Development of Tools For Radar System An PDF

FINAL YEAR PROJECT
Development of Tools for

Radar System Analysis
This Project is submitted Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering
at
University of Newcastle, Australia
Submitted by
TAN Peng Huat C3100923
Uon Supervisor
A/Prof Jamil Khan
PSB Supervisor
LEE Kar Heng
Page 1
TABLE OF CONTENT
Cover Page 1
Table of Table 2
List of Figures 4
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Acknowledgement 8
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Chapter Overview 9
1.2 Project Objectives 9
1.3 Project Description 10
1.4 Project Scope 10
1.5 Approach 11
1.6 Report Organization 12
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Chapter Overview 13
2.2 Mathematical Model of a Basic Radar System 13
2.3 The Radar Range Equation 18
2.4 Simulation of Radar System 25
Chapter 3 Radar Performance Analysis and Simulation
3.1 Radar Cross Section (RCS) 27
3.2 The Radar Simulation 28
3.3 Probability of Detection 32
3.4 Target Types 35
3.5 Beamforming 41
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3.6 Pulse Compression and Matched Filtering 46
Chapter 4 Simulation and Modeling
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 The Simulation Model 53
4.3 The Simulation 58
Chapter 5 Performance Analysis
5.1 Running the Radar Simulator 62
5.2 Testing with Experimental Data 66
Chapter 6 Conclusion
6.1 The Project Description 70
6.2 Meeting Project Objectives 70
6.3 Problem Encountered 71
6.4 Summary 71
Reference 72
Appendices 74
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Illustration of the Radar system Using the Completed Development
tool 10
Figure 2.1 Pulse Radar Operation 13
Figure 2.2 Range Ambiguity Illustration 15
Figure 2.4 Range Resolution Illustration 16
Figure 2.5 Doppler Effect Illustration 17
Figure 2.6 Illustration of Friis Transmission Equation 20
Figure 2.7 A Practical Operational Scenario 22
Figure 2.8 Signal Processing of Received Signals 23
Figure 3.1 RCS Dependency on Aspect Angle 27
Figure 3.2 Vertical, Horizontal and Circular Polarization 28
Figure 3.3 Maximum Detection Range with Different RCS and Fixed SNR 30
Figure 3.4 SNR Required at Specified Detection Range for 3 Targets 32
Figure 3.5 Pd vs Pfa 34
Figure 3.6 Different Types of Swerling Targets 35
Figure 3.7 Swerling I Target 36
Figure 3.8 Swerling II Target 37
Figure 3.9 Swerling III Target 37
Figure 3.10 Swerling IV Target 38
Figure 3.11 Comparison of Detection Performance of Swerling Targets 39
Figure 3.12 Transmit Beamformer 41
Figure 3.13 Receive Beamformer 42
Figure 3.15 The Delay and Sum Beamformer 45
Figure 3.16 DOA Results 46
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Figure 3.17 A LTI Block Diagram 47
Figure 3.19 RF Pulse and Matched Filter Output 49
Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of a Simulation Model 53
Figure 4.2 Data Flow in the Simulated Radar Signal Processing 54
Figure 4.3 The Antenna Coordinates 55
Figure 4.4 Array Antenna Geometry 56
Figure 4.5 The Simulated Radar System 58
Figure 4.6 The Simulation Model 60
Figure 5.1 The Simulated Radar System 63
Figure 5.2 Target Definition Block 64
Figure 5.3 Display of the Simulated Target Signal in the Presence of Noise 64
Figure 5.4 Display of Signals after Pulse Compression and Conventional

Beamformer 65
Figure 5.5 Display of Signals after MUSIC Beamforming 66
Figure 5.6 The Radar Used in the Simulator with Experimental Data 66
Figure 5.7 Radar Display onbard the Coast Guard Vessel 67
Figure 5.8 Received Radar Signal Generated from the Recorded Data 68
Figure 5.9 Received Radar Signal after Pulse Compression 68
Figure 5.10 Received Radar Signal after Beamforming 69
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Design Parameters Related to the Radar Equation 24
Table 3.1 Maximum Detection Range with Different RCS and Fixed SNR 30
Table 3.2 SNR Required at Specific Detection Range for 3 Targets 31
Table 3.3 Table of PD vs Pfa 33
Table 3.4 Probability of detection for different types of Swerling targers 36
Table 3.5 Simulation Results for Swerling Target Types 40
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ABSTRACT
When radar systems were first implemented, engineers were solving
complex mathematics and building prototypes to evaluate the performance of
the systems. The design process took long time to complete. Nowadays, radar
systems are becoming more complex and hence, evaluation of designs is now
more complex. A development tool for demonstration of design is therefore
required to evaluate and test the design of radar system. This tool can also be in
the education of relevant engineering topics such as beamforming, direction-of-
arrival (DOA) estimation and Doppler filtering. In addition, studies of a typical
radar system can also be made possible.
MATLAB and Simulink have been selected to develop the radar system
development tool due to its simplicity in programming and block diagram
system level simulation.
A set of tools developed using MATLAB and Simulink have been
designed and tested with validated results. The author is pleased that a
practical trial had been made possible to validate the simulated results with
actual practical system.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to take this opportunity to express his gratitude to
all individuals who have assisted him in the project. The author is greatly in
debt to his project supervisors, Associate Professor Jamil Khan of the
University of Newcastle, Australia and Mr. Lee Kar Heng of PSB, Singapore,
for their guidance, enlightenment, encouragement and generous advice, without
which the project would not be possible. The author also thanks the FYP
coordinators for their fruitful discussions and fine coordination.
Equally important, the author wishes to extend his appreciate to all staff
from the University of Newcastle and School of Engineering who had in one
way or another make this project an enjoying experience.
Last but not least, the author would like to thank one Government
Agency (cannot be named due to confidentiality) for allowing him to use some
measured results so that validation against simulated results can be made. In
order to obtain the measured results, the radar was made to operate in certain
modes that were not usually used in daily operations.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter documents the objectives, aims and scope of the project.
Objectives and aim defines the purpose and the final output of this project
respectively and scopes of the project indicate the expectations of the project,
what are supposed to be delivered at the end of the project.
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project include investigations, design, simulation
and development of a complete development tools using MATLAB and
Simulink. The development tool allows users to configure a radar system with
different antennas, transmitter, receiver, and other subsystems. A series of plots
will be presented for user to analyse the performance of the system design.
The project also aims to simulate a typical entire radar system into model
through the use of the developed tool and predict the behaviour of system’s
output.
To achieve this main objective, three sub-objectives were identified, they
 Analyse, research and carry out simulations of radar equations,
algorithm related to the radar system. This allows the author to
understand the working principles of a typical radar system (Part
A),
 Conduct a detailed study of radar signal processing (Part A, Part
B), and
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 Develop the simulink models and write MATLAB programs for
various radar system components. These components can be
connected to give a complete radar system. The development tool
will then simulate the entire radar system and present plots for
users to performance analyse and evaluation (Part B).
1.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
This project is based on the Matlab and SIMULINK model which is used
to simulate a complete radar system shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.1 Illustration of the Radar System Using the Completed

Development Tool
1.4 PROJECT SCOPE

This project primarily focuses on the development of a radar system
simulation using MATLAB and Simulink.
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This report presents the experience and knowledge acquired in the
development of the radar simulation tool by the author throughout the entire
duration of the final year project. It also presents the theories behind the system
and discusses the results obtained from the simulation. In addition, it also
documents the all the sub-systems in terms of the functionalities and signal flow
in the radar system. Finally, the report will end with a discussion and
recommendations for future work for this project.
The project scope for Part A shall include the following tasks:
1. Perform a literature research on radar system, radar block diagrams,
propagation model for radar and their associated equations,
2. Evaluate the radar performance evaluation criteria, snf
3. Demonstrate important radar equations using MATLAB.
 investigate some of the important equations in the radar system
such as the radar equation, range resolution and many more.
 build and design the source code on MATLAB.
 perform simulation and obtain the simulated results for
verification against the designed and simulated data.
1.5 APPROACH
In order to complete the project successfully, the following tasks have to
be planned and carried out, they are to
 perform a literature review of radar system theories and simulation
techniques,
 carry out research on radar design considerations and issues by using
MATLAB and SIMULINK simulation software,
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 carry out a detailed study on signal processing theories in the radar
system,
 be familiar with MATLAB and SIMULINK programming, and
 test the system.
1.6 REPORT ORGANIZATION

Chapter 1 Introduction ‐ Discuss objective of the project, project description,
project scope, and proposed approach.
Chapter 2 Literature Review - reviews the theory and mathematical equations
relating to radar system. This chapter also presents basic theory and
terminology of simulation methods.
Chapter 3 Detailed Radar System Description and Simulation - In this chapter,
the functions of the various components used in radar are explained so that they
can be used to create the MATLAB and SIMULINK model.
Chapter 4 Design of the Radar System Simulation Model – In this chapter, the
simulation concepts and equations are applied to develop a model and
simulation is carried out.
Chapter 5 Result Analysis – This chapter discusses the results obtained from
the developed tool and a comparison against measured data from a radar trial is
presented
Chapter 6 Conclusion – This chapter summarise the FYP project progress.
Difficulties faced in the project and future goals are also set in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Literature review and surveying of existing work on radar system and
radar signal processing theories, mathematical representations, a survey of
simulation techniques are carried out before developing the simulation tool. The
sources of information are gathered from reference books, technical papers and
the internet with reliable sources.
2.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A BASIC RADAR SYSTEM
In general, the radar system will simultaneously transmit a pulse and a
synchronised clock. When the pulse hits a target, a return pulse is sent back to
the system, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. From the received signal, the distance of
the target from the radar can be calculated. With successive returns, the
direction and velocity of the target can also be determined.
Returned
Signal
Transmitted R
Signal
Radar
Figure 2.1 Pulse Radar Operation
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Since the electromagnetic waves travel in the space at the speed of light,
c = 3 x 108 m/sec, then the range is,

c.tdelay
R (2.1)
2
where R is the range in meters and tdelay is the time difference between the
transmitted signal and the received echo in seconds. The factor of ½ is to
account for the two-way time delay.
Figure 2.2 shows the timing relation between the transmitted and
received pulses which demonstrates that range is a function of the delay
between the received pulse and transmitted pulse.
Pulse 1 Pulse 2 Pulse 3

