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 r
- •
' :
> CT ".
i

- • - •> * Jwni^y;fvny
130 Chapter 6 (Transition Elements) |
_ wS

*«ysc
' y ililili^ ^
ip l
1. ' What is Coordination Sphere? Give examples.
2. Discuss Galvanizing Process.
3. Define these:
( a ) Paramegnetism (b) Substitutional Alloys
A Give the systematic names of these complexes:
( a) K .[ Cu( CN ) J [ ] ,
(b) Pt (.OH*), (NHv) $©.
(

5. What is meant by sacrificial corrosion?

6. Under what conditions does aluminium corrode?
7. Why damaged tin plated Can should be avoided?
8. Write chemical formula of: (i) Potassium Hexacynao Ferrate (II) (ii) TriamminoTrinitro cobalt (III)
more limn 200 years
ago early
differences in their origin and Properties
. chemists separated organic compounds
"

9. What are chelates? Explain with an example. . Chemical ;compounds arc of two from iinorganic compounds due to the
(i) Organic compounds (old :
types
10. ' Why transition elements compounds are coloured? 1
Definition)
11. What is meant by typical and non-typica! transition elements? •
' The compounds obtained
from living things, plants
12. Why most of the transition metal ions are coloured? I e.g. bullet , cheese, or ani
animals were considered as organic
cotmn. si(k,; gIucosc ‘etc. compounds
13 . “ KNlnC). is a strong oxidizing agent”. Support the statement with two chemical reactions. : #
(ii)lnorgame compounds _ 1
14. -
s
What are interstitial compounds?
The compounds obtained
“

15. Why does damaged tiruplated iron gets rusted quickly? from! non-living or mineral
inorganic compounds. sources were called
16. What are *
C.g. NaCl. CaCO, I , Scientist '
Preparation
( a) Go-ordination number (b) Central metal atom . I SO j etc. Compound
17. Give systematic names of the following complexes Vital Force Theory ttVM
Inline j
Urea
(a Na;[ CoK, ]
) ‘(b) K:[Cu ( N), ] This theory was introduced by J. KflV .
Bcrzclius
IUS iin 1815 According 1 111«» ClltltilJl
A 18.
\
to this theory:
Why shows strongest paramagnetic behavior?
lie '* ; “ “

‘‘Organic compounds can be manufactured only by and within Ihe J li> do -cn ; Avelieacul
19. Give two methods of preparation of K,Cr,07. . .- .
A^ ;20 . Why transition elements usually show more than one oxidation states in their compounds?
1
;
1
living things and these compounds
inorganic materials in laboratory
os can never be synthesized from
.
iJcithcloi
( IX
4> Iv.llUU!
lunutr loruutc .
Mcili mc
.
.
j

Why the maximum paramagnetic strength is associated with the middle elements of d-block series?
J21
How does the metallic coating -preventthe corrosion? .
Q. What is the importance of Wohler s work.i
' jc in the development of organic chemistry ?
Write the equation of chromyl - chloride test for KCI.
Hp' 3.
gfr ^. 24 Write two balanced equations for the preparation of K ,Cr,07 . Wohlers work
Fricdrick Wohler was a German chemist. He rejected the vii
P 25. Write.balanced equation in which K 2Cr,0: oxidizes Kl in the presence of I:S04. 1- vital force
theory. When
'
o rganic
origin.
compound in the .
urine of majnmaJs Jrpm ammonium cyanatc
he obtained
. urea
urc (NI U):CO. an
NFhCNO. a substance of.known mineral
NHjCNO (Nil.) CO
For Answers study Ammonium cyanalc- Urea
( Since the synthesis of urea, millions oforganic compounds have been prepared and analvv.
MCQ*s -
-
. chemistry made;progress by leaps and bounds. ed. In this way organic
• •

- Entry Test MCQ's ^

MCQ's From Past BoardPapers- Q. What is vital force theory? Who rejected ]\
Organic Compounds (Modern Definition) this theory?
Additional Short Questions with Answers. i
Previous Board papers and Many More in the Objective- Chemistry " All those compounds winch contain c an cssen(ia) cIcmcnl a|ong wilh hydrogen, oxygen,
— I
nitrogen ,
. " .
sulphur, phosphorus, halogens, etc arc ca orcanjccompounds c.g.. Glucose, methane,
benzene etc .
i * Iw historical and
conventional reasons a lew ol tbe car compounds such as GO; CO;. carbonates, bicarbonates., i
etc are studied
as inorganic compounds,
,
* In the same way.
i
graphite which are allotropes of carbon are inorganic compounds,
diamond and
i
%
ll also Jtas been
recot nized hat
» ( the chemical forces in organic compounds are .similar to those, which exist, in
Morgan
v
•
 r ~ •r. y
- ft* ; -
—
•
v
. r " *. •
-
’TJ 'J3
- -

132
" "• •*
•
Tr; ?%r

Chapter 7 ( Fundamental Principles of Organic Ch

emlstry)
— TV
'

-
~

vY - XII (
Scholar 's CHEMISTRY
trrj

~ ;
-^
--
r
r
_----
• --
-
-
---
-v ran
i
w

Subjective)
Organic Chemistry (Modem Definition) ~ 133 !
Q. . A large number of , I
‘‘Organic chemistry is that branch of chemistry which deals with the study of

compounds of carbon and hydrogen ( hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.” i

£ns._ _ Catenation: _ _
“ Thc scff inking.
l
^ ^
j
Pcompound is d
~ ~
t 0 catenat on
property of
' carbon.. Justify. I
'
COTS? property of an element iis f
-
Carbon shows maximum called catenation ” .
SonTeiReatfon
^are
is essential element of catenation property due to high C G bond
(a) G G G G ~_G
— organic compounds
-- - . Its
energy
unique features are asTollows
. Carbon is a unique element and it — I
Following some features of organic compounds. C
-
*
( b) G -G — G -GI -G
(i)iRecuIiar Nature of Carbon
Carbon forms a iarge number of compounds. There are millions of organic compounds known at present. The C - ?\
> G
——
G I
—
C G
(c ) / \ I I ? G
mam reason for such a large number of compounds is its unique property of linking vvith other carbon atoms to fonnlong
chains or rings. This self- linking property of carbon is called catenation. •
GH
// \
GH CH
(e)
G G

Due to these reasons, a large H

c-c
Carbon also- forms bonds with
, • N , S, P, X.
•

v— v
II

'
(d ) -
G G, G = G, G =sG l

GH 3 numbenof orcani
game compounds is due to
—
GH3 GH
I -

-
iso Pentane
— —
GHj GH3- GH
,II
GH
n -Butane
—
GH 3 GH 2 GH 2 GH 3 •10.
in
ae
I lie importance of organic
chemistry can hardly be over emphasized .1 Almost all the
catenation property of carbon.

