The limiting pullout power is taken to be
____ Figure 11. Circle in vector notation that power flow existing when Ed and E8 are
at 90 degrees and E = 1.0. For this case
taking Es along the real axis,
0.5 generator supplies positive lagging reactive
power to its connected systemt Ed=EdE)a =Edejr/2 =jEd (12)
P+jQ=EtI* (I) Ed=EJO (13)
Referring to Figure 2, the generator ter- I=Ed Et iEd-EtE (14)
0 0.4 . - 1. minal voltage in vector notation is jXd iXd
0 0.4 0.6 1.2 1. 6 2.0
Xo IN PER UNIT Et=EEtE (2) 1 -jEd-EtE-J Ed-jEtE'# (15)
Figure 10. Pullout power versus external and the generator armature current is -JXd Xd
reactance similarly FEd-jEtE-J
I =IEi(+)
The conjugate of the current is
(3) P+1Q=EtI =
L Xd ] (16)
P =real power in per unit E Et'
Q =reactive kilovolt-amperes in per unit p _ = (17'
Ed=generator excitation voltage which is 1* (4) +Q -Xd Xd
proportional to generator field cur- The vector power is found by substituting From the geometry of Figure 12
rent. Unit excitation voltage pro- equations 4 and 2 in equation (1).
duces the field current required at [ Xe Ed
rated no load voltage on the genera- P+jQ=E, f(0+0) (5) sil 0 Xd+XeE(18)
tor saturation curve
Et = generator terminal voltage in per unit of or or
rated generator voltage P+jQ =ErJe-G (6)
ES =equivalent system voltage in per unit of
rated generator voltage Equation 6 for the condition that E =1l.0 Edt=6fotsintonE)Xd+Xe
E L Xe jsi E (9
SCRa=egenerator short circuit ratio is the and I= 1.0 (rated voltage at the generator
ratio of field current at no load rated terminals and rated current in armature), Eliminating Ed from equation 17 by using
voltage on generator saturation curve represents a circle with its center at the equation 19
to field current that produces rated origin with a radius of EII = 1.0. This is Xd+Xe E2
circle AB1CDE on Figure 3. When the cur- (20)
Jo

generator armature current with P+jQ =-2LI2sin E -j]-

armature short circuited rent lags the terminal voltage, the imaginary L XeXdJ Xd
Xd = equivalent generator synchronous part of equation 6 is positive since the angle
reactanice in per unit which is assumed 0 is negative. This corresponds to over- By usIng the relation developed in Appendix
equal to reciprocal of generator short excited operation. II, equation 20 iS:
circuit ratio X+Xe 1
Xe =equivalent system reactance in per unit Rated Field Current Limit P+iQ =EtIL 2XeXd J
of generator base ohms. Base ohms The maximum field current is determined
of generator equals rated generator by the field current required when the ma- jE 2 d±e 1 (21)
line to neutral voltage divided by chine is carrying rated kilovolt-ampere at L2XeXd XdJ
rated generator armature current rated power factor. Referring to Figure 2 Equation 21 is the equation of a circle with
I =generator armature current in per unit of and determining the vector power in the its center on the reactive axis at
rated armature current
6, ,B, a = angles defined by Figure 2 same manner: E2 Xd+ Xe 1 1
P+jQ+EtI* (7) tL2XeXd Xd

I- Xd = EdEja-EtEJ1
Ed-Et and a radius of
Appendix I jX (8) E[d.
Figure 3 shows approximate reactive and I* EdiaEi (9) 2eXd]_
real power limits on the basis of rated volt- -iXd In Figure 3, the center of circlewDF is at
age at the machine terminals. These limits rE J ~ i 11102
may be readily estimated in the following P+jQ =Ete'rI d IXl (10) (1)2[(.1+.)_1 j=2.045

on the positive kilovolt-ampere axis

Rated Armature Current Limit
RatedArmatureCurrent Multiplying out equation 10 has a radiusreactive
~~~~~~~~~~and of
Th vetrpwritie neuto See Nomenclature for definitions of symbols. (12(11102 294
for the convention that an overexcited *ojuasters adaentotr od.aetyeidiae 2(0.2) (1.1111)

194S8, VOLUME 67 Adams, McClu4re-Unzderexcited Operation of Turbogenerators 525

 Appendix 11
Referring to Figure 11, a circle is de-
scribed by a vector when its scalar magni-
tude remains constant and its angle com-
pletes 360 degrees. A circle passing through
the origin with radius a and center on the
imaginary axis is represented by equation
22.
