18 Scheme Revised Notes PDF

Geetha Shishu Shikshana Sangha(R)
GSSS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Government of Karnataka)
K.R.S. Road, Metagalli, Mysuru – 570 016, Karnataka, INDIA
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE
ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & MECHANICS

[18CIV14/24]
I/II Semester
Prepared by
Civil Staff
Institution Vision and Mission
Vision:-
"To become a recognized world class Women Educational Institution, by imparting
professional education to the students, creating technical opportunities through academic
excellence and technical achievements, with ethical values"
Mission:-
 To support value based education with state of art infrastructure.
 To empower women with the additional skill for professional future carrier.
 To enrich students with research blends in order to fulfill the International challenges.
 To create multidisciplinary center of excellence.
 To achieve Accreditation standards towards international education recognition.
 To establish more Post Graduate & Research course.
 To increase Doctorates numbers towards the Research quality of academics.
Department Of Engineering Science (Civil)
Vision & Mission
Vision
To create quality engineers with the knowledge of Mechanical and civil

Engineering, this helps them to understand concepts in this area to develop creative
ideas in technological advances.
Mission
 To inspire and develop innovative and pragmatic problem solving skills
 To encourage students to achieve superior proficiency
 To promote research & development activities and entrepreneurial qualities
 To endorse holistic personality development

ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS
[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
(Effective from the academic year 2018 -2019)
SEMESTER I/II CIE Marks 40
Course Code 18CIV14/24

SEE Marks 60
Teaching Hours/week 2:2:0

Exam Hours 03
(L:T:P)
CREDITS - 03
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of this course are:
 To make students to learn Scope of various fields of Civil Engineering, basics of civil
engineering concepts and importance of infrastructure development.
 To develop a student’s ability to analyze the problems involving Forces and Moments
with their applications, Centroid and Moment of inertia and Kinetics of bodies.
Particulars RBT
Level
Module 1: Introduction to Civil Engineering &Engineering
Mechanics
Introduction to Civil Engineering
Scope of different fields of Civil Engineering - Surveying, Building
Materials, Construction Technology, Geotechnical Engineering,
Structural Engineering, Hydraulics, WaterResources and Irrigation
Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering.
Infrastructure: Types of infrastructure, Role of Civil Engineer in
theInfrastructural Development, Effect of the infrastructural facilities
onsocio-economic development of a country.
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics:
Basic concepts of idealization- Particle, Continuum and Rigid Body; Force;
Systems of Forces; Basic Principles — Physical Independence of forces,
Superposition, Transmissibility, Newton’s Laws of Motion, Resolution and
Composition of forces, Law of parallelogram of forces, Polygonal law,
Resultant of Concurrent coplanar force systems, Coplanar Non Concurrent
Force System: Moment of a Forces, couple, Varignon’s theorem, Resultant of
Coplanar non-concurrent force system.
Module 2:
Equilibrium of Forces: Free body diagrams, Lami’s theorem, Equations of
Equilibrium, equilibrium of concurrent and non concurrent coplanar force systems.
Friction: Types of friction, Laws of dry Friction, Limiting friction, Concept of Static
and Dynamic Friction; Numerical problems on motion of single and connected
bodies on planes, wedge friction, ladder friction, rope and Pulley systems.
Module - 3
Support Reactions: Types of Loads and Supports, statically determinate and

indeterminate beams, Support Reaction in beams, Numerical problems on support
reactions for statically determinate beams ( Point load, uniformly distributed &
uniformly varying loads and Moments)
Analysis of Simple trusses: Types of trusses, Analysis of statically determinate

trusses using method of joints and method of sections.
Module 4
Centroid: Centroid of simple figures from first principle, Centroid of

composite/built-up sections;
Moment of Inertia: Introduction, second moment of area of plane sections

from first principles, Parallel axes and perpendicular axes Theorems, Radius
of gyration, Moment of inertia of composite area and built-up sections.
Concept of Product of Inertia(No Problems)
Module 5
Kinematics: Definitions, Displacement, Average velocity, Instantaneous

velocity, Speed, Acceleration, Average acceleration, Variable acceleration,
Acceleration due to gravity, Newton’s Laws of Motion. Rectilinear Motion—
Numerical problems. Curvilinear Motion-Super elevation, Projectile Motion,
Relative motion, Numerical problems. Motion under gravity, Numerical
problems,
Kinetics: D’Alembert’s principle and its applications in plane motion and
connected bodies including pulleys
Course outcomes: After a successful completion of the course, the student will
be able to:
1. Mention the applications of various fields of Civil Engineering.
2. Compute the resultant of given force system subjected to various loads.
3. | Comprehend the action of Forces, Moments and other loads on systems of rigid bodies and
compute the reactive forces that develop as a result of the external loads.
4. Locate the Centroid and compute the Moment of Inertia of regular and built-up sections.
5. Express the relationship between the motion of bodies and analyze the bodies in motion.
Question paper pattern:
Question paper pattern:

 The SEE question paper will be set for 100 marks and the marks scored will be
proportionately reduced to 60.
 The question paper will have ten full questions carrying equal marks.
 Each full question consisting of 20 marks.
 There will be two full questions (with a maximum of three sub questions) from
each module.
 Each full question will have sub question covering all the topics under a module.
 The students will have to answer five full questions, selecting one full question
from each module.
TEXT BOOKS
 R. C. Hibbler, Engineering Mechanics: Principles of Statics and Dynamics, Pearson Press.
 Bansal R.K., AText Book of Engineering Mechanics, Laxmi Publications.
REFERENCES
 Andy Ruina and Rudra Pratap , Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.
 Reddy Vijaykumar K. and K. Suresh Kumar, Singer’s Engineering Mechanics.
 EF. P. Beer and E. R. Johnston, Mechanics for Engineers, Statics and Dynamics, McGraw Hill.
 Irving H. Shames, Engineering Mechanics, Prentice Hall.

Elements Of Civil Engineering & Mechanics
MODULE-1
Introduction to Civil Engineering and Introduction to Engineering
Mechanics
Introduction to Civil Engineering
Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical

applications, where the materials & forces in nature are effectively used for the benefit of mankind.
An Engineer is a person who plays a key role in such activities.
Civil Engineering: It is the oldest branch of professional engineering, where the civil engineers are
concerned with projects for the public or civilians.
The role of civil engineers is seen in every walk of life or infrastructure development activity such
as follows:-
1. Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise apartments.
2. Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
3. Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
4. Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
5. Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal
techniques.
6. Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
7. Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbour & airports.
8. Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
9. Tunneling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce distance.
As seen above, civil engineering is a very broad discipline that incorporates many activates in
various fields. However, civil engineers specialize themselves in one field of civil engineering.
The different fields of civil engineering and the scope of each can be briefly discussed as follows.
Department Of Engineering Science (Civil) Page 1

1. Surveying: It is a science and art of determining the relative position of points on the
earth’s surface by measuring distances, directions and vertical heights directly or indirectly.