Transmitted
Pulses
 time
PRT
Received Pulse 1 Pulse 2 Pulse 3

Pulses echo echo echo
time
tdelay
Figure 2.2 Transmitted and Received Pulse Train
During each Pulse Repetition Time or Interval (PRT/PRI), the radar radiates
energy only for  seconds and listens for target returns for the rest of the PRT.
Hence the radar average power is then
  
Pav  Pt    Pt . .PRF (2.2)
 PRI 
where Pt denotes the peak transmitted power and Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF),
1
PRF  (2.3)
PRT
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2.2.1 Range Ambiguity
The range that corresponds to the two-way time delay is the radar
unambiguous range, Ru [2]. Consider the case where two targets are detected by
the radar, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Pulse 1 Pulse 2
Transmitted
Pulses

PRT
Received
echo 1 echo 2
Pulses
tdel ay tdel ay
(R )
1
Ru
R2
Figure 2.3 Range Ambiguity Illustration
Echo 1 represents the radar return from a target at range R1 = ctdelay/2 due to
transmitted pulse 1. Echo 2 can be interpreted as radar return from the same
target due to pulse 2 or a target at R2, such that

ctdelay
R2 
2
or (2.4)
c  PRT  tdelay 

2
Alternatively, echo 2 can also be the 2nd echo of the target at range R1.
Hence, there is range ambiguity associated with echo 2. The maximum
unambiguous range corresponds to half of the PRI, given by

1 c
Ru  c.PRT  (2.5)
2 2.PRF
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2.2.2 Range Resolution
Range resolution, denoted as R, describes the radar ability to detect
targets in close proximity as 2 distinct targets. That is, 2 close proximity targets
must be separated by at least R to be completely resolved in range. Consider 2
targets located at ranges R1 and R2, corresponding to time delays t1 and t2
respectively, the difference between the 2 ranges is

c c
R  R2  R1   t2  t1    t (2.6)
2 2
In order to distinguish the 2 targets, they must be at least 1 pulse width, ,
apart, hence the range resolution is defined as

c c
R   (2.7)
2 2B
where B is the radar bandwidth.
R1 R2
c
Received return return

Pulses target 1 target 2
c c
target 1 target 2
Figure 2.4 Range Resolution Illustration
2.2.3 Doppler Effects
In addition to range, radar is also capable to provide the radial velocity of
the target with respect to the radar position. This information is extracted from
the Doppler frequency shift between the transmitted signal and the received
echo. Figure 2.5 shows the frequency shift of the reflected signal by the motion
of the target with respect to the radar.
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RADAR
ANTENNA
INBOUND
ECHO
TRANSMIT
PULSE
OUTBOUND
ECHO
RADAR TOWER
Figure 2.5 Doppler Effect Illustration
For a target moving towards the radar, a positive shift of frequency
(apparent increase in the carrier frequency) results, while an outbound
movement gives a negative shift. The Doppler frequency, fd, can be obtained by
the following
2 vr f t 2 vr
fd   (2.8)
c 
where ft = transmitted frequency
vr = radial component of the target speed towards the radar
From Equation (2.8), the radial component of the target speed can be
computed.
2.2.4 Pulse Repetitive Frequency
For a single pulse radar, the required maximum unambiguous range, Ru
will determine the maximum PRF, such that,

c
PRF  (2.9)
2 Ru ,max
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Selection of PRF will be based on the required range and Doppler
ambiguity that is described as follows [3]:
 High PRF radar is unambiguous in Doppler but highly ambiguous in
range since it meets the Nyguist sampling criterion for Doppler shift of all
targets designed to detect but there is little time between pulses for
ranging.
 Medium PRF radar may be ambiguous in both Doppler and range since it
samples too fast for echoes from long range but too slow to Nyguist
sample the Doppler shift of all targets. Medium PRF however has the
best of both worlds, a compromise performance between unambiguity in
Doppler and range.
 Low PRF is unambiguous in range but high ambiguous in Doppler since
it waits until the last transmitted pulse arrives before the next
transmission.
Different PRF is used in different application such as Low PRF or
Medium PRF is suitable for detection of vessels while High PRF is used in
detecting air targets. Hence careful selection of PRF will also result in better
tracking performance since one must be able to detect a target before tracking it.
2.3 THE RADAR RANGE EQUATION
The radar range equation (or The Range Equation or The Radar Equation)
provides an indication on the ability of the radar to detect the presence of a
target, which affects the tracking capability of the radar. The tracking capability
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is also affected by other factors such as the accuracy of the plot-to-track
association, filtering and prediction algorithms.
2.3.1 Derivation of the Equation
The derivation is based on the famous Friis Transmission Equation [4].
Consider a radar with isotropic radiation, i.e., radiation in all directions as from
the surface of a minute sphere, the power density per unit area is given by
Pt
Pisotropic  (2.10)
4 R 2
where Pisotropic = radiation power density of the isotropic radiation [W/m2]
Pt = the peak power in the transmitted pulse
R = distance from the transmitter to the target
4R2 = the surface area of an imaginary sphere (the isotropic isolator)
with radius R
For a directional radar antenna (with higher gain in one direction), the
radiation power is given by

PG
Pdirectional  t t
(2.11)
4 R 2
where Pdirectional = radiation power density of the directional radar [W/m2]
Gt = the directional gain of the antenna measured in the direction
of the target
Assuming a target at distance R (as depicted in Figure 2.6) intercepts the
transmitted signal, the power re-radiated by the target is given by

Pt ,t arg et  Pradiated 
t t
PG (2.12)

4 R 2
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where  = radar cross section of the target that indicates the target size
viewed by the radar [m]
The amount of reflected power that is received by the radar, after a round
trip path, is therefore,

Pt ,t arg et
Preflected 
4 R 2
(2.13)
t t
PG

 4 R  2 2
ISOTROPIC
RADIATION
Pt
Pisotropic 
4R 2
Pt Gt
Pdirectional 
RADAR
4R 2
ANTENNA
G, Ae

R DIRECTIONAL
RADIATION
Pt Gt  Pt Gt 
Preflected  Pt ,t arg et 
4R  2 2 4R 2
Figure 2.6 Illustration of Friis Transmission Equation
The power received by the radar antenna is determined by its effective
aperture, given by
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t t Ae
PG
Pr  Pradiated Ae  (2.14)
 4 R 
2 2
Gr  2
but Ae 
4
t t Gr  
2
PG
therefore Pr  (2.15)
 4 
3
R4
Common radar installations use the same antenna for both transmitting
and receiving, therefore Gt = Gr = G, the received power is then expressed as
PG 
2 2
Pr  t
(2.16)
 4 
3
R4
It is observed that the simple form of radar equation, Equation (2.16), accounts
for not only the effects of each major parameters of the radar antenna but also
those of the target and environment.
2.3.2 The Complete Equation
The simple form of the radar range equation is useful in 1st order calculations.
For more accurate and realistic calculations, the following effects must be
considered [5]:
 Propagation medium and path
 Atmospheric noise
 System losses
 Thermal noise introduced within the radar
 Signal processing losses
 Other losses associated with particular configurations and applications
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Figure 2.7 presents a realistic operational scenario where the propagation
medium and environment are included. For simplicity, the loss factor, L,
accounts for all system, medium and propagation losses.
Figure 2.7 A Practical Operational Scenario
For a radar system with system temperature of 290K, the system noise
factor, Fn, is defined as

N o N i SNRi
Fn   (2.17)
So Si SNRo
where N and S indicate the noise and signal power levels and subscripts i and o
indicate the input from the antenna and output from the receiver respectively.
The equivalent thermal noise at the receiver input terminals is given by
the equation
Ni  kTB (2.18)
where k = Boltzman’s Constant
T = temperature
B = receiver bandwidth
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If the overall signal losses are grouped in terms of internal and external
loss, represented by LI and LE respectively, then L = LELI. It also follows that the
effective input signal power being defined as

Pr
Si  (2.19)
LE
and the output signal power is

Si APr AP
So  A   r (2.20)
Li LE LI L
where A represents the radar receiver power gain.
The output noise power is given as
No  AFn Ni (2.21)
By substituting equation (2.18),
No  AFn kTB (2.22)
The signal flow from the antenna input to the receiver output is depicted in
Figure 2.8.
RADAR
ANTENNA
A, B, T,Fn
SNRi SNRo
Pr, LE (Si, Ni) (So, No) TO
RADAR
A DATA
PROCESSOR
Local
Transmitter
Oscillator
RADAR TOWER RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING
Figure 2.8 Signal Processing of Received Signals
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Finally, the complete radar equation in terms of losses is given by
So
SNRo 
No
(2.23)
A Pr L

AFn kTB
Substituting the simple radar equation (2.16) into (2.23) gives
PG 
2 2
SNRo  t
(2.24)
 4 
3
R 4 kTBFn L
From the complete radar equation, it is concluded that the difference
between the signal and noise power levels determine the detection performance.
To have better performance, a low noise receiver (low Fn) and minimum internal
and external losses are required in addition to high gain antenna and others.
Table 2-1 summarises the design parameters related to the radar range equation.
DESIGN PARAMETERS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Peak transmit power
Average Power (Pt)
 Allowable duty cycle
 Aperture size
Antenna Gain (G)
 Beamwidth
 Operating frequency
Wavelength ()
 Aperture size
 Low noise figure
System Noise Temperature (T)
 Signal processing gain
 Ohmic losses
System Losses (L)  Signal processing losses
 Atmospheric loss and clutter
Table 2.1 Design Parameters Related to the Radar Equation
From the Radar Equation and Table 2.1, it is concluded that radar
detection is contributed by many parameters.
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2.3.3 Maximum Detection Range
The maximum detection range of a target with a specified radar cross
section, , is obtained by rearranging the Radar Equation (2.24) as follows

1
 PG 
2 2 4
R t
 (2.25)
  4  kTBFn L  SNRo  
3
The maximum detection range is obtained smallest output signal-to-noise ratio
of a target can be obtained, in a given design and environmental factor.