—— - —
place living systems, including our chemical
own
Benzene
Carbon also forms stable single and multiple bonds with other atoms like oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur* etc. Itqn
r
_ proteins,• enzymes
i J
V - , carbohydrates
--
»- -
'' .
vrw ivuiaies, lipids
becorncdependem upon organic compounds
npids , vi
bodies
vitamins
, are
and
' organic ' in . nature
nature her
because they
nucleic acids, all contain thousand of
involve such
reactions thattake
life molecules like
'
— carbon atoms .
——
We 1
thus form numerous compounds of various sizes, shapes and structures. . - - - - that occur in nature have
our
—
t
chemists have learned to synthesize pi 1' '
for
"'
food, medicines and clothing. Over the years
,
•

astics, synthetic rubber,

medicines, preservatives , Ithe
I I C
..
(2) > Non-ionic Character of Organic Compounds fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, cosmetics, dyes, ;
preservative, rpaints
Organic compounds are generally covalent compounds, because organic compounds contain carbon . Carbon
v
'naturally occurring products . ,
etc. Many nf
,of thpep
these ,
synthetic
e t
»0 « ,
^ varnishes , textile
r c o m p o u n d s prevent the shortages .
fibres
of
, 1
belongs to fourth group of the periodic tabic and fonns bonds by sharing. Therefore, do not give ionic reactions.
(3 ) Similarity in Behaviour IJ *
:> 1 r.
There exists a close relationship between different organic compounds. This is exemplified by the existence of
Q..12 Describe important sources of organic compounds
homologous series. This similarity in behaviour has reduced the study of millions of compounds to only a few .
homologous series. A
Homologous Series _ J 1
Petroleum, coal and natural gas are main sources of organic
A group of!chemical compounds which arc structurally alike and havc same chemical properties. In a homologous formed, over Iongperiod of time. from the decay of plants compounds. These are called fossil
fuels and are
series two successive members of the group differ from each other by a (- CHr-) group or amass of 14 amu. and animals.
The members of a homologous series generally have same;
.
•h
. (0 General formula “ Goal is a combustible black or brownish - black sedimentary rock usually
[ occurring in rock strata ” ’

(ii) Methods of preparation Formation of Goal 11.

(iii) Chemical ( properties
( iv ) A gradual change in physical properties
Examples: Alkanes, Alcohols, Ketones, etc.
|
|mil!ions
It is believed that coal in nature was formed .from the remains of the trees
years ago
buried inside
. Due to the bacterial and chemical reactions on wood it got converted into
high temperature and’ high pressure inside the earth crust, peat got transformed
the earth crust some 500 I
peat. Then, as a result of
..
- pit
t 111
.1

into coal. I
' ( ) Complexity of Organic Gompounds
4 . '
’
~
bacterial &. chemical ; high
Organic molecules are usually large and structurally more complex. For example, starch has the
it
form 11
.

reactions . *
temporalurc pressure pressure
, „,
( C H O05) where n may be several thousands. Proteins arc very complex molecules having molecular masses
; ranger Wood
Dead plants
Peat
high pressure
Lignite Bituminous coal . Anthracite , r5E5B
from a few thousands to a million.
* • •
and lives
1

(5) ) lsomerism L J -.
Coal is an important solid fuel and becomes a source of organic compounds when subjected fto carbonization
Isomerism is a very common phenomenon in organic compounds. Very often more than ojrie compounds ^ destructive distillation. ( or
represented by the same molecular formula. However, they have diflereni structural formulas. — — -
— — I ‘
(?

( 6) Rates of Organic Reactions

org0 . 5*?
m
1 he reactions of organic compounds are slow and iin general, the yields are low The slow rate ot the
reactions is due to the molecular nature of organic compounds. Garbonization (Destruetive Distillation) of Goal - <•

(7) Solubility 5 . “ Wlien coal ' is heated at high ' temperature (500 -1000° C) in the absence 1
Most organic compounds are insoluble in water and ..dissolve readily in nompolar organic solvents/. such * ,.coal gas and coal tar”
hcn /enc. petroleum ether, etc. - 1
ofair, it is converted- into coke

V
V

eu
 Chapter 7 (Fundamental Principles of Orpgnj NDBW
134 CHEMISTRY - XII ( Subjective) —«=
S£h5m
^
,^ "‘
oiar's
^ j 135 >

,Coke
Fractional Principal Fractions Obtained from Petroleum tc
Carbonization
Coal tar about 217 aromatic compounds
Cos!
cr destructive distillation ^
\ distillation
v
<
•1*
IE
klMS.
\
Coal gas
Natural gas - < 20 CH4-C4H1 Fuel, petrochemicals
Coal tar contains a large number nf aromatic organic compounds, which separate
oilLonfr cj:tonal *
distillation. ^ Petroleum ether 20-60 ,
CJH 2. CfrHu Solvent
Uses of Coal Ligroin. or naphtha 60- 100 ,
C lhu C7H| Solvent, raw material
*
The total coal resources of Pakistan are estimated by the geological survey of Pakistan to be 184 * billi011
tonne Gasoline -10-220 ,
C4 H o- Ci5lh mostly Motor fuel
1

Following are some uses of coal:

(i) About 80% of this coal is used to bake bricks in lime kilns.
* CcHu-CsH,
*
(ii) Some quantity is used for domestic purposes. Kerosene 175-325 CgHig CjjFbo. Heating fuel
Development of Coal in Pakistan Gas oil > 275 CjiH’g. CJSHJS Diesel and heating fuel
Conscious efforts are being made by the government to induct coal into industry by setting up coal based now Lubricating oils and greases Viscous liquids > C|SH;s Imbrication .
units. The Sind Coal Authority and the directorates of Mineral Developments of the Punjab Baluchistan and NWFP .
arc "