Surveying helps in preparing maps and plans, which help in project implementation. (setting out the
alignment for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or airport or harbour)
The cost of the project can also be estimated before implementing the project. Now-a-days, using
data from remote sensing satellites is helping to prepare maps & plans & thus cut down the cost of
surveying.
2. Geo-Technical Engineering (Soil Mechanics): Any building, bridge, dam, retaining wall
etc. consist of components like foundations. The foundation is laid from a certain depth
below the ground surface till a hard layer is reached. The soil should be thoroughly
checked for its suitability for construction purposes. The study dealing with the properties
& behaviour of soil under loads & changes in environmental conditions is called geo-
technical engineering. The knowledge of the geology of an area is also very much
necessary.
3. Structural Engineering: A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like

foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected to forces.
It becomes important to determine the magnitude & direction the nature of the forces and
acting all the time. Depending upon the materials available or that can be used for
construction, the components or the parts of the building should be safely & economically
designed. A structured engineer is involved in such designing activity. The use of
computers in designing the members, is reducing the time and also to maintain accuracy.
4. Transportation Engineering: The transport system includes roadways, railways, air &
waterways. Here the role of civil engineers is to construct facilities related to each one.
Sometimes crucial sections of railways & roads should be improved. Roads to remote
places should be developed. Ports & harbours should be designed to accommodate, all sizes
of vehicles. For an airport, the runway & other facilities such as taxiways, terminal
buildings, control towers etc. should be properly designed.
5. Irrigation & Water resources engineering (Hydraulics Engineering): Irrigation is the

process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields for raising crops. Since

rainfall in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water flowing in a river can be

stored by constructing dams and diverting the water into the canals & conveyed to the
agricultural fields. Apart from dams & canals other associated structures like canals
regulators, aqua ducts, weirs, barrages etc. are also necessary. Hydro electric power
generation facilities are also included under this aspect.
6. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (Environmental Engineering): People in

every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water & ground
water) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water should be purified
and then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc.
should be designed. If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city, suitable
pipelines for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed. In a town or city, a
part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be systematically
collected and then disposed into the natural environment after providing suitable treatment.
The solid waster that is generated in a town or locality should be systematically collected
and disposed off suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that
any material can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.
7. Building Materials & Construction Technology: Any engineering structure requires a

wide range of materials known as building materials. The choice of the materials is wide &
open. It becomes important for any construction engineer to be well versed with the
properties & applications of the different materials. Any construction project involves many
activities and also required many materials, manpower, machinery & money. The different
activities should be planned properly; the manpower, materials & machinery should be
optimally utilized, so that the construction is completed in time and in an economical
manner. In case of large construction projects management techniques of preparing bar
charts & network diagrams, help in completing the project orderly in time.
Effects of Infrastructure development on the Socio-economic development of a country:

The term infrastructure is widely used to denote the facilities available for the soci-economic
development of a region. The infrastructure facilities to be provided for the public include:

1. Transport facilities
2. Drinking water and sanitation facilities
3. Irrigation facilities
4. Power generation & transmission facilities
5. Education facilities
6. Health care facilities
7. Housing facilities
8. Recreation facilities
The well being of a nation is dependent on the quality & the quantity of the above services that are
provided to the public. Development of infrastructure has number of good effects which can be
listed as follows.
1. It is a basic necessity for any country or state.

2. It forms a part of business, research & education.
3. It improved health care & Cultural activities.
4. It provided housing & means of communication to people.
5. It provided direct employment to many number of skilled, semiskilled & unskilled laborers.
6. It leads to the growth of associated industries like cement, steel, glass, timber, plastics,
paints, electrical goods etc.
7. It helps in increasing food production & protection from famine.
8. Exporting agricultural goods can fetch foreign currency.
Some ill effects of infrastructure development can also be listed as follows:

1. Exploitation of natural resources can lead to environmental disasters.
2. Migration of people from villages to towns & cities in search of job takes place.
3. Slums are created in cities.
4. It becomes a huge financial burden on the government and tax prayers.

Introduction to Engineering Mechanics

Engineering Mechanics
It is a branch of applied sciences that describes and predicts the state of rest or of uniform
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Engineering Mechanics deals with the application of principles of mechanics and different laws
in a systematic manner.
Engineering Mechanics
Mechanics of Solids Mechanics of Fluids
Mechanics of Rigid bodies Mechanics of Deformable bodies
Statics Dynamics
Concepts of: Physical quantity, Scalar quantity, and Vector quantity
Particle: A particle is a body of infinitely small volume and the entire mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated at a point.
Rigid body: It is one, which does not alter its shape, or size or the distance between any two
points on the body does not change on the application of external forces.
Deformable body: It is one, which alters its shape, or size or the distance between any two
points on the body changes on the application of external forces.

. .
F A B F
In the above example, the body considered is rigid as long as the distance between the points
A and B remains the same before and after application of forces, or else it is considered as a
deformable body.
Force: According to Newton‘s I law, force is defined as an action or agent, which changes or
tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in a straight line.
Units of force: The gravitational (MKS) unit of force is the kilogram force and is denoted as
‗kgf‘. The absolute (SI) unit of force is the Newton and is denoted as ‗N‘.
Note: 1 kgf = ‗g‘ N (But g = 9.81m/s2) Therefore 1 kgf = 9.81 N or 10 N.
Characteristics of a force
These are ones, which help in understanding a force completely, representing a force and also
distinguishing one force from one another.
A force is a vector quantity. It has four important characteristics, which can be listed as
follows.
1) Magnitude: It can be denoted as 10 kgf or 100 N.
2) Point of application: It indicates the point on the body on which the force acts.
3) Line of action: The arrowhead placed on the line representing the direction represents it.
4) Direction: It is represented by a co-ordinate or cardinal system.
Ex.1: Consider a body being pushed by a force of 10 N as shown in figure below.
Line of action Body
A
B
10 N

The characteristics of the force acting on the body are

1) Magnitude is 10 N.
2) Point of application is A.
3) Line of action is A to B or AB.
4) Direction is horizontally to right.
Ex.2: Consider a ladder AB resting on a floor and leaning against a wall, on which a person
weighing 750 N stands on the ladder at a point C on the ladder.
The characteristics of the force acting on the ladder are

1) Magnitude is 750 N.
2) Point of application is C.
3) Line of action is C to D or CD.
4) Direction is vertically downward.
Idealization or assumptions in Mechanics: In applying the principles of mechanics to

practical problems, a number of ideal conditions are assumed. They are as follows.
1) A body consists of continuous distribution of matter.
2) The body considered is perfectly rigid.
3) A particle has mass but not size.
4) A force acts through a very small point.
Classification of force systems: Depending upon their relative positions, points of applications
and lines of actions, the different force systems can be classified as follows.