1
 PG 
2 2 4
Rmax  t
 m (2.26)
  4  kTBFn L  SNRo min 
3
2.4 SIMULATION OF RADAR SYSTEM
In this project, simulation concept similar to that of MATLAB toolbox is
being employed. A toolbox has been developed to simulate radar system in
terms of radar signal processing, from signals received by the antenna array to
display of target information. In the context and due to limited time allocated,
only the signal processing in the spatial dimension in a radar using signals from
an antenna array is simulated. In real radars, more complex signal processing
and data processing are used, these include Kalman filtering techniques,
correlation and estimation methodologies.
MATLAB is a programmable software for numerical computations and
data visualization used in many modules taught in the Engineering program.
The author has been introduced to MATLAB and Simulink in various taught
modules and hence, MATLAB is chosen to be the development platform for the
simulation tool.
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The objectives of the simulation tool are to provide radar engineers and
educators a useful and reliable platform in the research on radar array
processing, to perform array processing on measured radar signals, to support
cooperation in development of software tools and to serve as a software
demonstrator.
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CHAPTER 3 RADAR PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
AND SIMULATION
3.1 RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS)

The term Radar Cross Section (RCS) is used to describe the amount of
scattered power from a target towards the radar, when the target is illuminated
by the RF energy. Electromagnetic waves, with any specified polarization, are
normally diffracted or scattered in all directions when incident wave hit on a
target. The intensity of the backscattered energy that has the same polarization
as the radar’s receiving antenna is used to define the target RCS.
3.1.1 RCS Dependency on Aspect Angle
The target’s RCS fluctuates as a function of radar aspect angle. In Figure
10.1, two unity scatters of 1 m 2 each are aligned and placed along the radar line
of sight contributing to the zero aspect angle at a range R. This composite RCS
consists of the superposition of the two individual radar cross sections which is
2 m 2 . When the aspect angle varies, the composite RCS is modified by the phase
between the two scatters.
Radar line of sight
1m
Radar line of sight
Figure 3.1 RCS dependency on aspect angle
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It is therefore important to note that target returns may vary due to own
movement and/or target’s movement.
3.1.2 RCS Dependency on Polarization
The radiation field of an antenna is composed of electric and magnetic
lines of force. These lines of force are always right angles to each other. The
electric field determines the direction of polarization of the wave. When a
single-wire antenna is used to extract energy from a passing radio wave,
maximum pickup will be resulted when the antenna is oriented in the same
direction as the electric field. There are three types of polarization, namely the
vertical, horizontal and circular polarization shown in Figure 3.2.
Vertical Horizontal Circular
Figure 3.2 Vertical, Horizontal and Circular Polarization
It is important to note the change in RCS when the polarization of the
radar antenna changes. This is because it will affect the detection performance.
3.2 THE RADAR EQUATION

In Chapter 2, the radar equation which describes the fundamental
relationship between the characteristics of the radar, the target, and the received
signal which is computed in equation is derived. Section 3.1 discusses the
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importance of RCS in radar performance. This section presents the detection
range performance when RCS varies. The radar equation is given as follow:
PG 
2 2
Pr  t
(3.1)
(4 ) kTe BFLR4
3
where Pr is the return power, Pt is the transmitted power, G is the gain of the
antenna,  is the wavelength,  is the radar cross section, kTe B is the input
noise power, L is the radar losses and R is the total distance from the
transmitting antenna to the target and vice versa.
The maximum range and minimum SNR can be calculated by
manipulating the radar equation,
1
 PG 
2 2
4
RMAX   t
 (3.2)
 (4 ) kTe BF  SNR  
3
This radar detection performance is evaluated as RCS changes. A
MATLAB program has been written to obtain the amount of SNR needed for
maximum range detection when RCS varies. In the simulation, two other
targets with difference RCS are included, hence a total of 3 targets with different
RCS are used.
Table 3.1 shows the maximum detection ranges of the 3 targets with
different RCS, a fixed SNR is used throughout this . With this table, it can be
concluded that RCS plays a very important role to determine the maximum
range detected.
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SNR (dB) Range (km)
136.1 (Default RCS)
12 76.52 (RCS - delta1)
181.5 (RCS + delta2)
85.86 (Default RCS)

20 48.28 (RCS - delta1)
114.5 (RCS + delta2)
Table 3.1 Maximum Detection Range with Different RCS and Fixed SNR
Figure 3.3 Maximum Detection Range with Different RCS and Fixed SNR
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The required SNR can be calculated by manipulating the equation,
PG 
2 2
SNR  t
(3.3)
(4 ) kTe BFLR4
3
The next simulation shows how much SNR is required for a fixed range
detection. This simulation also includes two target with different RCS. Table
3.2 shows the SNR required for a fixed range detection. From this table, it can
be concluded that RCS varies proportionally with the SNR.
Range (km) SNR (dB)

26.25 (Default RCS)
60 21.73 (RCS - delta1)
15.69(RCS - delta2)
14.19 (Default RCS)

120 9.42 (RCS - delta1)
4.91 (RCS - delta2)
Table 3.2 SNR Required at Specific Detection Range for 3 Targets
Page 31
Figure 3.4 SNR Required at Specific Detection Range for 3 Targets
3.3 Probability of Detection

The probability of detecting a target is affected by its randomness, the
probability of detection, PD, defines the probability of detection a given target at
a given range when the antenna beam passes the target. In this project, the
probability of detection has been studied to understand the randomness in the
detection.
Page 32
PD is mathematically defined as the probability that a sample of the signal r (t )
exceeded the threshold VT when noise plus signal are present in the radar.
 r  rA   r2  A2 
PD    dr
VT  2 0   2 
I exp (3.4)
   22 
PD  0.5  erfc   InPfa  SNR  0.5  (3.5)
where the complimentary error function is
z
2
 e dv
v
erfc( z )  1 
2
(3.6)
 0
From Equation (3.5), Table 3.3 gives the samples of single pulse SNR corresponding to
few values of PD and Pfa .
Table 3.3 Table of PD vs Pfa
Page 33
This simulation show plots of the probability of detection, PD , versus the
single pulse SNR, with the probability of false alarm, Pfa , as a parameter, which
correspond to Table 3.3. Pfa ranges from 102 on the extreme left to 1012 right of
the plot. From the plot, we can conclude that the amount of SNR needed to
achieve a fixed amount of probability of detection is greater when the
probability of false alarm get smaller.
Figure 3.5 PD vs Pfa
Page 34
3.4 TARGET TYPES
Target fluctuates when a radar system detecting a fluctuating target
indicates that the probability of detection will decrease, or equivalently the SNR
will reduce due to the RCS of the fluctuating target varies irregularly.
Fluctuating targets can be categorized into for different types of Swerling which
are illustrated in Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6 Different Types of Swerling
The expression for the probability of detection for the different types of
Swerling targets are tabulated in Table 3.4. Figure 3.6 to Figure 10 show the
probability of detection of the 5 Swerling target types when the number of
pulses is changed from 1 to 100.
Page 35
Swerling
Expression
Type
 

np 1
 
1  V 1 np SNR 
PD  1  I VT , np  1  1 
VT
I  , np  1  e T
I  n SNR   1 1 
 p 
 n SNR 
 p 
 VT 
II PD  1  I  , np 
 1  SNR 
n 1
VT p eVT
PD  1   V , n  1  K0
III
1  np SNR 2 np  2! I T p
  SNR  np  np  1   SNR  np
2 np
 SNR   SNR 
IV PD  1   0    
 p 1 
n   2  ....   
 n  1  
  2   2  2!  2  p   2 
Table 3.4 Probability of detection for different types of Swerling targets
Figure 3.7 Swerling I Target
Page 36
Figure 3.8 Swerling II Target
Figure 3.9 Swerling III Target
Page 37
Figure 3.10 Swerling IV Target
Figure 3.11 shows the probability of detection of all the Swerling targets
when the SNR changes. It is shown that Swerling target type 4 give the largest
probability of detection when the SNR is larger than 4 dB.
Page 38
Figure 3.11 Comparison of detection performance of Swerling targets
Page 39
Types of SNR No. of
Pd
Swerling (dB) Pulse
23.85 1
I 0.9 15.26 10
10.12 50
8.34 100
23.12 1
II 0.9 7.64 10
1.73 50
-0.37 100
19.11 1
III 0.9 10.63 10
5.61 50
3.74 100
19.62 1
IV 0.9 7.23 10
0.89 50
-1.52 100
Table 3.5 Simulation results for Swerling Target Types
In general, the Swerling 2 and 4 target types give the largest Pd for a
given SNR, Swerling 1 target gives the lowest Pd and SW3 is somewhere
between the other three. The target RCs for Swerling 1 and 2 fluctuate
considerably, thus both noise and RCS fluctuation affects the threshold crossing,
whereby Swerling 3 and 4 consist of predominant scatter, therefore, the
threshold crossing for these target types are affected by RCS fluctuation, but not
to the extent of Swerling 1 and 2 targets.
Page 40
3.5 BEAMFORMING
Beamforming and direction of arrival (DOA) techniques are presented in
this section.
3.5.1 Beamforming Concept
In beamforming, the phase and the amplitude of each antenna element
are controlled. The combined relative amplitude ak and phase shift k is the
complex weight wk. A beamformer for a radar transmitter applies the complex
weight to the transmit signal for each antenna element

antenna
element
power
amplifier
w1 w2 w1 w1
1 2 3 1 beamformer
a1 a2 a1 a1
baseband
Modulator
signal
carrier
oscillator
Figure 3.12 Transmit Beamformer
Page 41
A beamformer for a radar receiver applies the complex weight to the
signal from each antenna element and sum them into one that has the desired
directional pattern
antenna
element
w1 w2 w1 w1
1 2 3 1
a1 a2 a1 a1
beamformer
Summing Network
(power combiner)
Receiver
Figure 3.13 Receive Beamformer
3.5.2 Digital Beamforming
In digital Beamforming, the phase shifting and amplitude scaling for each
antenna element and summation for receiving are carried out digitally. The RF
signals are converted to baseband so that general purpose DSP or dedicated
beamforming chip can be used. The receiver functionality is implemented using
software rather than hardware.
Page 42
3.5.3 Beamforming DOA Algorithm
Adaptive array and smart antennas adapt to environment automatically
while retaining the desired signal beam characteristics. DOA estimation is an
important function in adaptive array applications. Given the DOA estimate of
the target, the radar can direct its energy to the target to improve the detection
performance. In this experimental setup, the Least-Mean-Square (LMS) method
is used.
The LMS equation from the pre-set array vectors with FFT output is
derived. Let the FFT output of the antenna elements (2 in this experiment) be
x  e j1 , e j2 