j=aS(20
r =aE( r/2)+j*a (22)
From the geometry of Figure 12, the scalar
magnitude of r is that shown in equation 23.
r =2a sin (23)
The angle subtended at A by the arc OB is
26, where 6 is the angle that the radius vector
makes with the real axis. Therefore in
Discussion
M. D. Ross (Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
tion, East Plttsburgh, Pa.): The authors are
to be congratulated on giving a very interest-
ing treatment of stability limits in the under-
excited region of operation. The capability
curves included in the AIEE standards for
the larger machines were proposed-to the
committee by McClure and have beRen a
valuable addition to thestandards in explain-
ing the load limits of the turbine generator.
Figure 3 of the present paper expands that
diagram to the underexcited region.
In discussing the limitations of the genera-
tor so far as heating of the end zones is con-
cerned the authors, in the second paragraph
under the heading "Generator Operating
Limits" would infer that improvements in
the design included the use of non-magnetic
materials for the stator end plates or clamp-
ing flanges and perhaps for the retaining
rings of the rotor. It might be of interest to
state the experience of the company with
which I am associated in which we have
always used magnetic materials for stator
end plates and rotor retaining rings and
continue to do so today.
For a given load at leading power factor
the flux in the end zones is largely governed
by the long air gap between the rotor and the
stator end plates in the end of the stator
core. This flux, which rotates with its
rotor, passes from one pole of the rotor to
the end of the stator, passes circumferen-
tially around the stator, out the opposite side
of the stator to the opposite pole and
Table 1. Data on Tests to Determine Extent
of Armature Lamination Finger Heating
Xps ~~~Temperature Rise,
bO
B
ZQ
Xo
W
--.
Arms-
.--
Hottest
t, ;, X ~ture Field Finger
-42.3.. 470. .0.97 Lag.. ..33.7... 50.5... 59.5
42__._8_5__._9_Lea_______.____.___.__
Note: Armature temperature by embedded detec-
tor. Field temperature by change in resistance.
Machine rated 44,705-kva 0.85-power factor, 13,200
volts ' temperature detectors and will be apparent
.526 Adams, McChsr-Underexcited Operation of Turbogenerators
Appendix 11 Ed J IIXd Eimaginary axis and radius of andThe
\ another vector.
E\ x 2. STABIL*ITY CHARACTERISTICS OF TUJRBINE GEN-
1/ I ERATORS, C. Concordia, S. B. Crary, J. M. Lyons.
(22)
Figure 12. Vector diagram at pullout
notation eq
vector notatton equation 24 shows two
equivalent forms for a circle with its center
at a on the
r =2a sin OEJ=aiEJ2 /2)+ja (24)
nonmagnetic end plate starting
through the rotor to its
is used point. If a
a consider-
able portion of this flux passes through the
end plate into the end laminations of the
core, producing losses in these parts.
Where a magnetic end plate is provided, this
flux passes around the stator in the end plate
in a thin skin on the surface of the solid
iron. It is our practice to use alloy steel
which will reduce the losses in the magnetic
end plate to a reasonable value. In this
case practically no flux enters the lamina-
tions back of the end plate.
We tested a 25,000 kva hydrogen cooled,
3,600 rpm generator about a year ago at a
number of armature current values at zero
power factor underexcited, and found the
temperature rise of the stator end plates
with zero field and 90 per cent armature cur-
rent was below 60 degrees centigrade as
compared with an American Standards
Association temperature limit for such parts
of 70 degree centigrade rise. While this
temperature rise will not necessarily be
duplicated in all sizes of machines, we have
to date found no difficulty in building the
largest machines with end plates and retain-
ing rings of magnetic materials.
Matthew S. Schneider (The Cincinnati
Gas and Electric Company, Cincinnati,
Ohio): The authors offer a word of caution
in regard to the operation of machines made
prior to 1925 at low excitation. An investi-
gation of the insulation failure in one of these
older machines led to the conclusion that
extensive finger heating was the cause.