1. Coplanar force system:
F1
F2
F3
If the lines of action of forces forming the system lie in the same plane, then the system is
said to be coplanar.
2. Non-coplanar forces:
F1
F2
F4 F 6 F3
F5
If the lines of action of forces forming the system do not lie in the same plane then the system
is said to be non-coplanar.
Note: Our study is restricted to coplanar forces.
3. Collinear force system:

F1 F2 F3
A B C
If the forces forming the system have common line of action then the system is said to be
collinear.
4. Concurrent force system:
x x
D A
F4
F1
0
F2
B
C
F1 F2
F3 F3
F2
F4 O O
F3
F4 F1
If the line of action of forces forming the system pass through a common point (point of
concurrence) then the system is said to be concurrent.
5. Non-concurrent force system:
F1
F4
F2
F3
If the lines of action of forces forming the system do not pass through a common point, then
the system is said to be non-concurrent.
6. Parallel force system:
F2 F4
F1 F2 F3 F4 F1 F3
Like Unlike
It is a particular case of non-concurrent force system in which the line of action of forces forming the
system are parallel.
RESOLUTION OF A FORCE
Y
Y Displacement
X
F X Displacement

The force F is producing, simultaneous x displacement and y-displacement. The part of

the force F which is producing x displacement is called x component or horizontal component of
the force F (Fx). The part of the force F which produces y – displacement is called y component
of the force or vertical component of force F (Fy).
The technique of finding a component of a force along any direction is called resolution
of force. The component of a force along any direction is called the resolved component. The
components of a force determined along two mutually perpendicular direction are called
rectangular components.
To resolve a force along any direction

Y
A2 A
Fy F
θ
FX A1 X
OA represents the force F both in magnitude and direction ‘’ is the acute angle mode by
the force w.r.t. x direction.
We have,
OA1
Cos  
OA
Fx
Cos  
F
Fx  F Cos  (€)
AA1
Sin  
OA
AA 2
Sin  
OA

Fy
Sin  
F
Fy  F Sin  (€)

X component of a force is given by the product of magnitude of the force and cosine of
acute angle made by the force w.r.t. x-direction.
Y component of a force is given by the product of magnitude of the force and sine of
acute angle made by the force w.r.t. x-direction.
Note:
1. Sign convention for the direction of components.
+ -
2.  = 0
Fx  F Cos O
=F
Fy  F Sin O
=O
The horizontal component or ‘X’ component of a force acting along x direction is the force
itself. Whereas, its vertical component or y-component is zero.
3. Fx  F Cos 90
=O
Fy  F Sin 90
=F
‘x’ component of a force acting along Y direction is zero. Whereas, its ‘y’ component is
equal to itself.

4. If a force is inclined at 45o w.r.t. x axis or y axis then its x component will be equal to y
component (Fx = Fy).
Problems
1. Find X and Y components of forces in the following cases. a)
100 kN
Fx = + 100 Cos 30
= + 86 . 60 kN
30o
= 86 . 60 kN (€)
Fy = + 100 Sin 30
= + 50 . 00 kN
= 50 . 00 kN ($)
b) 20 kN
Fx = + 20 Cos 70 30o
= + 6 . 840 kN
= 6 . 840 kN (€)
Fy = + 20 Sin 70
= + 18 . 79 kN
= 18 . 79 kN ($)
c)
Method-I 4
3 3
tan  
4
  36.87o 200 N
Fx = - 200 Cos 36.87o

= – 160 N
= 160 N ()

Fy = - 200 Cos 36.87o

= – 120 N
= 120 N (†)
Method-II
4
Cos    0.8
5
3
Sin    0.6
5
Fx = - 200 Cos 
= – 200 x 0.8
= – 160 N
= 160 N ()
Fy = – 200 Sin 
= – 200 x 0.6
= – 120 N
= 120 N (†)
RESULTANT FORCE OF A SYSTEM OF FORCES
α
F1
F2
F3
F4 α
The resultant of a system of forces is a single calculated force which is capable of

producing the same effect as that of system of forces on the body. It is the vector sum of forces
of the system.

COMPOSITION OF FORCES
The technique of finding the resultant of forces is called composition of forces.
MOMENT OF A FORCE
It is the capacity of a force to produce rotator motion. In other words moment of a force is
its rotating capacity.
A F F A
Moment of F about A Moment of F about A in

clockwise anticlockwise
Based on the direction of rotation produced moment of a force can be classified
into
a) Clockwise moment
b) Anticlockwise moment / counter clockwise moment.

Calculation of Moment of a Force about a Point

Moment of a force about any point is given by the product of magnitude of force and
perpendicular distance between the line of action of a force and the point about which moment is
considered.
MA = FL
Unit: Nm
F
Sign Convention for Moment of a Force

Clockwise moment positive and anticlockwise moment negative.
1) Find moment of force ‘F’ about ‘A’ in the following cases. a)
F = 10 kN
A
X
2m
b)
F = 10 kN
X
A 2m
c)
3m
X
A
F = 20 kN

d)
2m
A 50 kN
2) Find moment of the force about A and B in the following a)
X
A 2m
X
4m B
F = 10 kN
b)
B F
=
3m
2
0
k
N
A
4m
Fundamental Laws in Mechanics
Following are considered as the fundamental laws in

Mechanics.
1) Newton‘s I law
2) Newton‘s II law
3) Newton‘s III law
Department Of Civil Engineering Page 33

1) Newton’s I law: It states, ―Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to do so by force acting on it.‖
This law helps in defining a force.
2) Newton’s II law: It states, ―The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional

to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the impressed force.‖
This law helps in defining a unit force as one which produces a unit acceleration in a body
of unit mass, thus deriving the relationship F = m . a
3) Newton’s III law: It states, ―For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.‖
The significance of this law can be understood from the following figure.
Consider a body weighing W resting on a plane. The body exerts a force W on the plane
and in turn the plane exerts an equal and opposite reaction on the body.
Principle physical independence of forces, Principle

of superposition of forces & Principle of
transmissibility of forces
1. Principle physical independence of forces:
M
F1 a1
M
F1 a2
M
F2 F1 a1, a2
M
F1 F2 a1, a2

Action of forces on bodies are independent, in other words

the action of forces on a body is not influenced by the
action of any other force on the body.
2. Principle of superposition of forces:
M
F1 a1
M
F1 a2
M
F2 F1 (a1+a2)
M
F1 F2 (a2+a1)
Net effect of forces applied in any sequence on a body is given by the algebraic sum of
effect of individual forces on the body.
3. Principle of transmissibility of forces:
The point of application of a force on a rigid body can be changed along the same line of
action maintaining the same magnitude and direction without affecting the effect of the force
on the body.
Limitation of principle of transmissibility: Principle of transmissibility can be used only
for rigid bodies and cannot be used for deformable bodies.
4. Assumptions made in Engineering Mechanics
i) All bodies are rigid.
ii) Particle concept can be used wherever applicable.
iii) Principle of physical independence of forces is valid.
iv) Principle of superposition of forces is valid.
v) Principle of transmissibility of forces is valid.

Moment of a force:
The turning effect of a force is known as the moment. It is the product of
the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to
the pivot or point where the object will turn.
Moment of force= Force X perpendicular dstance
Couple:
A couple is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude, oppositely directed, and displaced by
perpendicular distance or moment. The simplest kind of couple consists of two equal and
opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide.
Moment of a Couple
Two couples will have equal moments if The two couples lie in
parallel planes
F1d1 =F2d2
The two couples have the same sense or the tendency to cause
rotation in the same direction.
Characteristics Of Couple:
The main characteristics of couple
1. The algebraic sum of the forces, having the couple, is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of moment of the forces, constituting couple, about any point is the
same, and equal to the moment of couple itself.
3. A couple can't be balanced by a single force, but can be balanced only by a couple, however
of opposite sense.