Para fit n M .p. 50-60 Cid lurG^Hu) Wax products

all keen to expand coal utilization in power generation lor which many incentives have been made available.
Asphalt or petroleum coke Solids Residue Roofing, paving, fuel
Mnp8 ,

reducing agent

A gaseous mixture of low boiling hydrocarbons which mainly composed of

*'

methane is called natural gas* *. Oil Refineries in Pakistan

At present four oil refineries arc in operation in our country.
Composition: Morgah near Rawalpi .
ndi It has about 1.25 million tonnes
One oil refinery known as Attock Oil Refinery' is located at
.
Major portion of the natural gas is methane Others are ethane, propane and butane A small amounPof C02 Nj . .
O

oil refining capacity,

ILS and He are also present in natural gas. ~
f

o Two oil refineries have been established at Karachi which * have about 2.13 million tonnes of oil refining capacity .
1
Formation: Mahmud Kot near Multan.
0 Pak -Arab refinery is located at
It is also formed by the decomposition of organic matter. rbons.
Q10. Write a short note on cracking of hydroca
Uses of Natural Gas -

~\ . Natural Gas is an important means ol energy especially for countries like Pakistan, which are deficient in the Gfrdl<iffg[( RVrSTviis)MPMQleuni boiling points 'ili 1
hydroca rbons having high
production of mineral oil and coal It is used: . "Thermal decomposition of higher
, which are more volatile ( low boiling) is
(i) for power generation. into variety of lower hydroca rbons
(ii) in cement and fertilizer industries. called cracking.' * iJ

(iii) as a fuel in general industries Example

(iv) for domestic .purposes A higher hydrocarbons G 1h „,
( hexade cane ) cracks accordin g to the following reaction
; .

( v) as CNG and LNG for automobile fuel . Heat

-> C7I bn + 3 CH ; = CH 2 + CH 3 - CH = CM ;
71*0 c
Piropene
. llSarie
^^ [
<
1 ic vadccanc broken, producin g smaller molecul es
. molecul es are
1bis is the process in which C - C bon
products depends on the conditio n under which the cracking
alkenes I he compoM li . ^ P -
of both alkanes and .
"Mineral oil in its refined form is called petroleum".
lakes place. PTi
11-
Formation of Petroleum Types of Cracking
<

It is thought lo have been formed by slow chemical and biochemical decomposition of Hie remains of organic

Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

;
.
matters found between the sedimentary rucks When extracted from rocks it appears like a liquid of blackish colour
.
known as crude oil It is refined to gel different petroleum fractions.

The crude petroleum is separated by fractional distillation into a number of

Q Name
fractions which
the
arc
.
-
(1)
Cracking is
Therm
Breaking
al
genera
Crackin
down .
lly

oldarge
carried
g
molecu
Nature of Product:
out in

les
the

.
hv
following - ways

heating at high
.
cmpcra u rc andlprcs surc is ,
called .
Thermal Cm

( ed hydrocnrlums
eking

such
.
as cllicne and propchc.
1 *

'
.
fractions each corresponding to a particular boiling range. obtained by
It is particularly usefulrin the production
0 u

Fractional distillation
SOGS &lgQGg of Petroleum. "1

1
^r "r
— T

' L

'
-
-
- - -
ati?
_ v<r*-
’
-
T
r“

- -- . S’ •I

.
f
- -
r '' .Lifc -
'
- V
- T/
 Chapter 7 ( Fundamental Principles of Orp.anirfk
» i'
^ m A
^ ^
Z ^cS '
^rr —
' '

m
^
•

136 9)
Cra cki ng *
Scholar’s CHEMISTRY - XIKSiibfectivrt 137
^ jT;

( 2) Ca tal yti c
hyd roc arb ons can be cra cke d at low er tem per atu re ( 500 °C ) and low er pre ssu re (2 atm ), in the .p rcs enc ! *8
Higher sili ca ( Si 02 ) and na e !
d for this pur pos e is a mix ture of alu mi (AIA Q CH3 CH3
of a suitable catalyst. A typical cata lyst use
^
Nature of Product:
Catalytic cracking produces
gasoline.
gas olin e of hig her octa ne num ber . Thi s me tho d is use d for obt ain ing bet ter quality
GH 3 ( GH 2 )C
n -octane
CH 3 -~
e
Cata yst
>,
^GHj
— c
i
CH
— CH2 — —
CH GH3“ r
'
~
-

3
( 3) Steam Cracking . , 2, 2, 4 -Trim ethy lpen tane ( Iso octa ne ) , - 11 -
hyd roc arb ons in the vap our pha se are mix ed wit h stea m , hea ted for a sho rt duration to This method ’ is usedjfor improving octane number of gasoline.
In this process, higher ^ o
about 900 °C . and coo led rap idly . - Q . What is TEL? Describe Its role as , knocklng inhibitor? Or How TEL improves octane number of gasoline Also .
•
Nature of Product:
^

give its disadvantage . J-

The process is suitable for obt aini ng low er uns atu rate d hyd roc arb ons . Q. Why there is need of cracking? Tetra ethyl lead ( TEL) •i

Meed of Cracking 1 he octane number of a poor fuel can also be improved by blending it with a small amount of additive like
. .
tetraethyl lead (TEL) Tetraethyl lead (GiHs Pb, is an efficient antiknock agent , .
CO The fra ctio
augmented by con
nal dist illa
ver
tion
ting
of
sur
pet
plu
role
s
um
sup plie
yie
s
lds
of
onl
less
y abo
des
ut
irab le
20 %
pet
gas
role um
olin e
frac
Du e
tion s
to
suc
its
h
hig
as
h dem
ker ose
and
ne
this
oil and
sup ply
gaso
is
il Disadvantages of TEL ^ If :*
into gasoline by a process called cracking. - I EL has one serious disadvantage; its combustion product , lead oxide, is reduced to metallic lead which is
(it) Besides incr eas ing the yiel d of gas olin e, crac kin g lias also pro duc ed .larg e am oun ts of use ful
,
by - pro duc
s
ts , suc h as
retardation in infant children.
-
discharged into the air through the exhaust pipe and causes air pollution. It causes blindness and mental
* .
. The se are use d for man ufa ctur ing dru gs , plas tics det erg ent , syn thet ic
ethene, propene, butene and benzene
fibres, fertilizers, wee d kill ers and imp orta nt che mic als like eth ano l , phe nol and ace ton e . » /:
ft

04 - How organic compounds are classified? Give suitable example of each type.
M. lMsM0R!sawfe(ejB:raRO.UMBS
‘The sharp metallic sou nd pro duc
, ed
combustion engine is called knocking.”
whe n low qua lity fue1
l bum s in inte rna l
’
\ '
§
^ ^
There are millions of organic compounds. It is . practically
facilitate their study organic com
, pou nds are clas sifi edi nto
not
var
pos
iou s
sibl
gro
e
ups
to stud
and
y
sub
eac
-
h
gro
ind
ups.
ivid
The
ual
y
com
may
pou
be
nd
bro
. To
adly .
: |5 -