The magnetic structure mentioned con-
sists of armature lamination clamping fingers
of magnetic material held in place by a ring
of the same material. The fingers are so
situated in the machine that they are in the
flux area of the main field retaining ring,
The amount of flux through the fingers is a
function of the saturation of the ring due to
d-c field current. The greater the field cur-
rent the lower will be the flux in the fingers
and the less the heating effect produced by
iron losses. The maximum heating occurs
where the a-c flux density is greatest, which
in the machine that failed is at the center of
the phase belts.
This local heating effect will not be ob-
served in readings of the usual embedded
a.
down the
center
of the circle may be shifted up
imaginary axis by the simple addition of
References
R
1. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY (book), S. B. Crary.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, N. Y., 1945.
AIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume 57, December 1938,
pages 732-41.
3. STEADY STATE STABILITY
AFFECTED OF SYNCHRONOUS MA-
BY VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CHINES AS
TIONS, volume 63, May 1944, pages AIEE
CHARACTERISTICS, C. Concordia. TRANSAC-
215-20.
4. MODERN EXCITATION SYSTEMS FOR LARGE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES, J. B. McClure, S. I.
Whittlesey, M. E. Hartman. AIEE TRANSAC-
TIONS, volume 65, 1946, pages 939-45.
only by flow of compound
adjacent to the hot fingers.out of insulation
To determine the extent of this heating,
tests were conducted on a machine which
had identical characteristics as the one which
failed. Thermocouples were inserted in the
fingers to obtain actual temperatures. The
data in Table I, giving the test results, show
the extent of this heating.
Not only was the temperature in the
clamping fingers higher than that of the
other parts of the machine, but the rate of
rise was also greater. The finger tempera-
ture change followed the field current change
by a matter of seconds.
J. W. Batchelor (Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): The
generator capability curve illustrated in
Figure 3 of the paper for which the authors
have presented an admirable derivation is
quite useful to the designer and the applica-
tion engineer. It is suggested that a deriva-
tion with a different approach might bring
out some features which would make the
information as useful to others as it has
proved to us.
This derivation is based upon the concept
of an unsaturated machine, as suggested by
the authors, in which the no-load field cur-
rent is equal to that of amachinewith satura-
tion. Thus, the reciprocal of the short cir-
cuit ratio equals the equivalent synchronous
reactance. If the excitation for the syn-
chronous reactance is designated as 1.0, the
no-load excitation equals the short circuit
ratio. These two values of excitation may
then be added at the rated power factor
angle to determine rated full load excitation.
Therefore, it is necessary to know power
factor, short-circuit ratio and system react-
ance at rated kilovolt-ampere, to deter-
mine the per unit generator capability curve
as shown in Figure 1 of the discussion. The
curve A CF with center at H and radius equal
to 1.0 represents the full load temperature
limit of the armature. Full load field current
may be determined by adding the field cur-
rents for no-load and synchronous reactance
at the rated power factor angle. This is the
triangle GHB and since GB is the full load,
field current, the curve BJ with center at G
represents the maximum loading in the
region where field temperature is the limit.