4. Any number of coplanar couples can be reduced to single couple, whose magnitude will be equal to algebraic
sum of moments of all the couples.
Moving a force along its line of action:
Moving a force along its line of action results in a new force system which is equivalent to the original force system.
Composition of coplanar and non coplanar force system

COMPOSITION OF FORCES: The reduction of a given system of forces to the
simplest system that will be its equivalent is called the problem of composition of
forces.
• RESULTANT FORCE: It is possible to find a single force which will have
the same effect as that of a number of forces acting on a body. Such a single
force is called resultant force.
• The process of finding out the resultant force is called composition of forces.
COMPOSITION OF CO-PLANAR CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM
COMPOSITION OF TWO FORCES: It is possible to reduce a given system of

forces i.e., two forces to the simplest system as its equivalent (resultant force) with
the help of parallelogram law of forces.
• LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES:
If two forces, which act at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from one of its angular points, their
resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that
angular point, in magnitude and direction.
C
O A
F1  F 22  2 F1 F 2 cos 
R  2
Department Of Engineering Science (Civil) Page68

PROOF:
B C
α
O
D
A
Consider two forces F1 and F2 acting at point O as shown in figure.

Let α be the angle between the two forces.
Complete the parallelogram ACBO .Drop perpendicular CD to OA
produced. Let R be the resultant force of forces and
.Let  be the inclination of the resultant force with theline of
action of the force.
From triangle OCD,
2 2 2
OC  OD  CD
2 2 2
OC  (OA AD)  CD
OA  F1, AD  F2 cos , CD  F2 sin  , OC  R
2 2 2
R  (FF2cos )  (Fsin  ) 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
R  F  2F F cos  F cos   F sin 
1 1 2 2 2
2 2 2
R  F  2F F cos  F
F1  F2  2F1F2 cos
2 2

R 

tan1 1 2 2
CD

OD
tan
F2 sin

F1  F2 cos
 F sin 
1 
  tan  2 
 F1  F2 cos 
IF  0 F2 R
 90 ,R 
F1  F2
F1
IF  0
 0 ,R  F F
1 2
IF  0 F F F1 F2
180 ,R  1 2




F1 F2

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES:

If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides of a triangle
taken in order, their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle taken in
the opposite order.
F2
R
F2
O O
F1 F1
• POLYGON LAW OF FORCES:
If a number of concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body ,are
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in order ,
then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of
the polygon, taken in opposite order.
D F4
F3
F3 R2
O
R1
F2
F1
R F1 F2
COMPOSITON OF FORCES BY

RESOLUTION(Principle of resolved parts)
• The components of each force in the system in two mutually perpendicular

directions are found.
• Then, the components in each direction are algebraically added to obtain the
two components.
• These two component forces which are mutually perpendicular are combined
to obtain the resultant force.
F
F
Algebraic sum of the components of forces in X direction
∑ Fx  F1 cos1  F2 cos2  F3 cos3  F4 cos

4Algebraic
sum of the components of forces in Y f direction
∑ Fy F1 sin1 F2 sin2  F3 sin3 F4 sin4
Now the system of forces is equal to two mutually perpendicular forces ,∑

FX & ∑FY
R ∑ F  ∑ FY
2 2
X
 1 F ∑ Y

ta n 

∑FX 

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces of
magnitude 12 N and 9 N acting at a point ,if the angle between the two forces is
GIVEN:
F1  F2    300
12N 9N
R  F1 2 F 2 2 2F F1 cos
2 

R  122  92  2 12  9 cos 300
R  20.3N
  tan1 F sin  


2

 F1  F2 cos 
 9sin 300 
  tan1 
12  9 cos 300
 
  12.810
0
2. Find the magnitude of two equal forces acting at a point with an angle of 60
between them, if the resultant is equal to303 N
GIVEN:
F1  F2  F , say
R  30 3N ,  600
R  F1 2 F 2 2 2F F1 cos
2 
R  F 2  F 2  2F  F cos 600
R  F 2  F 2  F 2
R  3F 

F  30N
3. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force for the system of
concurrent forces shown
Y
below.
∑ FX  20 cos 30  30 cos 45  35cos 40
0 0 0
∑ FX  30.70N

25N
FY  20sin 30  25  30sin 45  35sin 40 30N
20N
∑ FY  33.72N
450
300
X
R  ∑ FX  ∑ FY 400
2 2 35N
R   30.702  33.722
R  45.60N
  47.680
4. The 26 KN force is the resultant of two forces. One of the force is as shown in figure
.Determine the other force. y 26k
1
10k

Let F be magnitude of unscnorm force with Fx and Fy as its

components in x and y directions.
13 1 12
Component of R in x directions
Rx = 26 x cos  1
= 26 x 5/13 = 10kN 5
Component of R in y direction
Ry = 26 x sin 1 = 26 x 12/13 = 24kN
Component F and 10kN in X direction

= Fx +10 cos 2 5
2 3
= Fx + 10x 4/5 = Fx +8
4
Component of F and 10kN in y direction
= Fx + 10 x Sin 2 = Fy + 10 x 3/5
= Fy + 6
Using R/x = /Fx
10 = Fx +8
24 = Fy +
6 Fx = 2kN, Fy =
18kN
But F =  Fx2+Fy2 =  22+ 182F

= 18.11kN
-1 (Fy /Fx) = tan -1 (18/2) = 83.660
2 = tan
2 = 83.660 ( inclination of F w.r.t x – axis)

5. Three forces act at a point in a plate as shown in figure. If the resultant of these forces
is vertical, find the resultant force and angle α..
100N
160N
α.
120 N α
0
Since the resultant force is vertical, algebraic sum of horizontal components of these must
be equal to zero.
160 cos α – 120 – 100 sin α = 0

120 + 100 sin α = 160 cos α
6 + 5 sin α = 8cos α
Squaring both the sides
(6+5 sine α )2 = (8 cos α )2
36 + 60 sin α + 25 sin2α = 64 (1-sin2 α)
25 sin2 α +64 sin2 α + 60sin α = 64-36
89 sin2 α + 60 sin α = 28
Sin2 α + 0.674 sin α =0.315
(sin α + 0.337)2 = 0.315 + 0.3372
= 0.428
sin α + 0.337 = 0.428 = 0.654
sin α = 0.654 – 0.337 = 0.317
α = sin-1 (0.317) = 18.50
Resultant force R = Σ Fy
= 160 sin α + 100 cos α
= 160sin 18.50 + 100 cos 18.50
R = 145.60 N

6. ABCDE is a regular hexagon. Forces 90 N,P,Q,240 N and 180 N act along

AB,CA,AD,AE and FA respectively as shown in the figure. Find the forces P and Q such
that the resultant force is zero.
C D
B
P Q E
90N 300 300
240N
300
600 300
A 180N F X
Since the resultant force is equal to zero, Σ Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0

Σ Fx = -180 +240 cos 300 + Q cos 600 – p cos 900 + 90 cos 1200 = 0
-180 + 207.85 + 0.5 Q – 45 =0
0.5Q = 17.15
Q = 34.308N
Σ Fy = 180 sin00+240 sin300 + Q sin600 – P + 90 sin1200 = 0
120 + 34.308 x sin 600 – P + 90 sin 1200 = 0
P = 227.654 N
Determine the magnitude & direction of the resultant of the coplanar concurrent force
system shown in figure below.
75N
0 350
70 300
45