(3.7)
where 1, 2 = phase at element
Let the pre-set array vector that spans coverage from 0 to 180 be a(, f)
where f = frequency and  = azimuth. Equating the array output x to the array
vector a gives the LMS equation,
J  x  a  , f 
2
(3.8)
J will indicate the peak value at the DOA of the input (minimum error, so
to speak). Plotting J
clearly.
Page 43
3.5.4 The Beamforming and DOA Simulation
The signal detection is simulated with 5 targets detected at 34, 57, 1,
92 and 124.
FFT O/P (Magnitude vs. Frequency)

before
Threshold Detection
FFT O/P (Magnitude vs. Frequency)

after
Threshold Detection
Threshold
Setting
X
Threshold
Setting
1
Threshold Detection
Process Flow Diagram
Threshold Detector O/P
Figure 3.14 The Signal Detection Process
In the simulation, the transmitter sends the computed beamformer output
power to the host computer for display. The receiver receives all the required
data from the DSD memory module and stores them into memory.
Page 44
The covariance, beamformer and multiplier blocks implement the delay-
and-sum beamforming algorithm
x0 t 
Delay & Weight
0 & 0
x1t
Delay & Weight
1 & 1
 y t 
xm2t
Delay & Weight
m2 &m2
xm1t
Delay & Weight
m1 &m1
Delay and Sum Beamformer
Figure 3.15 Delay-and-Sum Beamformer
Page 45
The theoretical and measured results for targets with DOA of 92 and
124.
4
Theoretical Results:DOA 92 degree 4 Theoretical Results:DOA 124
x 10 x 10
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 magnitude 4
magnitude
3 3
2 2
1
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
angle(degree)
angle(degree)
Hardware Generated Results:DOA 92 degree Hardware Generated Results:DOA 124 degree

100 100
80 80
60 60
magnitude
magnitude
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
angle(degree) angle(degree)
Figure 3.16 Delay-and-Sum Beamformer
3.6 PULSE COMPRESSION AND MATCHED FILTERING

Consider a general LTI filter with impulse response h(t) or H(f), with x(t)
as input and y(t) as output, as shown in Figure 3.18, where x(t) = s(t) + n(t) and
y(t) = so(t) + no(t), s(t) = signal component at input, n(t) = white noise component
at input, so(t) = signal component at output and no(t) = noise component at
output.
Page 46
x(t) LTI y(t)
h(t) or H(f)
Figure 3.17 A LTI Block Diagram
Since s(t) is known, its Fourier Transform S(f) can be readily obtained, from
superposition theorem,
Y  f   So  f   N o  f  (3.8)
The output signal so(t) is given by the inverse Fourier Transform


so  t   s  t   h  t    H  f  S  f e j 2 ft df

and the power spectral density of the output noise no(t) is given by
No
Pno  f   Pn  f  H  f   Hf
2 2
2
The average power of the output noise is the area under the curve of Pno(f),
 No 
Pnave   Pno  f df   H  f  df
2
 2 
Consider at time T, when the input s(t) is present, the power in the
output so(t) is made as large as possible than the power in the noise no(t), the
maximized output signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

 2
So T 
2
 H  f  S  f e j 2  fT df

SNRo  
No 
H  f  df
Pno

2
2 
Page 47
By applying the Schwarz’s Inequality,
2
  a  t  b  t  dt    a 2  t  dt  b2  t  dt
    
For real functions, the inequality becomes
2
  A  f  B  f  dt    A  f  2 dt  B  f  2 dt
    
For complex functions,
A  f   B  f 
Hence,
 
 H 2  f df  S 2  f df
SNRo   
No 
 H  f  df
2
2 

2  S 2  f df
 
No
It can be shown that the maximum signal-to-noise ratio does not depend
on the transfer function H(f) of the filter. As long as H(f) takes on a optimum
value, say, Hopt(f), which can be defined as
Hopt  f   S   f  e j 2  fT
the SNR will be maximum
Taking inverse Fourier Transform gives

 
hopt  t    S   f  e  j 2  fT e j 2  ft df   S   f  e  j 2  f T -t  df
 
Since s(t) is a real-value signal, S*


hopt  t    S   f  e  j 2  f T -t  df

 S T  t 
Page 48
It is shown that the finite impulse hopt(t) is a delay, mirror image
conjugate of the original signal. For received signal s(t) where s(t)  S(f) the
matched filter impulse response
h  t   s T  t   H  f   S   f  e j 2  fT
where  = constant and
T = time between transmitted signal and received echo
For a received signal, s(t), the energy of the signal,


Es   s  t dt

therefore,

2  S 2  f df 2 Es
SNRo,opt  

No No
Consider a RF pulse (which is the basis of a chirp pulse), s(t), of duration
Ts, amplitude A and frequency fc where fc is an integer multiple of 1/Ts and large
enough for s(t) to be considered a narrowband signal. For Ts = 4 sec, fc = 1/ >
1/4The peak value of the output is 1 at Ts, which is a normalized value.
1 1.5
0.8
0.6 1
0.4
0.2 0.5
-0.2 0
-0.4
-0.6 -0.5
-0.8
-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Input Signal s(t) Output Signal so(t)
Figure 3.18 RF Pulses and Matched Filter Output

Page 49
The spectrum of the output signal of a matched filter is proportional to
the energy spectral density of the input signal, except for a time delay factor, i.e.
So  f   H opt  f  S  f 
 S   f  S  f  e - j 2  fT
 S  f  e - j 2  fT
2
The output signal of a matched filter is proportional to shifted version of
the autocorrelation function of the input signal,
so  t  =R s  t - T 
The output signal-to-noise ratio of a matched filter depends only on the
ratio of the signal energy to the power spectral density of the white noise at the
filter input,
2 Es
SNRo,opt 
No
The above three properties of pulse compression using matched filtering
explain why pulse compression technique is commonly used in most
communication systems, including radar system.
Page 50
CHAPTER 4 SIMULATION AND MODELING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many factors that could affect the best procedure to be used for
a tracking problem, in fact many other problems. After going through the
decision process, the following factors are derived:
 system function,
 simulation objective,
 budget,
 interactive requirement,
 speed requirement and
 accuracy requirement.
At times, some factors dominate others. In the radar signal processing
simulation, the dominance is not that clear.
4.1.1 System Function
Radar signal processing is one of the many functions that a radar system
has to perform. Hence it is important to consider the interaction between the
signal processing function and other functions such as detection and
beamforming. A simulation of each function separately may not lead to same
conclusion regarding the overall system performance as an integrated
simulation would. In this dissertation, functions such as scenario generation
and radar model are generated as modules or parameters.
Page 51
4.1.2 Simulation Objective
The objective is related to the intended use of the simulation results or
data. This purpose of this project is to evaluate the performance of the radar
transmission with beamforming and detection targets with direction of arrival
(DOA). In order to archive simulation objective MATLAB and Simulink are
used to develop a toolbox set with all the necessary modules such as antenna,
beamforming, target generation and other required modules.
4.1.2 Budget
Running on limited budget, real or simulated radar data are not used but
rather those generated using models. There is no identified budget allocated
except a small amount is used to purchase the MATLAB Student Edition.
4.1.3 Interactive Requirement
A radar signal processing simulation model can interact with a radar
operator or actual equipment such as a radar interface. Since the objective is to
evaluate the filters, serious GUI are not considered, however, some graphic
displays and plots are generated to present the tracking profile better.
4.1.4 Speed Requirement
This simulation model is not real-time hence most of the computing time
is devoted to attaining accuracy. The simulation should be able to run on
normal commercially-off-the-shelf personal computer.
Page 52
4.1.5 Accuracy Requirement
Although constraint by budget, there is no compromise to accuracy. The
approach to model the radar signal processing such that each model reflects the
actual functions as close as possible. The quality of the data upon which the
models are based is important, however higher quality data requires more
complex simulation model. Hence, as long as the data generated is realistic and
yet not too complex to generate, it is acceptable. The highest quality data is
none other than those generated by a real system.
4.2 THE SIMULATION MODEL
The simulation program developed should allow preliminary analysis
and design of radar tracking algorithm that is to be implemented in most radar
projects. It is also used for evaluating other tracking solution and as a basis for
further development. The simulation model should be modular and structured
as depicted in Figure 4.1.
Scenario Generation Sensors Model Radar Data Processing

 track initiation/dropping
 plot-to-track association
 targets (no., type e.g. aircraft,  radar type (mono, bistatic,...)
 filtering/prediction
vessels,... , parameters e.g. RCS,  features (measurements, accuracy,
 adaptive features, if any
signature,... , trajectory,...) rate, coverage,...)
 track status
 disturbance (clutter,...)  geometry (stationary, moving,...)
 movement compensation
 track data management
Performance Evaluation
DATA EXCHANGE  track accuracy (position, speed,

heading)
 track no./lifetime/type
VARIABLES/PARAM ETERS  track quality/identity confidence
MONITORED  display of performance accessed
Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of a Simulation Model
Page 53
The simulation process begins with conventional processing on the
received signals in the form of conventional beamforming, Doppler filtering and
pulse compression. A model-based detection and estimation is also developed
to estimate the number of targets, direction to targets and Doppler of targets.
The direction-to-targets are expressed by the direction-of-arrival (DOA) of the
reflected signals.
Signal Pulse Conventional