The gasoline fraction present in petroleum is gen eral ly not of goo d qua lify. Wh en it bum s .in an aut om
ed
obi
kno
le
ckin g . classified into the following classes.
* •
! «
Thi sjpr odu ces a sha rp me tall ic sou nd call
engine, combustion can be initiated before the spark plug fire s.
0) Open chain or Acyclic compounds.
:
Knocking greatly reduces the efficiency of an engine. Closed chain or Cyclic (or ring) compounds.
-

00 *

dretgn ffiflmbjer (i) Open Chain or Acyclic Compounds

^
1

com pou nds con tain an ope n cha in of carb on atom s. The cha ins may be bra nch ed or non bra nch cd - !
“ The per cen tage of bra nch ed cha in hyd roc arb on ( Iso -
Oct ane) in gas olin e This
(straight chain
type of
). The open chain compounds arc also called alip hati c com pou nds. . • 11

frac tion of pet role um is call ed Oct ane num ber . ” •

,1

o A fue l hav ing ; high Octane number

’
Str aig ht Ch ain ( or non- bra nch ed ) Co mp oun ds
are con nec ted in seri es from one to the othe r.
f z
V com pou nds in wh ich the carb on atom s 31
(a ) is less likely to produce knocking Those orcanic -
(b ) bur ns smo oth ly imi nte rha l com bus tion eng ine
.
<
—
GH3 GH 2 — CH2 GH3 — H 2G = CH GH2 GH3
1 Butene - . !W 3
IM

o
(c) increases the efficiency of engine.
Iso -
octa ne (2 ,2 ,4- Trim ethy l pen tane ) has bee n arb itra rily giv en an octa ne num ber of 100 wh ile n hep tan e-has give n
n - Butane
‘
GH3 •
GH 2 CH
1- Butanol
— — —
2 GH 2 — OH
1
i
'

'1 _ _
an octane number zer
Improvement of Octane number
Oct ane num ber
o.

ofg aso line can be

„
imp rov ed by var
'

iou s
-

way s: Cet ane nu mb er:

Branched chain co mp
Those organic
ou
com
nd
pou
s
nds in wh ich the Car bon atom s arc
.
atta
en
,
che d
,
on
GH3
,
the s d es
—
of
CH3
e=
t
cha
. .
m . . . .

l
It is used to determine
2
Reforming
(i)
(ii) ‘
Aromatization qua lify of
V die sel
— — CH3 IS
•

(iii) Blending with TEL

the
oil.
GH3 GH CH3 GH3 C CH3 3
(iv) Ad diti on of aro ma tic com pou nds *
( BT X )
1
-
2 Methylpropene
ta
GH3 CH
2-Methyljpropane -
2,2 Dimethyl propane
*
( Iso-butane) (neo- pentane)
0 .11 Explain reforming of petroleum with the help of suitable example?
Cy clic Co mp ou nd s - .
A ns. eforrriing (ii) Closed Chain Compounds or
or nng s of atom kno vn as cyc jic or ring ^ com pou nds The se are i .!'
“ The thermal - conversion of straight chain hydrocarbons into branched chain
'> i
clo sed cha ins
These compounds contain i*
hydrocarbon in the absence of oxygen (air) and in the presence of a catalyst is of two- types;
call ed refo rmi ng” . ' • | 'A
 --
/ ' * •
QQHH - - ~
" V: - .• .
^- '
'•
— * — • ^ ^ j

Fu nd am en ta l Pr in ciples of Organic Chpmj l SchoIarVGHEIV31STR V jw

Chapter 7 (
138 ^ Examples:
^ cclivc)

or oa rb oe ye lic co m po un ds l
(a) |Homocyclic (a )
(b) [l le to ro ey cli c co m po un ds
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
H C - C- H

-c IIC
Open chain (acylic)
H -H
c
I
H bon one
^
Homocyclic Heterocyclic
Straight Chain Branched Ghain The aromuiic compounds may have a sidc
(Garbocyclic) (b) -chai[n ora functional -group attached to the ring. For example:
c-H CHO NO, J
Alicyclic Aromatic

Saturated Unsaturated Taliic.no bt'ru'jIGchycit* N,|fobun2cno 1

Non - Aromatic (c) The aromatic compounds ma \ also contain more

Aromatic

? G iv e on e ex am pl e of ea ch ty pe.l
he te ro cycl ic co m po un ds /
Q5 . Whatare homoc yc lic an d

cl ic dr (6 ar b ;6 jE vd lic ig o m to u n d s
Ans. H om oC: v , (
of on ly ca rb on ato ms, ar e ca lle d 1

th e rin g co ns is ts
l The compounds, in
‘ * wh ich
". . I
\ homocyclic or carboc yc lic co m po un ds
ca rb oc yc lic co m po un ds ar e fu rth er cl as si fie d as : , MC Q'S
Homocyc lic or ne ra l fo rm ul a of
( iiy Ar om al ic com po un ds Th e ge
(i) Alicyclic compounds . cycloalkane is a similar
I (b) Heterocyclic Compounds
(i) Alicyclic C om po un ds on , as th at of
The compounds in which the* ring consists of atoms of more than one kind arc galled;hctcxocyclic compoundsi
nt ai n a rin g of th re e or m or e ca rb ato ms
( ) Al ke ne
w hi ch co ( ) Al ka ne b
The homocyclic compounds a 1

al ic yc lic co m po un ds . . hctcrocyclcs In heterocyclic compounds generally one or more atoms of elements such as nitrogcn_(N); oxygen (O)
po un ds ar e ca lle d Al co ho l
m sulphur (S) are present.
co ( d )
and , resembling aliphatic fo rm ul a C Th . I ( c ) Al ky he
ge ne ra l
o The satura te d al ic yc lic hy dr oc ar bo ns ( cy clo al ka ne s)!ha ve th e * 6 The atom other than carbon such as. N, 0, or S, present in;the ring is called a hetero atom .
Examples: . GH,
According to Huckle
,
GH HjG CH? rule, pyridine, Furan,
/ \ Pyrrole, Thiophene etc
H,G — GH , H>C GH, ,
GH, H,G GH are non-benzenoid