150 N 100
∑ Fy
∑ Fx
Let R be the given resultant force system

Let α be the angle made by the resultant with x-
direction. The magnitude of the resultant is given as
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑ Fy)2 and α = tan-1( )
∑ Fx = 200cos 300- 75cos700-100cos450 + 150cos 350

∑ Fx = 199.7N
∑ Fy = 200sin 300+ 75sin700-100sin450 - 150sin 350
∑ Fy = 13.72 N
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑
Fy)2 R=
200.21N
α = tan-1( )
α = tan-1(13.72/ 199.72) = 3.930
2. Determine the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in figure.
500
70
40
4 2
3 1
15
100


Let α be the angle made by the resultant with x-
direction. The magnitude of the resultant is given as
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑ Fy)2 and α = tan-1( )
∑ Fx = 700cos 400- 500cos700-800cos600 + 200cos 26.560

∑ Fx = 144.11 kN
∑ Fy = 700sin 400+ 500sin700-800sin600 - 200sin 26.560
∑ Fy = 137.55kN
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑

Fy)2 R=
199.21N
α = tan-1( )
α = tan-1(137.55/ 144.11) = 43.66
3. Determine the resultant of a coplanar concurrent force system shown in figure below
800N
200
350
1
3
500

Let α be the angle made by the resultant with x- direction.
Department Of Civil Engineering Page

80
The magnitude of the resultant is given as

R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑ Fy)2 and α = tan-1( )
∑ Fx = 800cos 350- 100cos700+ 500cos600 + 0

∑ Fx = 1095.48 N
∑ Fy = 800sin 350+ 100sin700+ 500sin600 - 600
∑ Fy = 110.90 N
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑

Fy)2 R=
1101.08 N
α = tan-1( )
α = tan-1(110.90/ 1095.48) = 5.780
4. The Magnitude and direction of the resultant of the resultant of the coplanar
concurrent force system shown in figure.
20k
52kN
300
350 10k
600
60kN

Let α be the angle made by the resultant with x- direction.

The magnitude of the resultant is given as

R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑ Fy)2 and α = tan-1( )
∑ Fx = 20cos 600- 52cos300+ 60cos600 + 10

∑ Fx = 7.404 kN
∑ Fy = 20 sin 600+ 52sin300- 60sin600 + 0
∑ Fy = -8.641 kN
R= √(∑ Fx)2 +(∑

Fy)2 R= 11.379
N
α = tan-1( )
α = tan-1(-8.641 /7.404) = -49.40

COMPOSITION OF COPLANAR NON- CONCURRENT FORCE

SYSTEM
MOMENT OF A FORCE:
Moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and perpendicular
distance of the point from the line of action of the force.
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF MOMENT
Consider a force F represented ,in magnitude and direction by the line AB. Let O be a
point about which the moment of the force F is required. Let OC be the
perpendicular
drawn. Join OA and OB O
A B
F
c
Moment of force F about O= F x a
= AB x OC
= twice the area of triangle OAB Thus
moment of F about O= 2 x Area of triangle OAB
VARIGNON’S PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS:

If a number of coplanar forces are acting simultaneously on a particle, the algebraic sum
of the moments of all the forces about any point is equal to the moment of their resultant
force about the same point.
PROOF:
For example, consider only two forces F1 and F2
represented in magnitude and direction by AB and AC as shown in figure below.
R
F
A B
F
C
O D

Let O be the point, about which the moments are taken. Construct the parallelogram
ABCD and complete the construction as shown in fig.
By the parallelogram law of forces, the diagonal AD represents, in magnitude and

direction, the resultant of two forces F1 and F2, let R be the resultant force.
By geometrical representation of moments

the moment of force about O=2 Area of triangle AOB
the moment of force about O=2 Area of triangle AOC
the moment of force about O=2 Area of triangle AOD
But,
Area of triangle AOD=Area of triangle AOC + Area of triangle ACD
Also, Area of triangle ACD=Area of triangle ADB=Area of triangle AOB
Area of triangle AOD=Area of triangle AOC + Area of triangle AOB
Multiplying throughout by 2, we obtain

2 Area of triangle AOD =2 Area of triangle AOC+2 Area of triangle AOB
i.e., Moment of force R about O=Moment of force F1 about O + Moment of force F2
about O
Similarly, this principle can be extended for any number of forces.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Determine the resultant of the force system acting on the plate as
shown in figure given below wirh respect to AB and AD.
10N 5N
0 D 0
60 10Nm 30
C
3m

A 4m B
14.14N 1
1 20 N
Σ Fx = 5cos300 + 10cos600 + 14.14cos450

= 19.33N
Σ Fy = 5sin300 - 10sin600 + 14.14sin450
= -16.16N
R = √( Σ Fx2 + Σ Fy2) = 25.2N ∑F X
R
θ= Tan-1(Σ Fx/ Σ Fy)
θ= Tan-1(16.16/19.33) = 39.890 ∑ FY
D C
y Θ
19.33N
A x θ B
R 16.16N
Tracing moments of forces about A and applying varignon’s principle of moments we get
+16.16X = 20x4 + 5cos300x3-5sin300x4 + 10 + 10cos600x3

X = 107.99/16.16 = 6.683m
Also tan39.89 = y/6.83

y = 5.586m.
1. The system of forces acting on a crank is shown in figure below. Determine the
magnitude , direction and the point of application of the resultant force.
500 N 150 700N

150
600 600
150mm 150 mm 150 Cos600=75mm
Σ Fx = 500cos600 – 700
= 450N
Σ Fy = 500sin600
= -26.33N
R = √( Σ Fx2 + Σ Fy2) = √(-450)2 + (-2633)2
R = 267.19N (Magnitude) Σ Fx
θ= Tan-1(Σ Fx/ Σ Fy)

= Tan-1(2633/450) R Σ Fy
θ= 80.300 (Direction)
ΣFx
Θ x
R ΣFy
Tracing moments of forces about O and applying varignon’s principle of moments we get
-2633x x= -500x sin600x300-1000x150+1200x150cos600 -700x300sin600 X = -
371769.15/-2633
X = 141.20mm from O towards left (position).

Problems
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MODULE 2
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES AND FRICTION


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200 N sphere is resting in at rough as shown in fig. determine the reactions developed at contact
surfaces. Assume all contact surfaces are smooth.
Soln. At contact point 1, the surface contact is making 600 to horizontal. Hence the reaction R1 which is
normal to it makes 600 with vertical. Similarly the reaction R2 at contact point 2 makes 450 to the vertical.
FBD as shown in figure.
Applying lami‘s theorem to the system of forces, we get

R1/ sin (180 – 45) = R2/ sin (180 –60)= 400/ sin ( 60+45)
R1= 292.8N R2= 358.6N
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A wire is fixed at A and D as shown in figure. Weights 20 kN and 25kN are supported at B and C
respectively. When equilibrium is reached it is found that inclination o fAB is 300 and that of CD I
s600 to the vertical. Determine the tension in the segments AB, BC, and CD of the rope and also the
inclination of BC to the vertical.
Soln; Free body diagrams of the point B and C are shown in figures respectively. Considering equilibrium o
fpoint B, we get
∑ Fx = 0
T2 sin - T1 sin 30 = 0
T2 sin = T1 sin 30 --------------(i)
∑ Fy = 0
-T2 cos + T1 cos 30 – 20 = 0
T2 cos = T1 cos 30 – 20 --------------(ii)
Considering the equilibrium of point C,