Detection and
Simulation Compression
Extractor
Measured Doppler Model based

signals detection and
Filtering extractor
Beamforming
Figure 4.2 Data Flow in the Simulated Radar Signal Processing
4.2.1 Scenario Generation
The simulation will be executed in the following sequence:
 Define of the receiver antenna
 Refine a simulated signal
 Set the compensation method to be used by steering vector compensation
 Carry out the conventional processing
 Select data for model based processing using the RxRadarSigT signal
Page 54
 Estimate and modify a spatial correlation matrix with a spatial
correlation matrix, which is contained in a RxCorrMatT variable
 Spatial model based detection and estimation.
 Present the result.
4.2.2 The Antenna Coordinates
The standard antenna fixed coordinate system is used, it is shown in
Figure 4.3. The angles and  have the range and and 
Figure 4.3 The Antenna Coordinates
. For array antenna, the coordinate system and the geometry of the
antenna elements are shown in Figure 4.4.
Page 55
Figure 4.4 Array Antenna Geometry
4.2.3 Data Types Defined in the Simulation
The following data types are defined and used in the simulation.
Information is passed from one module to another module via the defined
signals using the data types.
 CxMatrixT 2D complex matrix.
 RealMatrixT 2D real matrix.
 IntMatrixT 2D integer matrix. Complex integers are not allowed.
 CxScalarT Complex scalar.
 RealScalarT Real scalar.
 IntScalarT Integer scalar. Complex integers are not allowed.
 CxVectorT Complex vector. Vectors are (n x 1)-matrices.
 RealVectorT Real vector. Vectors are (n x 1)-matrices.
 IntVectorT Integer vector. Complex integers are not allowed. Vectors
are (n x 1)-matrices.
 StringT String.
Page 56
 StringVectorT A vector of strings.
 IndexT An (1 x n) integer matrix used for indexing in vectors etc.
4.2.4 Definition of Components in the Simulation
The components used in the simulation are defined as follow:
 AntDefT Definition of receiving antennas and systems.
There are several subtypes.
 AntDefT ’LA’ Definition of a linear array. The distance between
the elements can be arbitrary and the elements
can be of any of the available antenna types.
 AntDefT ’ULA’ Definition of a linear array with equal distant
antenna elements. The elements can be of any of
the available antenna types.
 AntDefT ’isotropULA’ Definition of an ULA with isotropical
elements.
 RxRadarSigT Stores radar signals before and after conventional
processing.
 TargetDefT Definition of a target in a MATLAB structure
variable.
 NoiseDefT Definition of a noise source in a MATLAB
structure variable.
 ClutterDefT Definition of a clutter source in a MATLAB
structure variable.
 DoaParamT Estimated and true DOA parameters.
Page 57
 DoaSpecT A direction-of-arrival (DOA) spectrum DoaSpecT.
It is a measure of the presence of signal sources in
different directions.
4.3 THE SIMULATION
The simulation of the radar system is achieved using the following
modules created, as shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 The Simulated Radar System
The simulated radar system also includes a practical measurement
onboard a Coast Guard vessel to verify the targets generated and beamforming
algorithm.
Page 58
Antennas
 Modeling of array and single-channel antennas and arbitrary antenna
element placements and antenna patterns
Simulated signals
 Single-range simulation of Gaussian distributed narrowband signals.
 Simulation of narrowband radar signals with specified Doppler shifts
and waveforms.
 Waveforms: rectangular, Chirp code which is linear Frequency
Modulation code generation, the phase between samples increases in a
rate corresponding to a linear frequency increase.
 Simulation of Gaussian distributed noise.
Conventional signal processing
 Pulse compression with any of the waveforms above.
 Conventional beamforming: Tapering (uniform, Taylor, Chebychev),
adaptive sidelobe cancellation and beam orthogonalization are possible.
 Doppler filtering. Windowing (nine different types).
Model based signal processing
 Plot of radar signals, DOA spectra and antenna patterns.
4.3.1 The Simulation Model
The simulation model of prototype is derived based on the simulation
model depicted in Figure 4.6.
Page 59
Scenario Generation Radar Signal Processing
 Target Generation  Pulse compression
 Noise  Simulates the received  Conventional
 Clutter radar signal in the beamforming
 Antenna presence of noise and  MUSIC DOA
clutter and target, with
the defined radar
waveform
Performance
evaluation
 Plot the results
Figure 4.6 The Simulation Model
The received radar signal is represented by its complex envelope and is
stored in the radar multidimensional matrix. Before any processing is done, the
indices of the radar signal are: (pulseIx, timeInPulseIx, channelIx, extraIx, cpiIx,
trialIx), where pulseIx is the index of the received pulses, timeInPulseIx is the
index of received time snapshots within one pulse, channelIx is the index of the
antenna channels, extraIx is an user defined index, cpiIx is the index of the CPIs
(Coherent Processing Intervals) and trialIx is the index of repeated trials.
“Conventional processing” means linear filtering in the form of
conventional beamforming, Doppler filtering and pulse compression. After
conventional processing, the indices are interpreted differently. If no data
reduction is done, the information in the radar matrix should be the same as
before. In the radar matrix are the coordinates in a specific basis. For example,
when performing doppler filtering, it is changed from the trivial basis
tmk(different k:s) to the Fourier basis e jk tm (different k:s). Indices after
Page 60
complete conventional processing are (dopplerChanIx, rangeBinIx, beamIx,
extraIx, cpiIx, trialIx), where opplerChanIx is the index of Doppler channels,
rangeBinIx is the index of range bins and beamIx is the index of formed beams.
Before or after conventional processing, model based detection and
estimation methods can be used to estimate, for example, the number of targets,
direction to and Doppler and range of targets. The direction to targets are
expressed by the direction-of-arrival (DOA) of the reflected signals.
Page 61
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
The purpose of this chapter is to present the simulations carried out using
the radar system simulation constructed. Recordings from a Coast Guard radar
are also injected into the simulation to verify the results.
5.1 RUNNING THE RADAR SIMULATOR

The development uses Simulink, which is an add-on to MATLAB for the
modelling and simulation of a radar system. The powerful graphical feature of
MATLAB and Simulink enable the display of radar signals after processing and
this makes the analysis efficient. This also makes the radar simulator flexible
and easy to expand.
5.1.1 Description of the Simulator
Figure 5.1 shows the radar system simulator, it contains, from left to
right, top to bottom, antenna definition, radar waveform definition, target and
noise definition, radar signal simulation, pulse compression, conventional and
MUSIC beamforming. There are also some blocks for plotting intermediate and
final signals:
 Adding a target of type: swerling0 (depending on the number of targets)
 Adding noise of type: Gaussian.
 Simulating targets
 Simulating noise... done (0.6 secs).
 Performing pulse compression
 Target extraction and display
Page 62
Figure 5.2 The Simulated Radar System
5.1.2. The Simulation
The simulation is executive with “radarex1” where the block diagram of
the radar simulator is run in the Simulink. The simulation is first carried out
with 3 well separated targets. The targets are defined using the Target
Definition Block. The antenna, waveform and noise are then defined
subsequently using the respective definition blocks. The simulator is executed
by choosing Start under the Simulation menu. Three graph windows with user
interface controls for the interactive visualization of the resulting signals appear.
Page 63
Figure 5.2 Target Definition Block
First, the simulated signals are displayed, since there are three targets
there are three transmitted waveforms shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Display of the Simulated Target Signals in the Presence of Noise
Page 64
The peaks of the three targets at 6 km, 1 km and 10.5 km, and sidelobes in range
can be seen.
Figure 5.4a shows the signal after pulse compression. The typical
appearance of the chirp (linear FM) waveforms after pulse compression with
main beam and range sidelobes is displayed.
Figure 5.4b shows the signal after conventional beamforming. Since the
array antenna only has 12 antenna elements the beamwidth will be large, about
10 degrees. But since the targets are already separated in range, the main beams
and sidelobes of all three targets can be seen clearly.
Figure 5.4 Display of Signals after Pulse Compression and Conventional

Beamforming
The MUSIC direction-of-arrival spectra is shown in Figure 5.5, it gives a better
resolution compared to conventional beamforming.
Page 65
Figure 5.5 Display of Signals MUSIC Beamforming
Signal after MUSIC DOA estimation shows high DOA resolution compared to
conventional beamforming. The three targets have the DOAs 25° , 5°, 18°and
ranges 6 km, 1 km, 10.5 km, respectively.
5.2 TESTING WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The simulator has been tested with recorded data from the radar onboard
one Coast Guard radar as shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6 The Radar Used in the Simulator with Experimental Data
Page 66
There are many targets and clutters detected by the radar, for simplicity,
5 target information are recorded, with the assistance of Coast Guard
Technician. On the display shown in Figure 5.7, the five selected targets are
displayed with markers.
Figure 5.7 Radar Display onboard the Coast Guard Vessel
These information is saved on an USB drive in pure text format (due to
confidentiality, the format cannot be shown in this report). The information is
injected to the radar simulator for processing. The signal is formatted into the
radar signal data type RxRadarSigT so that the pulse compression block can
process.
Page 67
Figure 5.8 Received Radar Signal Generated from the Recorded Data
As the targets are closed in range, two of the pulses are merged. Before
processing, the target identification does not give a good indication on the target
information.
Figure 5.9 Received Radar Signal after Pulse Compression
Page 68
After pulse compression, the five targets are clearly visible as pulse
compression gives maximum signal to noise ratio.
Figure 5.10 Received Radar Signal After Beamforming
After beamforming, the five targets are clearly distinguishable in both
range and azimuth. A comparison against Figure 5.7 and 5.10 shows that the
targets are processed correctly by the simulator.
Page 69
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION
6.1 THE PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The aim of this project is to design and build a radar system simulator
that generates targets, noise and clutter. It simulates the transmitting process by
defining the antenna used. The radar signal transmitted, targets defined and
generated noise and clutter are then processed to produce the received radar
signal. Data type RxRadarSigT is used to model the transmission, environment
and receiving of the signals. The received signal is then processed by a pulse
compression and then conventional and beamforming processes. The results
obtained are then displayed on various plots.
6.2 Meeting Project Objectives