The steady-state stability limit is an arc
ALEE TRANSACTIONS
starting at G with center along the vertical El El.O E2 a concentrated load area. Th3 other ex-
axis, and with radius equal to SCR/2+ 2 treme of a remote station supplying power
1/2Xe, where X. is the system reactance on 1. l X2 over a high-voltage transmission link is dis-
the machine kilovolt-ampere base. The Z cussed later. Referring to the equivalent
expression for the radius may be obtained C0.6 r--- circuit in Figure 2 of the discussion, all
by considering the condition for pullout at
machine voltage and power factor equal to
z
: |
xz=O,4, Z=0.4+j0
X0.25, z-os+;o
(b)
(c)
generation except unit (1), the machine
being studied, is combined into an equivalent
1.0, and by solving similar right triangles. ______ 1 (d) generator as shown at (2). This assump-
The expression derived by the authors may z /) tion is valid if the load is almost evenly
be reduced to this form. In the case of an divided among machines of similar charac-
infinite bus, the circle has an infinite radius, teristics. The system load is combined also
and the limit reduces to the line GE. >_ 0.4. into a single equivalent load represented by a
Once the capability curve has been estab- z constant impedance Z. An additional step
lished for full load conditions, it may be / X2=0.25, Z=O.63+ j0.31 of paralleling Z and X2gives the equivalent
used for other operating conditions, by keep- 0 x2=0.2, z=0x reactance Xe of the system. In this circuit
ing the center for armature conditions at H 0 the magnitude of the system load and the
and for field conditions at G. For example, W relative loading of connected generating
with a hydrogen cooled turbine generator capacity are not entirely concealed. Upon
nominally rated at 0.5 pound per square 00.24 specifying the terminal voltage and the
inch gauge gas pressure, but operating at 15 Z initial loading and power factor of unit (1),
pounds per square inch gauge the stator the loading of the equivalent generator and
current may be increased 15 per cent and the 3 the excitation voltages El and E2 can be
field current increased 8 per cent. Thus, a X02 FOR ALL CURVES determined. The pull-out power at con-
the radius HC is increased 15 per cent, and Z INITIAL KW LOADING OF stant excitation is obtained from the equa-
radius GB is increased 8 per cent. The UNIT 1)-0.5 PU tion:
intersection of these two circles is on an I_I
extension of the line HB. It should be 0.90 0.95 1.0 0.95 0.90 Mx p -12 s i a EiE2
noted that the per unit scale for field current
is not necessarily the same scale as is used
LEAD
POWER. FACTOR OF INITIAL LO.
LAG M i Zn2l
for kilovolt-amperes since one per unit field
current is determined by the short circuit
Figure 2. Limiting power increment for
generator (1) as a function of initial power fac-
Zni =magnitude of the driving
where:
point impedance viewed from El
ratio. tor at initial kilowatt loading of 0.5 per unit. Z,,=magnitude of the driving point imped-
All impedance and power quantities in per ance viewed from El
J. B. Ward (Purdue University, Lafayette, unit on machine (1) kilovolt-ampere rating =XI+X2Z/(X2+Z)
Ind.): This timely paper will be very useful
to engineers concerned with system operat- clusion that these do not seriously affect Z12 = magnitude of the transfer impedance
ing and planning problems. The curves in accuracy over a wide range of system condi- from E1 to E2
the paper clearly show the influence of vari- tions is not immediately obvious. At least
ous factors upon operating limits at low the range of applicability is not clearly =XI+X2+X1X2/Z
excitation. It is the purpose of this dis- evident in the assumptions themselves, and
cussion to examine more critically the simpli- a planning engineer might wonder, first of 3
fied method of analysis used to derive these all,if hisparticular system and operating con- jo.2 .2
curves. The authors list the assumptions on ditions would fall within the range referred o.46
which the method is based, but the con- to by the authors. In addition, rational 2 O
E.4.6 Z".4+jO.2
decisions on safe operating margins which
1.0A are based on stability calculations require tZ 0.6
some knowledge of limitations and potential =
errors inherent in the method used. w
,0zFI£LD -
In connection with the third assumption X ___ I __ I
vi
|\ of the list, the method of representing the
RAD. GB F| system by an equivalent reactance for sta-
Z
FROM METHOD OF
(a)(a)
0
_ _ _ !_ bility calculations is fairly well known, but ADAMS a McCLURE
. ] perhaps 0 /t is not as well understood. Basi- .4/
cally it is an application of Thevenin's /
__
_ ____ >45s' \ _ theorem, but unfortunately with the pres- IJ.
/ \ ence of speed governors, magnetic satura- KW LOAD ON 0O-0.8
tion, and other influences, power systems do Z 0.3
o not submit to rigorous application of linear L
S
network theory. With most of the react- W KW LOADON( 1.2
/ ANGLE ance residing in the machine to be tested for C) 2 -______
_/RTDP0UF_8 ANGLE
RATED Z 2 _
d__ . {c pull-out limits and a relatively small l
I-H
+ 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 amount in the equivalent system it seems