∑ Fx = 0
T3 sin 60 – T2 sin =0
T2 sin = T3 sin 60 --------------(iii)
∑ Fy = 0
T3 cos 60+ T2 cos – 25= 0
T2 cos = - T3 cos 60 +25 --------------(iv)

From equations (i) and (ii) , we get T1 sin 30 = T3
sin 60
T1= T3
From equations (ii) and (iv) , we get T1 cos 30 – 20 = -
T3 cos 60 +25

42
T3= 22.5kN T1= 38.97kN

From equation (i) and( ii)
Tan = 1.416
= 54.780
T2= 23.84kN
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43
Elements of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
FRICTION
Whenever a body moves or tends to move over another surface or body, a force which
opposes the motion of the body is developed tangentially at the surface of contact, such on
opposing force developed is called friction or frictional resistance.
The frictional resistance is developed due to the interlocking of the surface
irregularities at the contact surface b/w two bodies
Consider a body weighing W resting on a rough plane & subjected to a force ‗P‘
to displace the body.
W
Body of weight ‘W ’
Rough plane
P
N
Where
P = Applied force
N = Normal reaction from rough surface
F = Frictional resistance
W = Weight of the body
The body can start moving or slide over the plane if the force ‗P‘ overcomes the
frictional ‗F‘
The frictional resistance developed is proportional to the magnitude of the applied

force which is responsible for causing motion upto a certain limit.
Limiting
friction value
F
45

From the above graph we see that as P increases, F also increases. However F cannot increase
beyond a certain limit. Beyond this limit (Limiting friction value) the frictional resistance
becomes constant for any value of applied force. If the magnitude of the applied force is less
than the limiting friction value, the body remains at rest or in equilibrium. If the magnitude of
the applied force is greater than the limiting friction value the body starts moving over the
surface.
The friction experienced by a body when it is at rest or in equilibrium is known as

static friction. It can range between a zero to limiting fraction value.
The friction experienced by a body when it is moving is called dynamic friction.
The dynamic friction experienced by a body as it slides over a plane as it is shown in

figure is called sliding friction.
The dynamic friction experienced by a body as it roles over surface as shown in figure is
called rolling friction.
W
W
N F
F
N
CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION: It ha been experimentally proved that between two
contacting surfaces, the magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio to normal
reaction between the two this ratio is called as co-efficient of friction.
F
It is defined by the relationship
N
Where
μ – Represents co-efficient of friction
F – Represents frictional resistance
N – Represents normal reaction.
Note: Depending upon the nature of the surface of contact i.e. dry surface & wet surface, the
frictional resistance developed at such surface can be called dry friction & wet friction (fluid
friction) respectively. In our discussion on friction all the surface we consider will be dry
sough surfaces.

LAWS OF DRY FRICTION: (COLUMB’S LAWS)
The frictional resistance developed between bodies having dry surfaces of contact obey
certain laws called laws of dry friction. They are as follows.
1) The frictional resistance depends upon the roughness or smoothness of the surface.
2) Frictional resistance acts in a direction opposite to the motion of the body.
3) The frictional resistance is independent of the area of contact between the two bodies.
4) The ratio of the limiting friction value (F) to the normal reaction (N) is a constant (co-
efficient of friction, μ )
5) The magnitude of the frictional resistance developed is exactly equal to the applied
force till limiting friction value is reached or where the bodies is about to move.
ANGLE OF FRICTION
W Limiting friction
value
Body
F F
45
θθ
N R
P
Consider a body weighing ‗W‘ placed on a horizontal plane. Let ‗P‘ be an applied
force required to just move the body such that, frictional resistance reaches limiting friction
value. Let ‗R‘ be resultant of F & N. Let ‗θ‘ be the angle made by the resultant with the
direction of N. such an angle ‗θ‘ is called the Angle of friction
As P increases, F also increases and correspondingly ‗θ‘ increases. However, F cannot

increase beyond the limiting friction value and as such ‗θ‘ can attain a maximum value only.
Let θmax = α
Where α represents angle of limiting friction

F
tan θmax = tanα =
N
F
But =μ
N

Therefore μ = tanα
i.e. co-efficient of friction is equal to the tangent of the angle of limiting friction
ANGLE OF REPOSE:
Body of weight ‘W’
Rough plane
Consider a body weighing ‗w‘ placed on a rough inclined plane, which makes an angle
‗θ‘ with the horizontal. When ‗θ‘ value is small, the body is in equilibrium or rest without
sliding. If ‗θ‘ is gradually increased, a stage reaches when the body tends to slide down the
plane
The maximum inclination of the plane with the horizontal, on which a body free from
external forces can rest without sliding is called angle of repose.
Let θmax = Ф
Where Ф = angle of repose
When = angle of repose.
Let us draw the free body diagram of the body before it slide.
N
Fθ
90 - θ
Applying conditions of equilibrium.

∑Fx = 0
N cos(90- θ) – F cosθ = 0
N sinθ = F cosθ
F
tanθ =
N

tanθmax = tan Ф
F
but =μ
N
μ = tanα
tan Ф = tanα
Ф=α
angle of repose is equal to angle of limiting friction
W
CONE OF FRICTION Body of weight ‘W’
Rough plane
P
F
Nθ
R
Consider a body weighting ‗W‘ resting on a rough horizontal surface. Let ‗P‘ be a
force required to just move the body such that frictional resistance reaches limiting value. Let
‗R‘ be the resultant of ‗F‘ & ‗N‘ making an angel with the direction of N.
If the direction of ‗P‘ is changed the direction of ‗F‘ changes and accordingly ‗R‘ also
changes its direction. If ‗P‘ is rotated through 360o, R also rotates through 360o and generates
an imaginary cone called cone of friction.
Note: In this discussion, all the surface that bee consider are rough surfaces, such that, when
the body tends to move frictional resistance opposing the motion comes into picture
tangentially at the surface of contact in all the examples, the body considered is at the verge of
moving such that frictional resistance reaches limiting value. We can consider the body to be
at rest or in equilibrium & we can still apply conditions of equilibrium on the body to
calculate unknown force.