Most of the key objectives set at the start of this project have been
achieved as in
 analyse and research on radar system, performance, radar signal
processing with beamforming and pulse compression
 conduct a survey of simulation methods,
 simulate a radar system, and
 develop a radar processing technique for study and investigation.
However, several problems are encountered in the project work.
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6.3 Problem Encountered
There are some constraints which are encountered during the project
phase.
Since the radar system is relatively difficult, there are the difficulties in
pursuing the knowledge. In Part A, many MATLAB simulations were carried
out to understand radar system.
Beamforming is also new and are difficult to code as it involves random
signals. In addition, it was difficult to seek assistance due to the difficulty.
These difficulties were overcome with persistence and consultation
sessions given by industrial professionals and supervisors.
The main difficulty is the verification of simulation results, in this aspect,
it was a blessing that the Coast guard approved the use of recorded data from
her radar onboard one vessel, but this is controlled by the security regulation
and some of the information cannot be disclosed in this report.
6.4 Summary
The project objectives have been achieved with persistence and hard
work.
Page 71
REFERENCE
[1] A Farina and F A Studer, “Radar Data Processing Volume I”, John Wiley
and Sons Inc., England, 1985.
[2] B R Mahafza, “Introduction to Radar Analysis”, CRC Press, USA, 1998.
[3] Associate Professor Leonard Chin, “E470 Radar Engineering”, Course

Notes, Nanyang Technology University, Singapore, 1996.
[4] C A Balanis, “Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley and Sons
Inc., Singapore, 1997.
[5] J L Eaves and E K Reedy, “Principles of Modern Radar”, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, USA, 1987.
[6] S Blackman abd R Popoli, “Design and Analysis of Modern Tracking

Systems”, Artech House, London, 1999.
[7] E Brooker, “Tracking and Kalman Filtering Made Easy”, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., Singapore, 1999.
[8] R G Brown and P Y C Hwang, “Introduction to Random Signals and

Applied Kalman Filtering”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., Singapore, 1983.
[9] P R Kalata, “The Tracking Index: A Generalized Parameter for - and --
 Target Trackers”, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic
Systems, AES-20, March 1984, pp. 174-182.
[10] T Benedict and G Border, “Synthesis of an Optimal Set of Radar Track-

While-Scan Smoothing Equations”, IRE Transactions of Automatic Control,
AC-7, July 1962, pp. 27-32.
[11] R E Kalman, “A New Approach to Linear Filtering and Prediction

Problems”, Transaction of the ASME – Journal of Basic Engineering, March
1960, pp. 35- 45.
[12] A Gelb, “Applied Optimal Estimation”, The MIT Press, England, 1975.
Page 72
[13] G Welch and G Bishop, “An Introduction to the Kalman Filter”,
Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, 1997.
[14] S S Blackman, “Multiple-Target Tracking with Radar Application”, Artech

House, USA, 1986.
[15] S S Swords, “Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar”, Institution of

Electrical Engineers (IEE), 1986.
[16] H von Kroge, “GEMA: Birthplace of German Radar and Sonar”, Institute of
Physics Publishing, 2000.
[17] D C Clark, “Early advances in radar technology for aircraft detection”,

Lincoln Laboratory Journal, 2000.
[18] “Power measurement on pulsed signals with spectrum analyzers”, Rohde

& Schwarz application note, 2008.
[19] Long, M W, “Radar Reflectivity of Land and Sea, 3rd Edition”, Artech
House, 2001.
[20] M I Skolnik (editor), “The Radar Handbook”, McGraw-Hill, 1990.
[21] A G Stove, “Linear FMCW radar techniques”, Radar and Signal Processing,
Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 5, pp. 343–350, 1992.
[22] B R Mahafza, “Radar System Analysis and Design, Second Edition”,

Chapman and Hall/CRC, 2000.
Page 73
APPENDIX
RCS Dependency on Aspect Angle

function [rcs] = rcs_aspect (scat_spacing, freq)
scat_spacing = 200
freq = 3.0e+6
eps = 0.00001;
wavelength = 3.0e+8 / freq;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Compute aspect angle vector
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
aspect_degrees = 0.:.05:180.;
aspect_radians = (pi/180) .* aspect_degrees;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Compute electrical scatterer spacing vector in wavelength units
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
elec_spacing = (2.0 * scat_spacing / wavelength) .*
cos(aspect_radians);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Compute RCS (rcs = RCS_scat1 + RCS_scat2)
% Scat1 is taken as phase reference point
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
rcs = abs(1.0 + cos((2.0 * pi) .* elec_spacing) + i * sin((2.0 * pi) .*
elec_spacing));
rcs = rcs + eps;
rcs = 20.0*log10(rcs);
figure (1);
plot (aspect_degrees,rcs,'blue');
grid;
xlabel ('aspect angle - degrees');
ylabel ('RCS in dBsm');
title (' Frequency is 3GHz; scatterer spacing is 2m');
Radar Equation
function [out_par] = radar_eq(pt, freq, g, sigma, te, b, nf, loss,
input_par,option, rcs_delta1, rcs_delta2, pt_percent1, pt_percent2)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%Define All Variables
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Page 74
clear all
pt = 1.5e+6; % peak power in Watts
freq = 5.6e+9; % radar operating frequency in Hz
g = 45.0; % antenna gain in dB
sigma = 0.1; % radar cross section in m sqaured
te = 290.0; % effective noise temprature in Kelvins
b = 5.0e+6; % radar operating bandwidth in Hz
nf = 3.0; %noise figure in dB
loss = 0.0; % radar losses in dB
option = 2; % 1 ===> input_par = SNR in dB
%%%%%%%%%%% 2 ===> input_par = Range in Km
input_par = 85.855922;% 1 ===> input_par = 20
%%%%%%%%%%% 2 ===> input_par = 85.855922
rcs_delta1 = 5;
rcs_delta2 = 10;
pt_percent1 = 0.5;
pt_percent2 = 2.0;
c = 3.0e+8;
lambda = c / freq;
p_peak = base10_to_dB(pt);
lambda_sq = lambda^2;
lambda_sqdb = base10_to_dB(lambda_sq);
sigmadb = base10_to_dB(sigma);
for_pi_cub = base10_to_dB((4.0 * pi)^3);
k_db = base10_to_dB(1.38e-23);
te_db = base10_to_dB(te)
b_db = base10_to_dB(b);
if (option == 1)
temp = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb - for_pi_cub - k_db -
te_db - b_db - nf - loss - input_par;
out_par = dB_to_base10(temp)^(1/4)
% calculate sigma(+-)rcs_delta1,2 dB
sigmap = rcs_delta1 + sigmadb;
sigmam = sigmadb - rcs_delta2;
% calculate pt_percent1 * pt and pt_percent2 * pt
pt05 = p_peak + base10_to_dB(pt_percent1);
index = 0;
% vary snr from .5 to 1.5 of default value

for snrvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5
index = index + 1;
range1(index) = dB_to_base10(p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb +
sigmam - for_pi_cub - k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - snrvar)^(1/4) /
1000.0;
sigmadb - for_pi_cub - k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - snrvar)^(1/4)
/ 1000.0;
Page 75
sigmap - for_pi_cub - k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - snrvar)^(1/4) /
1000.0;
end
index = 0;
for snrvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5;
index = index + 1;
rangp1(index) = dB_to_base10(pt05 + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb +
/ 1000.0;
rangp2(index) = dB_to_base10(p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb +
/ 1000.0;
rangp3(index) = dB_to_base10(pt200 + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb +
/ 1000.0;
end
snrvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5;

figure(1)
plot(snrvar,range2,'red',snrvar,range1,'blue',snrvar,range3,'k')
legend('RCS(Default)','RCS - delta1','RCS + delta2')
xlabel ('Minimum SNR required for detection - dB');
ylabel ('Maximum detection range - Km');
title('delta1=10dBsm, delta2=10dBsm')
grid
else
range_db = base10_to_dB(input_par * 1000.0);

out_par = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb - for_pi_cub -
k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - 4.0 * range_db
% calculate sigma -- rcs_delta1,2
sigma5 = sigmadb - rcs_delta1;
sigma10 = sigmadb - rcs_delta2;
% calculate pt_percent1 * pt and pt_percent2 * pt
index = 0;
% vary snr from .5 to 1.5 of default value

for rangvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5
index = index + 1;
var = 4.0 * base10_to_dB(rangvar * 1000.0);
snr1(index) = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb -
for_pi_cub - k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - var;
snr2(index) = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigma5 - for_pi_cub
- k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - var;
snr3(index) = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigma10 -
Page 76
end
index = 0;
for rangvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5;
index = index + 1;
var = 4.0 * base10_to_dB(rangvar * 1000.0);
snrp1(index) = p_peak + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb -
snrp2(index) = pt05 + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb - for_pi_cub
- k_db - te_db - b_db - nf - loss - var;
snrp3(index) = pt200 + 2. * g + lambda_sqdb + sigmadb -
end
rangvar = input_par*.5 : 1 : input_par*1.5;

figure(1)
plot(rangvar,snr1,'red',rangvar,snr2,'blue',rangvar,snr3,'k')
legend('default RCS','RCS-delta1','RCS-delta2')
xlabel ('Detection range - Km');
ylabel ('SNR - dB');
grid
title('delta1=5dBsm, delta2=10dBsm')
end
Probability of Detection
clear all
for nfa = 2:2:12
b = sqrt(-2.0 * log(10^(-nfa)));
index = 0;
hold on
for snr = 0:.1:18
index = index +1;
a = sqrt(2.0 * 10^(.1*snr));
pro(index) = marcumsq(a,b);
end
x = 0:.1:18;
set(gca,'ytick',[.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .75 .8 .85 .9 ...
.95 .9999])
set(gca,'xtick',[1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18])
loglog(x, pro,'k');
end
hold off
xlabel ('Single pulse SNR - dB')
ylabel ('Probability of detection')
grid
Page 77
Types of Swerling Target – Swerling I
clear all
pfa = 1e-9;
nfa = log(2) / pfa;
index = 0;
for snr = -10:.5:30
index = index +1;
prob1(index) = pd_swerling1 (nfa, 1, snr);
end
x = -10:.5:30;
plot(x, prob1,'red',x,prob10,'blue',x,prob50,'green',x,
prob100,'black');
axis([-10 30 0 1])
xlabel ('SNR - dB')
legend('np = 1','np = 10','np = 50','np = 100')
grid
Types of Swerling Target – Swerling II