,
HG
/ \GH 2 H2G GH2 - H2G — GH; ^GH^ 2
Thiophene Quinoline •
aromatic compounds.
7 Cyclopropane .
Cyoiobu’ane Cydopentane Cyclohexane
.
m ay be su bs tit ut ed by ot he r gr ou p or gr ou ps
en .pr es en t in th es e co m po un ds stions
One or more hydrog ato ms
ra l fo rm ul a C nl l2n-:j ho m oc yc lic an d he te ro cyclic organic compounds?
al icy cli c hy dr oc ar bo ns (cy clo al ke ne s) ha ve th e ge ne Q1. Differentiate between c compounds?
o The unsaturated Q 2. niffprontiatn hetween ali cy cli ca nd ar om at ic or ga ni
Examples: GH,
/ X .0..
M

H2G CH
I - I I. gr ou p? Na m e ty pi ca l fu nc tio na l gr ou ps co nt ai ni ng ox yg en J
HC=GH H,Q CH - JVhat isjneant by a functional

H,G CH 2 . PunctionaliGroup ub le bo nd or a triple bond whose

do
group or atoms or a
Cyclohexene ‘A il at om or a organic compounds is called a
1
Cyclobutene i / ec ifi c pr op er tie s to
presence imparts sp
(ii) Aromatic Compounds alternate do u _ Tunctjona,l grou p."

ca rb oc yc lic co m po un ds co nt ai n at least; one benzene ring, (six carbon atoms with three
These
single bo nd s) is ca lle d ar om at ic co m po un ds .
 S;
'
.
*

Principles of Organic ChemUt )!

Chapter 7 (Fundamental ^ .. „ilnr’s CHEMISTRY - XII (Subjective)
c i
51! 141

functional parts of molecules ,

' Ester group
L - the
They are chemically
family
Ester
group defines
functional an organic GH , G - \ OGH
•-un b;nM roup
>
I Methyl acetate
Name
0H3 CH3 - - - SI i Mercapto | THioatcohoI or Thiol Cl I -,- Cl f -SH
None
Alkane
Ethane C=N I Cyano Alky! cyanide or Alkanel G M3 C N
=
H2C = CH2 Lnitrile Methyl ' cyanide
Alkcne
Double bond Ethcnc O Nitro Nitro compounds CJ 15N62
G =e •

Alkyne HCsCH -N Nitre benzene

•

Triple bond Ethyne - ^0

AikyUhalidc CH3 - CH2 - Cl •

, chjoroj
' Halo: (fluoro Ethyl chloride . What is orbital hybridization ?: Explain Sp3, SpyantfSp modes of hybridization of carbon .
-X ( X = F, Cl, Br, l) bromo, iodo)
Q 13

CH3-CH2-OH
Alcohol or alkanol
— OH
Hydroxyl group
l Amine
I
I
Ethanol
-
CHs CHi-NHi
Although the most stable electronic configuration of a carbon atom ( having two partially filled 2 p orbitals )
.
requires it to be divalent, carbon is telraValcnt in the majority of its compounds In order to explain this apparent anamoly. |

— NH 2
Amino group

Imino group
lmine
Ethyl amine
NH
, CH2 =
Methylimine
it is assumed that an electron : from the 2s orbital is promoted to an empty 2 p, orbital, giving the electronic configuration:
Ground state electronic configuration 2 2
of carbon = Is , 2s , 2p\, 2 p \ , 2 4
1
.
f.xcited state electronic configuration of carbon = I s , 2s 2 p \, 2 p \ , 2 p ,
2 1
pu
T :
I '

•
I

^
0 = NH -
GH 3-eH 2 0- GH2 CH3- T he excited state configuration can explain the tetravalcncy of carbon but these four valencies will not be
equivalent . Orbital hybridization theory has been developed to explain the cquivalcnMetravalency of carbon.
-
According to this thcpiy the four atomic, orbitals of carbon belonging to valence shell may be mixed in ( different
ways to explain the ' bonding and shapes of molecules formed by carbon atoms.
« m. ll »

— » '

spfHyEriBizatibri
— In order to explain the bonding and shapes or molecules in which carbon irattaehed witinbur atoms, all these
lour .atornic orbitals are mixcd togclhcr to give rise to four .
ncw
1
equivalent hybrid atomic orbitals haying same shape and ,
energy. This mode of hybridization is called tetrahedral or sp hybridization .

Dnhybridized atomic orbitals of carbon

HWJ
l Which arc //
L* - ,

Foursp' hybridized atomic orbitals

ivi
ini

-
(having equal energy) and arc directed at an angle of 109.5
orbitals arc degenerate

sassr.
3
hybrid

.
All these four sp
c to give aitetrahedral/geometry . i *

«»» »bo „
aloms to form lour sigma
 •V
Methane Ethane Formation of ethene *

-.
sMtftyMaizagbn
* i

In the formation of methane the four hybrid atomic orbitals of carbon overlap separately with four 1
,

-
orhiuiK of hydrogen to - fonn four equivalent C I 1 bonds , The shape of methane is tetrahedral . All the four hydrogen atojjjj 1 he
structure of alkyncs can be
do not lie in the same plane.
2
] type one s an - one orbitals of the
explained
carbon
orbitals. I hese orbitals have a linear shape
’
by
atom
yet another mode of hybridization
mix together
called sp hybridization
to give rise to two degenerate sp hybridized
. In this'
Atomic orbitals of slightly different energy mix up ( i .c. one s and three p to give four sp hybrid (degenerat e
) with a bond angle 180°. atomic 1

[orbitals which has same energy and shape is called sp ’ hybirdizatioh . It explain the shape and bonding of the molecules
In ethane, CIIJ-CH 3, the two tetrahedrons of each carbon are joined together. Further addition of a carbon atom
with ethane will mean the attachment of another tetrahedron .
Q . From where does the energy come to excite the carbon atom?