KILOWATTS-PER UNIT logical to assume that system conditions 3
___ O2I
__ I [ t T 1would not seriously affect results. Never- oL 0.
Al
r r RMT I-IT theless, it is desirable to know how much ) Xe"0.2 FOR ALL CURVES
ollR.* HG/l and in what direction the pull-out limits i- INITIAL KW LOADING OF
041/:
>| / might vary with system conditions. This E UNIT (1)" 0.5 PU l
| c:> i /o | / variation can be demonstrated to a certain - C 90o 0.95 .0 0.95 0.90O
I t^J ;/ < l / extent by numerical examples based on LEAD LAG
____ /____ [ equivalent circuits which represent a POWER FACTOR OF INITIAL LOAD
z I0 </ A slightly less complete reduction of the sys- ON UNIT (I)
< | §/ / ~tern than the single equivalent reactance. FigUre 3. Limiting POWer inCrement fOr
J~ ~~ ____I __I _l As an illustration, the following examples Snr{r()a UC;nO nta Oe
1/1 6 ~STEADY STATE are presented, giving some results for the gnrtr()a ucino nta oe
- E TABILITY LIMIT Irelatively stiff equivalent reactance of 0.2 factor at initial kilowatt loading of 0.5 per
___ oI IVIA.Px. per unit which is discussed in detail in the unit on (1) and with constant kilowatt loading
F ~~~~~~~~~paper
as an average condition. on (2). All impedance and power quantities
Figure 1. Generator rated voltage capability Consider first a metropolitan-type system in per unit on machine (1) kilovolt ampere
curve in which the generating capacity is close to rating

.1948, VOLUME 67 Adams, McClure- Underexcited Operation of Thrbogenrtors :527

all=900-e0l
il= impedance angle of Znl
The curves of Figure 2 of the discussion
show some
(f)
results for an,
kilowat
O initial kilowatt
loading on machine
loadngmacine
o 1) of 5perunit.
o 0.5per nit.The
values assumed for this machine are: Rated
power factor 0.8, SCR 0.9, Xi = 1/SCR,
initial terminal voltage 1.0 per unit. The
various combinations of X2 and Z shown
with the four curves are chosen to give a
value of 0.2 per unit for Xe in each case.
All quantities are based on the kilovolt-
ampere rating of machine (1).
Curve (a) is obtained by the simplified
method presented in the paper. For curve
(b) the load is 2.5 per unit, unity power fac-
tor, resulting in an initial kilowatt loading
of 2.0 per unit on the equivalent machine.
It X2 represents generators with the same
SCR as unit (1), this corresponds to nearly
full load on the connected capacity. Curve
(c) represents a different system in which the
0.5+jO load impedance corresponds to 2.0
per unit system load and results in a 1.5 per
unit loading on the equivalent machine.
This is a loading of approximately one third
the connected capacity on the same basis.
Curve (d) is for the same value of X2 as
curve (c) but with a system load at 0.9
power factor lagging. Note that all three
curves lie above (a), indicating approxi-
mately the extent by which the simplified
method described by Adams and McClure
gives conservative results for these system
conditions.
Next consider a system of the type illus-
trated in Figure 3 of this discussion. The
machines represented by (l) and (2) supply
power to a remote loadl center (Z) over a
transmission system, and the generators at
and beyond the load ceniter are combined
into an equivalent machine (3),. Unit (1)
represents the machine to be tested for pull-
out limits and (2) the combined effect of
nearby machines. If unit (1) is a 50-mega-
watt, 0.8 power factor machine, for example,
the line reactance of 0.2 per unit corresponds
to approximately 80 miles of double-circuit
132-kv line with transformer banks at each
end. For simplicity resistance is neglected
except in the load impedance. This system,
viewed from the terminals of unit (1), again
reduces to an equivalent reactance Xe of
0.2 per unit. Ratings of unit (1) are the
same as in Figure 2.
Ctirve (a), obtained by the method of the
paper, is included for comparison. The
other curves show the maximum power
increments which can be picked up by unit
(1) from an initial kilowatt loading of 0.5
per unit with two different constant kilowatt
loadings on (2). These results were ob-
tained by means of an a-c network calcula-
tor. In the calculator set-up capacitive
528 Adams, McClure
reactance was substituted for inductive
reactance to avoid the inherent resistance of
the inductive circuits. After adjustment to
the desired initial conditions, machine (1)
was advanced to the pull-out limit, with the
pweravncdtthof -ouandt
power oup (2) and exctaionvotages
output of (2) excitation voltages
held constant. In this equivalent circuit
there are many possible combinations of
initial reactive power loadings on machines
(2) and (3) for a given loading on unit (1).