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Module 3
Support reactions & Trusses
Types of Supports
Supports are structures which prevent the beam or the body from moving and help to
maintain equilibrium.
A beam can have different types of supports as follows. The support reactions
developed at each support are represented as follows.
1) Simple support:
This is a support where a beam rests freely on a support. The beam is free to move
only horizontally and also can rotate about the support. In such a support one reaction, which
is perpendicular to the plane of support, is developed.
2) Roller support:
This is a support in which a beam rests on rollers, which are frictionless. At such a
support, the beam is free to move horizontally and as well rotate about the support. Here one
reaction which is perpendicular to the plane of rollers is developed.
3) Hinged support:
This is a support in which the beam is attached to a support by means of a hinge or

pin. The beam is not free to move in any direction

4) Fixed su port:
This is a support which prevents the beam from moving in any direction and also prevents
rotation of the beam. In such a support a horizontal reaction, vertical reaction and a Fixed End Moment
are developed to keep the beam in equilibrium.
RH
M
RV
BEAMS
A beam is a structural member or element, which is in equilibrium under the action of a non-
concurrent force system. The force system is developed due to the loads or forces acting on the
beam and also due to the support reactions developed at the supports for the beam.
For the beam to be in equilibrium, the reactions developed at the supports the should be equal
and opposite to the loads.
In a beam, one dimension (length) is considerably larger than the other two dimensions (breath
& depth). The smaller dimensions are usually neglected and as such a beam is represented as a line for
theoretical purposes or for analysis.
Types of beams
Depending upon the supports over which a beam can rest (at its two ends), beams can be
classified as follows.
1) Simply supported beam.
A beam is said to be simply supported when both ends of the beam rest on simple supports.
Such a beam can carry or resist vertical loads only.
R R

2) Beam with one end hinged & other on rollers.
It is a beam where one end of the beam is hinged to a support and the other end rests on a
roller support. Such a beam can carry any type of loads.
A B
RA
RA RB
3) Hinged Beam:
It is a beam which is hinged to supports at both ends. Such a beam can carry loads is
any direction.
RAH A B
RBH
RAV
RBV
4) Over hanging beam :
It is a beam which projects beyond the supports. A beam can have over hanging
portions on one side or on both sides.
B A B
A
RA RB
RA RB
A B
RA RB

5) Cantilever Beams:
It is a beam, with one end fixed and other and free. Such a beam can carry loads in any
directions.
RH
M
RV
6) Propped cantilever:
It is a beam which has a fixed support at one end and a simple support at the other end.
A B
RAH A B
M
M
RAV RB
7) Continuous beam:
It is a beam which rests over a series of supports at more than two points.
MB
A B C
RC
RA RB

Note:
The support reactions in case of simply supported beams, beam with one end hinged
and other on rollers, over hanging beams, and cantilever beams, can be determined by
conditions of equilibrium only (Σ Fx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0). As such, such beams are known
as Statically Determinate Beams.
In beams such as Hinged Beams, Propped Cantilever and Continuous Beams the
support reactions cannot be determined using conditions of equilibrium only. They need
additional special conditions for analysis and as such, such beams are known as Statically
Indeterminate Beams
Types of loads:
The various types of loads that can act over a beam can e listed as follows.
2) Point load or Concentrated load:
If a load acts over a very small length of the beam, it is assumed to act at the mid
point of the loaded length and such a loading is termed as Point load or Concentrated load.
P
A B
RA RB
3) Uniformly distributed load (UDL):
If a beam is loaded in such a manner that each unit length of the beam carries the same
intensity of loading, then such a loading is called UDL.
A UDL cannot be considered in the same manner for applying conditions of

equilibrium on the beam. The UDL should be replaced by an equivalent point load or total
load acting through the mid point of the loaded length.
The magnitude of the point load or total load is equal to the product of the intensity of
loading and the loaded length (distance).
W=w . L w/ unit
length
L/2 L/2
L
W=w . L W=w . X
a+x/2
w/ unit length b+x/2
x/2 w/ unit leng th
L/2 L/2 a X b
L
L
4) Uniformly varying load (UVL):
If a beam is loaded in such a manner, that the intensity of loading varies linearly or
uniformly over each unit distance of the beam, then such a load is termed as UVL.
In applying conditions of equilibrium, a given UVL should be replaced by an equivalent

point load or total load acting through the centroid of the loading diagram (right angle triangle).
The magnitude of the equivalent point load or total load is equal to the area of the loading diagram.
W=w.L
w/ unit length
W=w . x/2

5) External moment:
A beam can also be subjected to external moments at certain points as shown in figure.
These moments should be considered while calculating the algebraic sum of moments of
forces about a point on the beam
B
A
M
RB
RA
Note : A beam can also be subject to a load as shown in figure below.
W1= w1. L W2= {(w2-w1)/2}. L

(w2-w1)/unit length
w1/ unit length w2/ unit length

2L/3 L/3
L/2 L/2

In such a case, the UVL can be split into a UDL with a uniform intensity of w1/unit length another UVL
with a maximum intensity of (w2-w1) /unit length.
`MODULE 4
Centroid and Moment of Inertia
Centre of Gravity
Everybody is attracted towards the centre of the earth due gravity. The force of
attraction is proportional to mass of the body. Everybody consists of innumerable particles,
however the entire weight of a body is assumed to act through a single point and such a single
point is called centre of gravity.
Every body has one and only centre of gravity.
Centroid
In case of plane areas (bodies with negligible thickness) such as a triangle
quadrilateral, circle etc., the total area is assumed to be concentrated at a single point and such
a single point is called centroid of the plane area.
The term centre of gravity and centroid has the same meaning but the following differences.
1. Centre of gravity refer to bodies with mass and weight whereas, centroid refers to
plane areas.
2. centre of gravity is a point is a point in a body through which the weight acts vertically
downwards irrespective of the position, whereas the centroid is a point in a plane area
such that the moment of areas about an axis through the centroid is zero
Plane area ‘A’
G
g2 g1
d2 d1
a2 Department Of a
Engineering
1 Science (Civil) Page 89
Note: In the discussion on centroid, the area of any plane figure is assumed as a force
equivalent to the centroid referring to the above figure G is said to be the centroid of the plane
area A as long as

a1d1 – a2 d2 = 0.
Location of centroid of plane areas
Plane area
X G
The position of centroid of a plane area should be specified or calculated with respect to
some reference axis i.e. X and Y axis. The distance of centroid G from vertical reference axis
or Y axis is denoted as X and the distance of centroid G from a horizontal reference axis or X
axis is denoted as Y.
While locating the centroid of plane areas, a bottommost horizontal line or a horizontal
line through the bottommost point can be made as the X – axis and a leftmost vertical line or a
vertical line passing through the leftmost point can be made as Y- axis.

In some cases the given figure is symmetrical about a horizontal or vertical line such that
the centroid of the plane areYa lies on the line of symmetry.
X G
X
b
b/2
The above figure is symmetrical about a vertical line such that G lies on the line of
symmetry. Thus
X= b/2.
Y=?
The centroid of plane geometric area can be located by one of the following methods
a) Graphical methods
b) Geometric consideration
c) Method of moments
The centroid of simple elementary areas can be located by geometric consideration. The
centroid of a triangle is a point, where the three medians intersect. The centroid of a square is
a point where the two diagonals bisect each other. The centroid of a circle is centre of the
circle itself.
Method Of Moments To Locate The Centroid Of Plane Areas

Let us consider a plane area A lying in the XY plane. Let G be the centroid of the plane area.
It is required to locate the position of centroid G with respect to the reference axis like Y- axis
and Xi- axis i.e, to calculate X and Y. Let us divide the given area A into smaller elemental
areas a1, a2, a3 …….. as shown in figure. Let g1 ,g2, g3…… be the centroids of elemental
areas a1, a2, a3 …….. etc.
Let x1, x2, x3 etc be the distance of the centroids g1 g2 g3 etc. from Y- axis is =A X --(1)
The sum of the moments of the elemental areas about Y axis is
a1 . x1 + a2 . x2 + a3 . x3 + ……………….(2)
Equating (1) and (2)
A . X = a1 . x1 + a2 . x2 + a3 . x3 + ………..
X = a1 . x 1 a 2 . x2 a 3 . x3 ..
A
(ax) or X = x.dA
X=
A A
Where a or dA represents an elemental area in the area A , x is the distance of elemental area
from Y axis.
Similarly
Y = a1. y1 a2 . y2 a3. y3 ..
A
(a.y) y.dA
Y= or Y =
A A