The answer to this question is simple. Before excitation the carbon should make two covalent bond$ releasing an
adequate amount of energy. After excitation , however, it will form four covalent bonds releasing almost double thj
amount of energy. This excess energy is more than that needed to excite the carbon atom. So a tetravalent carbon atom is
* combine to generate
expected to be more stable than a divalent carbon atom . two sp orbitals

1 which are
SP BvbridizttiSn represented
In order to explain the bonding in unsaturated compounds, two more modes of hybridization have been as the set
developed .
2
The structure of alkenes can be explained by sp mode of hybridizaton . In this type one 2s and two 2p orbjtalsof '
flic two unhybridized atomic orbitals, 2 py and 2 p are
perpendicular to these sp hybridized orbitals.
carbon are mixeditogether to give three equivalent and coplanar sp hybridized orbitals.
" /y
Ethyne molecule is formed when two sp hybridized carbon ,

sp-sp overlap. The other sp orbital is utilized to form a a- bond with -

atoms join together to from a a bond by j
Is orbital_o.frhydrogenatom . 1

combine to generate Formation of a bonds Formation of k bonds Space - filling model

2
three sp hybrid orbitals
z z z Formation of ethyne
which are '
1 he two unhybridized . p orbitals on a carbon atom will overlap separately with the p orbitals of
the other carboj
2 x represented
as the set
-
ptom to give two rc-bonds both perpendicular to the a-framework of ethyne. The presence of a a and two 7rbon ds be t \veen
fwo carbon atoms is responsible for shortening the bond distance. -
; i r.

,
3ny tW SP hybrfd rbita S iS I 2 ° ThC unhybridized 2 pz orbital will
- - bond
Each sp hybrid orbital is directed from the centre of an equilateral triangle to its three comers. The
triangle
an 2Ie
thusi m Why is ethene an imp.qrtantindjjstnal chemical? *

Pomiedn °
"

° ° ‘ remain perpendicular to the

Importance of Ethene
In the formation of ethene molecule, three Ethene is used
(i ) For the manufacture ofpolythene ; a plastic material - used for making toys, cables, bags, boxes etc.

r '

bond
1C m0 unhybridized orbitals.of each carbon atom will then overlap . in a parallel feshion to fofm >
(« For artificial ripening of fruits
>
( hi) As a general anaesthetic.
( iv) For preparing mustard gas.
 .- * • c
*
' ••
cv
—
i

.
r. - ‘
<N'. . -
— ,
1
•*: ’
-> 5r >“ •_ v "r* -
vr'rr .-
'
rojan
' aa

144 Chapter 7 (Fundamental Principles of Organic a

-
: - :
2*2«try)
^VCHEWJIRV , ,.
I vi .; MsiriiiiU nitUenuI lor a large number of chemicals of industrial use such as glycols (aiuifirc
i ^ al.uie and -JOIN alcohol etc.
* ^ . )
ethyl Bonding: ^^
.
Q 14 Explain the type offends and shapes of the following molecules using hybridization approach .

(0 Ethane (H.C
CH, - Cri,, CH, CH CH
CH3) —
- , - CH,HGHO, CH3GI

Central atom - C
*'
. '
C - 1S \ 2S , 2p \ , 2 p * , 2p° , . ( Ground state)
,C = IS , 2S , 2p ‘ 2p 2p ,
* \
m t V /
( Excited state)
I 1
5
. 3
, G - 1 , Sp Sp Sp Sp
§‘ "
3
. . . ( Hybridized state)
Bonding:

(iv) Formaldehyde: H - C
i Is / vtU Central atom = c
vliAV
i 3

/
sr
••

IsJTJ
.
fcl' tfjlie

r
r
.
.
G — “
cr -bond
a - bond
Ethene (H,C = CK 2)
Central atom = G
,G = 1S , 2S\ 2p . , 2 p\
'

1
. p°.
2 (Ground state)
C - IS , 2S , 2p 2p
*
* ‘
f t • 2p \ (Excited state)
?
Hybridization: sp
* i

„C =-is , sp:. sp \ sp \ 2 p
'
. ( Hybridized state )
Bonding:
.
7 JT-> •'

1<,
-v — o rood

rt -Dond

15 / 2S t 2P
1
6G = is;,, 2S , 2p ’
Hybridization: spz
1
2
bC =is , sp, sp, 2 py , 2 pz
 .
r ~ r*"”!
'Ji
/r j

146 Chapter 7 ( Fundamental Principles of Organic ch

Scholar 's CHEMISTRY :-- XIIi(Subjective
gflfolFfl, 1
' ' );
0
Methane, Ethane, Propane Examples 147
"Two or more compounds having the same molecular formula
but different structural formulas and properties are said to be isomers and
"
gu(ane (C H,;,) -
1 2.. „
No (somers
G2H60: CH, - G CH, - "

iCHi - CHj - OH;'

the phenomenon is called isomerism ” . enlane
^ (e H )
.3
Dimethyl ether a) m. i Alkerie and cycloalkane
'

.
° The structural formula of a compound shows the arrangement of
Hexane i
I
(e«H„
-- — —
(G,H )
) 5
„ — *— _ —
0
; Ethyl alcohol _ .;
O
(ii) C H? •2
m . "
.
C H ,.,0
, Alkadiene and alkyne;cycloatkene
\ Alcohol, ether
\
!
atoms and bonds present in it.

The isomers have different physical properties.

Octane
- —
(C H,,)
(e,H ) 1
9
18.„
; :
G3H60: ;GH , GH C H
Propanaldehydg GH, 0 —
Pfopanone
QH3
( M G.HaO
M C ,Hj,0,
;Aldehyde, ketone
Acid, ester, hydroxy aldehyde and
"
!
1

^ hydroxy ketone
o
Nonane 35 1
(4) Metamerism
Ttes -< gftlsgm nism Decane (C aH ) 75. „
This type of isomerism ari
, Icosane | (C;aHj 366319 group- ariscsTJuc to the unequal
('1 ) Structural Isomerism I
^

(G H,,) » more than 4

distribution of carbon atoms on either side of
Squalane the functional
| (2’) Geometric Isomerism
])
billing Such compounds belong to
the same homologous
Tetracontanei (CA ) 625 Tril ions I due to the presence
is series
of different alkyl a
t Mru uralltlsom nism . .. -.
! c - G - S - - NH -, ^ . _ roups attachedito the same polyvalcnt
^ ^ ^
The structural isomerism arises due to the difference in the arrangement of atoms within the molecule The
Examples
GO functionalijjroup or atom.

structural isomerism can be exhibited in five different ways. These are: | C4H100: CHV- GTI-2 - O - GH,2 - GIT
l GH |V- cih;
(i) The Chain Isomerism Diethyl cthcrl IMcthyl-n-propyl ether _ _ l
This type of isomerism arises due to the difference in the nature of the carbon chain. C5H100: 0
Examples
G5Hu: GH) *
9 !
Clh Clh — ketone — GHi
— Diclhyf
i CH2 |Glir- G
O