For purposes of comparison the reactive
power was shifted from (1) to (2) as the
power factor of (1) was varied, in order to
keep the initial line loading and load bus
voltage constant. In both curves the
power factor of (2) was adjusted to approxi-
mately unity at the 0.9 lagging power fac-
tor condition on unit (1).
The kilowatt loading on (2) of 1.2 per unit
represents half-load on the basis that the
connected machines have the same SCR
as unit (1). The maximum power incre-
ments are considerably less at laggi ig power
factors than those obtained by the sirnpli fl-J
method, but with a smalier discrepan-v
appearing at leading power factors. As the
load on (2) is increased beyond this valuc the
maximtn-i power incremens for (1) 11
decrease -.apidly since th system i t <-
proachiilg .-he steady-stat stiljt. .
For 0.8 per unit kilowatt lcad on (2), a less
severe condition, the curve conformn more
closely with that of the simplified nmethod,
particularly in the leading power factor
region.
For the conditions considered before, the
single equivalent reactance representation
yields sufficiently accurate results for most
practical purposes at unity and leading
power factors, which is the area of primary
interest in the present paper. The simpli-
fled method probably should be applied
with caution to initial loadings in the lagging
region when long, heavily loaded transmis-
sion systems are involved. The applica-
bility to other operating conditions and
types of systems can be checked in a similar
manner.
W. H. Osterle (West Penn Power Company,
Pittsburgh, Pa.): As I understand this
paper, the authors have taken the mathe-
matical equation Ed Es/Xd + Xe and for dif -
ferent loads and various power factors with
different values of external impedance (Xe)
calculated the pull-out power, using Xd, the
reciprocal of the short-circuit ratio, and Et,
terminal voltage of the machine, as unity.
Have the authors any experimental data or
results of any actual cases of generator static
instability that can be plotted on any of these
curves to see how near actual cases compare?
Will the authors elaborate a little on the
subject of "end structure heating with low
field current?" How serious is this condi-
-Underexscied Operation of Turbogenerators
tion and what information is needed to de-
tect its presence?
Under the section Voltage Regulator
Operation the following sentence appears:
"When the excitation of a machine is under the con-
trol of a voltage regulator, adjusted to maintain
rated voltage at the machine terminals, the gen-
erator will stably accept the maximum turbine
output in any practical case."
I understand this to mean that a generator
under the control of a voltage regulator can-
not become unstable when operating at rated
voltage. (1 per unit.) Suppose the genera-
tor were operating at a voltage of say 0.95 or
1.05 per unit, would this have any effect on
its stability characteristics?
C. G. Adams and J. B. McClure: The
authors welcome the supporting data and
calculations submitted in several of the dis-
cussions. In general, they serve to justify
some of the assumptions and emphasize
limitations on older turbogenerators in the
unlderexcited region.
Ross has presented valuable data regard-
ing zero power factor operation of modern
generators which his company manufac-
tures. With regard to detailed generator
design to avoid serious stator end heating,
there are several design approaches. As
well as the one outlined by Ross, the use of
nonmagnetic end materials and step backs
in the stator core is successful.
Schneider's data clearly show that serious
heating can develop at leading power fac-
tors in older machines. Our tests also show
that the finger temperatures rapidly follow
changes in loading. When underexcited
operation is contemplated on older machines
in service, field tests provide the best data on
which to base future operation.
Ward's discussion supports the assump-
tion of a generator equivalent reactance
equal to the reciprocal of its short circuit
ratio, especially at leading power factors.
Obviously the purpose of this assumption is
to simplify calculations while retaining
reasonable accuracy. In actual operation,
borderline cases should be approached only
when using automatic control of excitation.
The use of modern voltage regulators
eliminates the significance of incremental
power limits established for manual control
of excitation.
We refer Osterle to data presented by
other discussers and to Figure 6 in the paper
for the effect of operating at other than rated
voltage. Voltage regulator control will in-
crease system stability for steady-state load
changes.
Batchelor presents another method of
arriving at Figure 3. In the use of this
figure, the assumption of rated generator
voltage should be borne in mind.
AJEE TRANSACTIONS