clear all
pfa = 1e-9;
nfa = log(2) / pfa;
index = 0;
for snr = -10:.5:30
index = index +1;
end
x = -10:.5:30;
prob100,'black');
axis([-10 30 0 1])
xlabel ('SNR - dB')
legend('np = 1','np = 10','np = 50','np = 100')
grid
Types of Swerling Target – Swerling III
Page 78
clear all
pfa = 1e-9;
nfa = log(2) / pfa;
index = 0;
for snr = -10:.5:30
index = index +1;
prob50(index) = pd_swerling3(nfa, 50, snr);
end
x = -10:.5:30;
prob100,'black');
axis([-10 30 0 1])
xlabel ('SNR - dB')
legend('np = 1','np = 10','np = 50','np = 100')
grid
Types of Swerling Target – Swerling IV

clear all
pfa = 1e-9;
nfa = log(2) / pfa;
index = 0;
for snr = -10:.5:30
index = index +1;
end
x = -10:.5:30;
prob100,'black');
axis([-10 30 0 1.1])
xlabel ('SNR - dB')
legend('np = 1','np = 10','np = 50','np = 100')
grid
axis tight
Types of Swerling Target – Comparison of the Four type of

Swerling Targets
clear all
pfa = 1e-9;
nfa = log(2) / pfa;
Page 79
index = 0;
for snr = -10:.5:30
index = index +1;
end
x = -10:.5:30;
prob104,'black');
axis([-10 30 0 1.1])
xlabel ('SNR - dB')
legend('SW1','SW2','SW3','SW4')
grid
axis tight
RxRadarSigT
function sigOut = RxRadarSigT(signals, model, param, pulIx, ranIx,
spaIx, extraIx, cpiIx, trialIx, pulTrans, ranTrans, spaTrans, freqPos,
rangePos, doaPos, spaPulTrans, spaRanTrans, pulRanTrans, allTrans)
% The structure of this function is prepared for using MATLAB's

classes.
if (nargin == 0)
sigOut = basedef;
elseif isa(signals,'RxRadarSigT')
sigOut = signals;
else
if (nargin < 2)
error('Error: To few input parameters.')
end
% ****************** Add missing input parameters ******************
arginNo=3;
if (nargin < arginNo)
param = [];
end
arginNo = arginNo +1;

pulIx = [];
end
ranIx = [];
end
Page 80
spaIx = [];
end
extraIx = [];
end
cpiIx = [];
end
trialIx = [];
end

pulTrans = [];
end
ranTrans = [];
end
spaTrans = [];
end

freqPos = [];
end
rangePos = [];
end
doaPos = [];
end
% ****************** Default values ******************
if isempty(param)
param = {speedoflight};
end%if
if isempty(pulIx)
pulIx = 1:size(signals,1);
Page 81
end%if
if isempty(ranIx)
ranIx = 1:size(signals,2);
end%if
if isempty(spaIx)
spaIx = 1:size(signals,3);
end%if
if isempty(extraIx)
extraIx = 1:size(signals,4);
end%if
if isempty(cpiIx)
cpiIx = 1:size(signals,5);
end%if
if isempty(trialIx)
trialIx = 1:size(signals,6);
end%if
% ************* Pick out some more fields from input parameters.

*************
antenna = model{1};
waveform = model{2};
%propSpeed = param{1};
% ************* Base definition. *************
sigOut = basedef;
% ************* Assign values. *************
sigOut.signals = signals;
sigOut.antenna = antenna;
sigOut.waveform = waveform;
sigOut.pulIx = pulIx;
sigOut.ranIx = ranIx;
sigOut.spaIx = spaIx;
sigOut.extraIx = extraIx;
sigOut.cpiIx = cpiIx;
sigOut.trialIx = trialIx;
sigOut.trans.pulTrans = pulTrans;
sigOut.trans.ranTrans = ranTrans;
sigOut.trans.spaTrans = spaTrans;
sigOut.freqPos = freqPos;
sigOut.rangePos = rangePos;
sigOut.doaPos = doaPos;
end%if
%endfunction RxRadarSigT
Page 82
function sigOut = basedef
sigOut.dataType = 'RxRadarSigT';
sigOut.version = 2;
% The version number must be changed after important changes of
this
% data type, changes requiring changes of the functions which are
% using this data type.
sigOut.signals = [];
sigOut.antenna = [];
sigOut.waveform = [];
sigOut.pulIx = [];
sigOut.ranIx = [];
sigOut.spaIx = [];
sigOut.extraIx = [];
sigOut.cpiIx = [];
sigOut.trialIx = [];
sigOut.trans.pulTrans = [];
sigOut.trans.ranTrans = [];
sigOut.trans.spaTrans = [];
sigOut.freqPos = [];
sigOut.rangePos = [];
sigOut.doaPos = [];
%parent = SigT(...)
%sigOut = class(sigOut,'RxRadarSigT',parent);
% Inheritance from class "SigT".
%endfunction basedef
defant
function ant = defant(antennaType, in1, in2, in3, in4, in5, in6, in7)
antDefVersion = 3; % 980525: Version 3 = The field beamSpaceTrans

% is moved from the element to the current level.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% Global constants
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
global thSign
thSign = +1;
Page 83
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% Handle input parameters
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
if (nargin < 0)
error('To few input parameters.')
end
arginNo=1;
antennaType = [];
end
in1 = [];
end
in2 = [];
end
in3 = [];
end
in4 = [];
end
in5 = [];
end
in6 = [];
end
in7 = [];
end
% ****************** Default values ******************
if isempty(antennaType)
antennaType = 'baseAnt';
end%if
Page 84
% ****************** Antenna definitions ******************
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% Base antenna definition.
% ant = defant('baseAnt', antennaType, noElem)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
if (strcmp(antennaType, 'baseAnt'))
antennaType = in1;
noElem = in2;
ant.dataType = 'AntDefT';
ant.version = antDefVersion;
ant.name = 'none';
ant.antennaType = antennaType;
ant.noElem = noElem;
ant.beamSpaceTrans = 1;
ant.Dmax = 1; % Maximum directivity.
ant.efficiency = 1; % Conduction and dielectric efficiency
ec*ed.
if (0)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% Base antenna element definition.
% ant = defant('baseElemAnt', antennaType, noElem patternType)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
%elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'baseElemAnt'))
antennaType = in1;
noElem = in2;
ant = defant('baseAnt', 'elem', noElem)
ant.patternType = patternType;
%ant.elemOrient = elemOrient;
ant.polarization = 1; % CxVectorT with three elements:
% polarization(1): x-coordinate.
% polarization(2): y-coordinate.
% polarization(3): z-coordinate.
%end%if
end%if (0)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'isotropElem' : Isotropical antenna element.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
Page 85
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'isotropElem'))
if (nargin > 1), error('Error: Too many input parameters.'), end%if
ant.name = 'none';
ant.antennaType = 'elem';
ant.patternType = 'isotrop';
%ant.lambda = in1; % Removed this field.
ant.noElem = 1;
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'pattFuncElem'
% Antenna element whose antenna pattern is given by a function.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'pattFuncElem'))
if (isempty(in2)), in2 = zeros(2,1); end%if
elemOrient = zeros(2,1);
elemOrient(1:size(in2,1),:) = in2; % Enabling only theta as
directional angle
ant.name = 'none';
ant.antennaType = 'elem';
ant.patternType = 'func';
ant.patternFunc = in1;
ant.elemOrient = elemOrient;
%ant.lambda = in2; % Removed this field.
ant.noElem = 1;
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'ULA' : Uniform linear array.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'ULA'))
if ((nargin > 4) | (length(in1) > 2))
error('Error: Too many input parameters.')
end%if
noElem = in1(1,1);
distElem = in1(1,2);
%lambda = in1(1,3);
if (nargin < 4)
taper = ones(noElem,1);
else
taper = in3;
end
Page 86
ant.name = 'none';
ant.noElem = noElem;
%ant.lambda = lambda; % Removed this field.
ant.distElem = distElem;
ant.element = in2;
ant.beamSpaceTrans = taper;
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'isotropULA' : Uniform linear array with isotropical antenna
element.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'isotropULA'))
if ((nargin > 2) | (length(in1) > 2))
error('Error: Too many input parameters.')
end%if
noElem = in1(1,1);
%lambda = in1(1,3);
elem = defant('isotropElem');
ant = defant('ULA', in1, elem, ones(noElem,1));
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'LA' : Non-Uniform linear array.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'LA'))
elemPos = in1;
if ((size(elemPos,2) > 1) & (size(elemPos,1) == 1)) % Test #1 of
elemPos
disp('elemPos should be a column vector, transposing...')
elemPos = elemPos';
elseif ((size(elemPos,1) > 1) & (size(elemPos,2) > 1))
error('Error: The element position field must be a vector')
end%if
if (elemPos(1) ~= 0) % Test #2 of elemPos
error('Error: First element in elemPos should be 0, since it is a
relative position')
end%if
lambda = in2;
if (nargin < 5)
taper = ones(size(elemPos));
else
taper = in4;
Page 87
end%if
ant.name = 'none';
%ant.lambda = lambda; % Removed this field.
ant.elemPos = elemPos;
ant.noElem = length(elemPos);
ant.element = in3;
ant.beamSpaceTrans = taper;
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'array' : Array antenna.
%
% ant = defant('array', elemPos, [], element, [], elemOrient,
couplingMat)
% ant = defant(antennaType, in1, in2, in3, in4, in5, in6, in7)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'array'))
%elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'array') | strcmp(antennaType, 'BFArray'))
noElem = length(in1);
elemPos = zeros(3,noElem);
elemPos(1:size(in1,1),:) = in1;
if ~isempty(in4) % beamSpaceTrans
error('A beamSpaceTrans (in4) can not be specified for "array"
antenna type.');
end%if
if isempty(in5) % elemOrient
in5 = zeros(3,noElem);
end%if
if (0)
if iscell(in3) % element
nElemDef = length(in3);
else
nElemDef = 1;
end
%size(in4),nElemDef
if (size(in4,1) ~= nElemDef) % beamSpaceTrans
error('Illegal number of rows of beamSpaceTrans.');
end
if (size(in4,2) ~= noElem) % beamSpaceTrans
error('Illegal number of columns of beamSpaceTrans.');
end
else
if (strcmp(antennaType, 'BFArray'))
chkdtype(in4,'CxMatrixT') % beamSpaceTrans
Page 88
if (size(in4,1) ~= noElem) % beamSpaceTrans
error('Illegal number of rows of beamSpaceTrans.');
end
end%if
end%if (0)
ant = setr([], 'dataType', 'AntDefT');