©
J
H•GH:
2 —
( 'll.*! —
Me(hyl-n~propyIiketone
, CH? — CH — CH, — CH? j
CH,
. — C— CH, (5 ) Tautomerism
* t
— - *T *

CII, - CM - - G I T — CH, I his type oF isomerism arises

-
( n pentanc )
G I T — GH?
-
2-Methylbutanc (Iso pentane)
CH3
2, 2-Dimethylpropane;(NeOrpentane)
Examples
due to shifting of proton (H ')
-
'
from nc atom to other in, the same
' molecule

G3H6: H3 C - G H = C H 2 GH, GOOH COO

"

/ \
Propcne H;C ~ GH2
Cyclopropane
R — G - N H, R - G.- N H, *
f
H H
Ammo acid
( 2) Position Isomerism Zwitler ion
This type of isomerism arises due to the difference in the position of the same functional group.on the carbon
chain. Flic arrangement of carbon atoms remains the samc. - OH
Examples
Acetaldehyde
• H GH. e —M
CM, - CH - CH3
Vinylalcohol
G3H7CI:
C H, - C M: - C M:- C l
Cl

^
(pl. Srtrans ispmerismjGeometric
I Chloropropane
2 Gliloropropane Isomerism)
“ Those compounds which possess the same structural formula, but differ with respect
to the posititms of the1
Cl I, - Cl I: - CM = CIT
identical groups in space arc called cis- trans isonjers and the phenomenon is knownl1 as
-
G4H 8: CM, - CH - CH - CH. , isomerism /’ thecis tians or geometric
Butene 2 - Butene Two carbon atoms joined by a single bond are capable of free rotation about it. However,
1 are joined by adouble bond, they cannobrotate freely. As a rcsuli the relative positions. whenitwo carbon atoms
of the various. groups attached tol
-
'
lIlcse carbon atoms get fixed and gives rise to cis- trans isomers,
(3) Functional Group Isomerism _ .j
Necessary. Conditions
The necessary and sufficient condition for a compound to exhibit geometric isomerism is that the
functional groups are said to exhibit * funct
The compounds having the same molecular formula but different two groups
group isomerism . — — — — — — — — 1
Cachedito the same carbonjnust .be different.
 hr,> UJ
1

rf "
J J
SI
L ,
-
, •

148
* P.hapter 7 (Fundamental Principles of Organic Chemistry
) IScholar \s CHEMISTRY - XUf(Subjcctivc)
i
149
, the Iwo nuclei which cau
ses hindrance in the
Examples iuloublejxmd, _ movement of attached groups. Therefore, there .
iis no rotation around
QHg:
H C.
\

/
c = c\
/
CH H

CH
w
/ H
CH
71 — bond
H
H
-
Trans-2 Buif ne -
H

CSH10:
CH - CH

H
\
C = C,
/
/

\
H
CH

.
H e - CH;
H
\
/
C = C
CH
/
\
H MGQ' s |
m1s i •
" '
• . AG««bond
m H

Ci*, 2 Pur WH --
Trans 2 Penteno
Iwhichof the following will
show geometrical isomerism?! r
Q.6 Write the structural formulas of
the two possible isomers of C HK,.1
CH. ,
( a ) G HsBr
C3 HaBrCI: Bl\
\
c = C
/
C1 Br
\/ = C
\
| ( b ) GHj(GG
,
OH),
,
1 GH3 GH? GHJ — GH 3 (ii) GH} — GH — GH 3
^
/ \ ( c) (CH) (GOOH) |
CH H Cl GH3
H Trans I (d)_G,HG n-Butane

1
Cis
- -
i Bromo-2 chlororpopene
^ iso-butane

the sam e sid e of the do ub le bon d .

In the eis- form. the similar lie
gro ups on
p

gro lie on the opp osi te sid es of the do ub le bon d. 1

KE Y PO IN TS
«> In the tran s - form , the sim ilar ups
join ed by a dou ble bo nd cou ld hap pen onl y if the n, bon d bre aks. 1
* : .
car bon atom
t he rotation of two s
ene rgy ma kin g ge om etr ic iso me rs po ssi ble. i .
1 | hemical compounds were classilied as organi
(
This ordinarily costs too much c and inorganic compounds based upon their origin. Organic
,

iso me ris m ? Or 2- But ene doe s sho w cis rtra ns compounds are obtained from living things were as inorganic
rot ati on nec ess ary to sho w the ge om etr ica l i compounds are obtained from mineral sources,
Q. Wh y is res tric ted 7. h was thought that organic compounds could nol be syn
' thesized t in the laboratory' from inorganic sources.
isomerism but 1-But ene doe s not . Giv e rea so n? ; 3 . iQrganie chemistry is now-a-days defined as the chemistry of car
bon compounds .
Necessary Conditions
suf con diti on for a , ' c om pou nd to exhibit geometric iso me rism] is tha t the two - groups Most of the commercially important compounds we use everyday arc organic
.
ICoal petroleum and natural gas are important sources of organic compounds
in nature
.
.
The necessary and ficient . The process of cracking is developed to increase the yield of lower hydrocarbons wh - . •

sam e car bon mu st be diff ere nt ] ich serve as important fuels

attached jo ihe commercially.
®\ A ©\ G =
'

= G
/
H
7 . (Organic compounds arc classified into acyclic and cyclic compounds.

a 7 \ 8. The study of organic chemistry is organized around functional groups Each functional group def .
ines an organic
CM) - GH GH
-
Cis 2-Butone -
Trans-2 Butenfi
® 9 . •
family. . ’
The type of bonding and the shapes* of different- type of compoundsformed by carbon can be cxplained bv sp : J
. . ' \ sp |
H.G=CH-GH -GH.
H,G— GH=GH GH — '

land sp modes of hybridization .