ant = setr(ant,'version', antDefVersion);
ant = setr(ant,'name','none');
ant = setr(ant,'antennaType', antennaType);
ant = setr(ant,'elemPos', elemPos);
ant = setr(ant,'noElem', noElem);
ant = setr(ant,'element', in3);
%ant = setr(ant,'beamSpaceTrans',in4);
ant = setr(ant,'elemOrient', in5);
ant = setr(ant,'couplingMat', in6);
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'beamform' : Beamforming virtual antenna.
%
% ant = defant('beamform', element, beamSpaceTrans)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'beamform'))
ant.name = 'none';
ant.noElem = size(in2,2); % Number of channels out.
ant.element = in1;
ant.beamSpaceTrans = in2;
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'BFArray' : Array antenna with beamforming.
%
% ant = defant('BFArray', elemPos, [], element, beamSpaceTrans,
elemOrient,
% couplingMat)
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'BFArray'))
ant1 = defant('array', in1, in2, in3, [], in5, in6, in7);
ant = defant('beamform', ant1, in4);
% ------- Create antenna elements. -------

nElem = 51;
elem21 = defant('pattFuncElem', 'sqrt(cos(x(1,:)))');
Page 89
elem2 = cell(1,nElem);
for n = 1:nElem, elem2{n}=elem21; end%for n
%elem2 = repmat({},1,nElem); % Alternative way to create elem2.
% ------- Create beamforming matrix to do subarray beamforming. ---

----
T = zeros(nElem,25);
for n=1:25
T((2*n-1):(2*n-1)+2,n) = [0.5 1 0.5].';
end%for n
elemPos = [0:0.5:25]*0.1 + posErr;
ant = defant('BFArray',elemPos,[],elem2,T);
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'aimtEx' : The AIMT application example antenna. One-dimensional.
%
% Implementation by FA.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'aimtEx'))
% The subarrays are in the x-direction. The main digital array is in
the
% x-direction.
if (nargin > 1), error('DBT-Error: Too many input parameters.'),

end%if
noElemMain = 25;
noElemSub = 3;
lambda = 0.1;
distElemMain = lambda;
distElemSub = lambda/2;
taper = [0.5 1 0.5]';
elem = defant('pattFuncElem', 'sqrt(cos(x(1,:)))');
subarray = defant('ULA', [noElemSub, distElemSub], elem, taper);
ant = defant('ULA', [noElemMain, distElemMain], subarray, ...
ones(noElemMain,1));
ant.name = 'aimtEx';
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% 'expAnt' : The AIMT experimental antenna.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
elseif (strcmp(antennaType, 'expAnt')) % The AIMT experimental
antenna.
if (nargin > 1)
error(['Error: Too many input parameters. Cal. file is set by ',...
'the function setcal1.'])
end%if
global c0
Page 90
c0 = 2.99792458e8; % The speed of light.
noElem = 12;
distElem = 0.0450; % Distance in meters. Should we use variable "xel"
% instead in steering matrix calculation?
%lambda = NaN; % This is only a temporary value. The frequency
% can be found in the .dbs file. The correct value is set by the
% function expsig1.
ant = defant('isotropULA', [noElem, distElem]);
ant.name = 'expAnt';
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
% The ELSE branch.
% ---------------------------------------------------------------------
-- %
else
error('Error: Desired antenna type is not implemented.')
end%if
if isfield(ant,'lambda')
error('Error: The field lambda should not exist in AntDefT any
more.')
end%if
defclutter
function clutterdef = defclutter(clType, clTypeParam,
clPower,clPatchDOAs, transAnt, platHeight, platVel)
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
---
%---- In-parameter control & default values handling -
---
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
---
if (0)
arginNo=1;
error('DBT-Error: To few input parameters.')
end
Page 91
method = [];
end
method = [];
end
method = [];
end
method = [];
end
method = [];
end
method = [];
end
% ****************** Default values ******************
if isempty(method)
method = 'cbf';
end%if
% ****************** ******************
else %if(0)
if nargin < 7 % Defaults to platform velocity 40 [m/s]

platVel = 0;
end%if
if nargin < 6 % Defaults to platform height 3000 [m]

platHeight = 2;
end%if
if nargin < 5 % Defaults to string that tells us that

transAnt = 'recAnt'; % the transmitting antenna is to be the
end%if % same as receiving antenna. see
simradarsig.m
if (isempty(transAnt))
transAnt = 'recAnt';
end%if
Page 92
if nargin < 4 | isempty(clPatchDOAs)
clPatchDOAs = d2r(-60):0.5:d2r(60); % Directions to clutterpatches
end%if
if nargin < 3 | isempty(clPower) % Defaults to the power 1 [W].

clPower = 1;
end%if
if nargin < 2 | isempty(clType) | isempty(clTypeParam)

if nargin == 1 & ~strcmp(clType,'MIT-LCE')
error('Error: Missing clutter type specific parameters');
end%if
b = 12; % Defaults to light air condition
windSpeed = 5; % Defaults to a windspeed of 5 [mph]
clRange = 1000; % Defaults to the range 1000 [m]
clTypeParam{1} = b; % All these parameters are specific
clTypeParam{2} = windSpeed; % to the clutter type 'MIT-LCE'.
clTypeParam{3} = clRange;
end%if
end%if(0)
if isempty(platHeight)
platHeight = 0;
end%if
if platHeight == 0
dbtwarning('Platform height set to zero => no clutter simulated')
end
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
---
%---- Setting up the output parameter -
---
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
---
clutterdef.dataType = 'ClutterDefT';
clutterdef.Type = clType;
clutterdef.TypeParam = clTypeParam;
clutterdef.Power = clPower;
clutterdef.DOAs = clPatchDOAs;
clutterdef.TransAnt = transAnt;
clutterdef.PlatHeight = platHeight;
clutterdef.PlatVelocity = platVel;
%End Of File ----------------------------------------------------------

---
Page 93

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FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Development of Tools for

1.1 Chapter Overview 9

1.2 Project Objectives 9

1.3 Project Description 10

1.4 Project Scope 10

1.6 Report Organization 12

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Chapter Overview 13

2.2 Mathematical Model of a Basic Radar System 13

2.3 The Radar Range Equation 18

2.4 Simulation of Radar System 25

Chapter 3 Radar Performance Analysis and Simulation

3.1 Radar Cross Section (RCS) 27

3.2 The Radar Simulation 28

3.3 Probability of Detection 32

3.4 Target Types 35

Chapter 4 Simulation and Modeling

4.2 The Simulation Model 53

4.3 The Simulation 58

Chapter 5 Performance Analysis

5.1 Running the Radar Simulator 62

5.2 Testing with Experimental Data 66

6.1 The Project Description 70

6.2 Meeting Project Objectives 70

6.3 Problem Encountered 71

Figure 2.1 Pulse Radar Operation 13

Figure 2.2 Range Ambiguity Illustration 15

Figure 2.4 Range Resolution Illustration 16

Figure 2.5 Doppler Effect Illustration 17

Figure 2.6 Illustration of Friis Transmission Equation 20

Figure 2.7 A Practical Operational Scenario 22

Figure 2.8 Signal Processing of Received Signals 23

Figure 3.1 RCS Dependency on Aspect Angle 27

Figure 3.2 Vertical, Horizontal and Circular Polarization 28

Figure 3.4 SNR Required at Specified Detection Range for 3 Targets 32

Figure 3.5 Pd vs Pfa 34

Figure 3.6 Different Types of Swerling Targets 35

Figure 3.7 Swerling I Target 36

Figure 3.8 Swerling II Target 37

Figure 3.9 Swerling III Target 37

Figure 3.10 Swerling IV Target 38

Figure 3.11 Comparison of Detection Performance of Swerling Targets 39

Figure 3.12 Transmit Beamformer 41

Figure 3.13 Receive Beamformer 42

Figure 3.15 The Delay and Sum Beamformer 45

Figure 3.16 DOA Results 46

Figure 3.19 RF Pulse and Matched Filter Output 49

Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of a Simulation Model 53

Figure 4.2 Data Flow in the Simulated Radar Signal Processing 54

Figure 4.3 The Antenna Coordinates 55

Figure 4.4 Array Antenna Geometry 56

Figure 4.5 The Simulated Radar System 58

Figure 4.6 The Simulation Model 60

Figure 5.1 The Simulated Radar System 63

Figure 5.2 Target Definition Block 64

Figure 5.4 Display of Signals after Pulse Compression and Conventional

Figure 5.5 Display of Signals after MUSIC Beamforming 66

Figure 5.7 Radar Display onbard the Coast Guard Vessel 67

Figure 5.9 Received Radar Signal after Pulse Compression 68

Figure 5.10 Received Radar Signal after Beamforming 69

Table 3.2 SNR Required at Specific Detection Range for 3 Targets 31

Table 3.3 Table of PD vs Pfa 33