1-Bulene

sho w tha t in i-But ene dou bly bo nd ed car

2-Butene
bon atom con tain s two sim ilar atom s att ac he d to 1 10 .
four different type of structural isomers.
-
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are called isomers. There are
I he above structures
iso me ris m Qn lhc oth er han d 2 . cis-
-Butanc docs show transjsonjgnsim^ i
11. Isomerism arises due to restricted rotation around a.carbon-carhon double bond is called cis-trans isomerism.
one side so una ble to sho w geo me tric cis-
aro un d a sin gle bo nd? Dis cus s
do ub le bo nd and a free rot atio n
. Why there is no free rotation around a
Q 15
trans isomerism. SOLVED OBJECTIVE EXERCISE
TOT Whenever two carbon atoms com
formed by the linear overlap of sp
bin
’
e
orb
wit
ital
h
s
eac
of
h
two
oth er
car
by
bon
car
a
a
sig
tom
'

bon
ma
s.
are cap abl e of free rot atio n
- - I g S iS S S ii ii Qi . Fill in the blanks.
( i) Organic compounds having, same molecular formula but different are called isomers .
the nu cle i and the gro ups atta che d to ea ch issp\
between two
1_s VI ( ii ) .
Ihe stale of hybridization of carbon atom in
Jiii) Alkenesshow due to res tric ted rota tion aro und -
a carbon carbon double bound '
com the abs enc e of oxy gen and m the pre sen ce the cata lvst
( iv ) 11eating an org
called cracking
ani c pou nd ^ as a is

ch ara cte ris tic pro per ties to an organic compound ' is called
( v) A group oFatoms which confers
of !-butene.
- 4 -*
rn ( vi) 2-Bulenc is
is pre sen t in bot h ) and
•
ket one s.
( vii ) Carbonvl fun ctio na l gro up
oth er than in its ring.
Tb '

— — — — a -

bo nd. A u mii) A heterocyclic compound contains an atom

hyb rid iza tion is sp . A dou ble : bond con tain a sig ma !
anc a pi
While in dou ble Bo nd the stal e iotnin *

elect ronjJe11sily is bet wee n the two nuc lei wh ile the n ele ctro n den sity is for me d abo ve & be low the
^

' mpT -
•
A
yjr”

*
-~
r
•t 2i .
14 • .
« *
* v /1
— i Is*M f

150 Chapter 7 (Fundamental Principles of Organic Che c

" LTVT-
Scholar’s CHEMiSTRV _ / '
( ix)
(x)
Answer Key .
The quality of gasoline can be checked bv finding out ilsl
| A carboxylic acid contains as a functional group. ^ ^
Solved Exercise VICQs
(Su ctivc)
151

Structural formula . ( ii ). Ethcnc

(iii ) Geometric isomerism ( iv ) | SiQ ? T AI 2Q3
i< ) (a ). sp:
. ( v) Functional group (vi ) Positional isomer Antral
( vii ) Aldehydes : ( viii ) Carbon
( ii )
( iii )
( cl ) no hydro
( e ) sp‘
aP » atom - . Tertian gjgfiis attached with four Hratoms.
atom "

1 ' carboniis attached

with no Hratorn.
( ix) Octane number (x) -G0OH (iv ) - (c ) Wohler ^ LAngle b/sv each.
orbitafis ;
.
.
120°.
( v) 00 sp i . . He was a German .

Q2 . Indicate True or false.

(i) There are three possible isoniersiforpentane.
( vi ) d> ) one sigma and one
T
Ri bond TIn a - bond,
AW
m.J s p
scientist
___ who
——
. rejected vital force
: theory.!

( ii ) Alkynes do not show the phenomenon of cis lrans isomerism . - ( Vii ) ( c) . metamerism
electronic
, Jt lies.above and
density lies on the i ntemuclcar axis and
' below internuclcar axis. ' i 71 - bond,
In “ “ "

( iii ) Organic compounds cannot be synthesized from inorganic compounds. CH3 - Cl h - Q - CH; ;
( iv.) -
All closed chain compounds arc aromatic in nature.
( viii ) 1» ) CH:-eil ,- OH - CH3.; CM3 - CHz - OB2 IQ
Alcohol ' has - Ql hgroup.as functional
.
- CITvare metamers, _ _ i
(v ) The functional group present in amides is called an amino group. group _ _ _\
,

( vi ) Government of Pakistan is trying to use coal '. for power generation . -J.
0
( vii ) Crude petroleum is subjected to fractional sublimation in order to separate it into different fractions, 0.0 0
H o w Goal was formed?
( viii ) A bond between carbon and hydrogen serves as a functional group for alkanes. Give its
What is meant by functional importance.
'
( ix ) o- Nitrololuene and p- nitrotoluene arc the examples of functional group isomerism . Why there is no free group and functional group isomerism?
(x ) -
Almost allithe chemical reactions taking place in our body arc inorganic in nature. - rotation
Name the Fractions which around a double bond and a free rotation
are obtained'by -
around a single bond?'
Fractional distillation of Petroleum -
Answer Key. What is cracking of petroleum
1-butene does not show ? Why do we need cracking
of petroleum?
.
geometrical isomerism
What is Metamarism? Give but 2-butene exhibitg
jWhat are Homocyclic and one example. eometricaMsomerism. Why?
;What are alicyclic compoundsHeterocyclic compounds? Give one
? Give two examples.
,
example of each.
10. IWhich organic compound was first
Q 3.
0)
Multiple Ghoicc Questions. Encircle the correct answer.
The state of hybridization of carbon ntonuin methane is:
11
12.
'How
octane numbers of gasoline
of all prepared in the
can be improved
-
laboratory
by reforming?
?
'What is Octane number?
1

'' :
(a ) sp -
( b) sp (c) sp ( d ) dsp
"
13. Why is restHcted' rotation
( ii ) In t- butyl alcohol , the tertiary carbon is bonded to :
(a )! two hydrogen atoms
-
( b) three hydrogen atoms
necessary to show the geometrical
isomerism?
(c) one hydrogen atom (d ) no hydrogen atom
( Hi )
( b) sp
-
Which set ofihybfidiorbitals has . planar triangular shape?
(a ) sp-' (c) sp ’ (d) dsp 2

( iv ) The chemistiwho synthesized urea fronuammonium cyanate was:

(a ) ' Berzclius ( b ) Kolbc (c) Wohler ( d ) Lavoisier
( v) Linear shape is assoeiated with which set ofihybrid orbitals?
2
-
(a ) sp (b) sp (c) spJ (d ) dsp 2

( vi ) A double bond consists of:

( a ) two sigma bonds (b) one sigma and one pi bond

( vii )
(c ) one sigma and Two pi bonds
Ethers show the phenomenon of:
- -
( d ) two prbonds

(a) , position iisomersim ( b ) functional group isomerism

(c);metamerism (d ) cis-trans isomerism
(VIII) Select from the following the one which
'
is alcohol
1 -
* ' ''
(a) GH3-GH2-OH ( b ) CH ?-0- CH3
1 , ( c ) CH 3COOH -
(d ) eH3 CH,- Br

-
is

-. »