TO LOCATE THE CENTROID OF A RECTANGLE FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE

(METHOD OF MOMENTS)
dy
X G d
y
Let us consider a rectangle of breadth b and depth d. let g be the centroid of the
rectangle. Let us consider the X and Y axis as shown in the figure.
Let us consider an elemental area dA of breadth b and depth dy lying at a distance of y from
the X axis.
.
W.K.T d
1 d
y.dA Y y.dy
Y = 0 = d 0
A d
1
y2
Y = d 2 0
A=b.d
dA = b . dy
d2
. Y = 1
d d 2

y.(b.dy)
Y = 0
b.d d
Y =
2
Similarly
Centroid of a triangle
Let us consider a right angled triangle with a base b and height h as shown in figure. Let G be
the centroid of the triangle. Let us consider the X- axis and Y- axis as shown in figure.

Let us consider an elemental area dA of width b1 and thickness dy, lying at a distance y from
X-axis.
W.K.T
h
A
0
Y=
b.h
A=
2
dA = b1 . dy
h
y.(b1 . dy)
0
Y= [as x varies b1 also varies]
b.h
2
h y2
Y=2 dy
. y
h 0 h
h
2
Y= y2 y3
h 2 3.h
0
2 h2 h3
Y=
h 2 3.h
2 h2 h2
Y=
h 2 3
Y = 2h 1
1
2 3
2.h
Y=
6
h b
Y= similarly X =

Elements3 Of Civil Engineering
3 & Mechanics

Centroid of a semi circle
X= 0
Let us consider a semi-circle, with a radius ‗r‘.

Let ‗O‘ be the centre of the semi-circle .let ‗G‘ be centroid of the semi-circle. Let us consider
the x and y axes as shown in figure.
Let us consider an elemental area ‗dA‘ with centroid ‗g‘ as shown in fig. Neglecting the
curvature, the elemental area becomes an isosceles triangle with base r.dθ and height ‗r‘.
Let y be the distance of centroid ‗g‘ from x axis. 1
.r.d .r
dA = 2
2r
Here y = .sin
3 r2
dA = .d
WKT 2
2
y.dA
= r sin .d
3
Y=
A
= 2r sin .d
.r 2 3 0
A=
2
= 2r cos 0
3
y.dA 2r
Y= = [1+1]
A 3
Y
2r. sin =
A .dA 3
3

Centroid of a quarter circle
Let us consider a quarter circle with radius r. Let ‗O‘ be the centre and ‗G‘ be the centroid of
the quarter circle. Let us consider the x and y axes as shown in figure.
Let us consider an elemental area ‗dA‘ with centroid ‗g‘ as shown in fig.
Let ‗y‘ be the distance of centroid ‗g‘ from x axis. Neglecting the curvature, the elemental
area becomes an isosceles triangle with base r.dθ and height ‗r‘.
2r
Here y = .sin 2r /2
.sin .dA
3 = 2r cos
0
WKT 3 3
Y=
A
y.dA 1 .r.d .r = 4r [0+1]
3
dA = 2
Y= A 4r
2 Y=
.r 2 dA = r .d 3
A=
2
2 Similarly
Y=
y.dA 4r
2r .sin . r .d X= 3
Y=
3

2
A 2
.r 2
4

Centroid of Composite Sections

In engineering practice, use of sections which are built up of many simple sections is very
common. Such sections may be called as built-up sections or composite sections. To locate
the centroid of composite sections, one need not go for the first principle (method of
integration). The given composite section can be split into suitable simple figures and then the
centroid of each simple figure can be found by inspection or using the standard formulae
listed in the table above. Assuming the area of the simple figure as concentrated at its

centroid, its moment about an axis can be found by multiplying the area with distance of its
centroid from the reference axis. After determining moment of each area about reference axis,
the distance of centroid from the axis is obtained by dividing total moment of area by total area of
the composite section.

Problems :
Determine the centroid for the given fig.
S.No Component Area (mm2) x (mm) y (mm) ax ay
1 Rectangle-1 1,200.00 65.00 78,000.00
2 Rectangle-2 600.00 30.00 18,000.00
Sum 1,800.00 0.00 96,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 53.33 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 800.00 69.00 55,200.00
2 Rectangle-2 400.00 44.00 17,600.00
3 Rectangle-3 600.00 12.00 7,200.00
Sum 1,800.00 0.00 80,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 44.44 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 2,000.00 130.00 260,000.00
2 Rectangle-2 2,000.00 70.00 140,000.00
3 Rectangle-3 3,000.00 10.00 30,000.00
Sum 7,000.00 0.00 430,000.00
x    y
ax ay

0.00 mm 61.43 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 720.00 30.00 144.00 21,600.00 103,680.00
2 Rectangle-2 1,280.00 5.00 74.00 6,400.00 94,720.00
3 Rectangle-3 750.00 37.50 5.00 28,125.00 3,750.00
Sum 2,750.00 56,125.00 202,150.00
x
ax  y
ay 
20.41 mm 73.51 m
a a

1 Triangle-1 3,200.00 53.33 26.67 170,666.67 85,333.33
2 Quadrant-2 5,026.55 113.95 33.95 572,790.53 170,666.67
Sum 8,226.55 743,457.19 256,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
90.37 mm 31.12 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 27.00 3.00 2.25 81.00 60.75
2 Triangle-2 6.75 7.00 1.50 47.25 10.13
3 Semicircle-3 7.95 -0.95 2.25 -7.59 17.89
Sum 41.70 120.66 88.77
x y
ax ay
 2.89 mm  2.13 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 40,000.00 100.00 100.00 4,000,000.00 4,000,000.00
2 Triangle-2 -3,750.00 150.00 1.50 -562,500.00 -5,625.00
3 Quadrant-3 -17,671.46 63.66 2.25 -1,125,000.00 -39,760.78
Sum 18,578.54 2,312,500.00 3,954,614.22
x y
ax ay
 124.47 mm  212.86 mm
a a

1 Triangle-1 900.00 20.00 40.00 18,000.00 36,000.00
2 Quadrant-2 2,827.43 55.46 34.54 156,823.00 97,646.00
Sum 3,727.43 174,823.00 133,646.00
x
ax  y
ay 
46.90 mm 35.85 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 1,200,000.00 600.00 500.00 720,000,000.00 600,000,000.00
2 Triangle-2 -200,000.00 1,066.67 333.33 -213,333,333.33 -66,666,666.67
3 Semicircle-3 -251,327.41 400.00 169.77 -100,530,964.91 -42,666,666.67
Sum 748,672.59 406,135,701.75 490,666,666.67
x y
ax ay
 542.47 mm  655.38 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 12,800.00 40.00 512,000.00
2 Semicircle-2 -1,413.72 67.27 -95,097.34
3 Triangle-3 -400.00 16.67 -6,666.67
Sum 10,986.28 0.00 410,236.00
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 37.34 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 90.00 5.00 4.50 450.00 405.00
2 Triangle-2 9.00 11.00 7.00 99.00 63.00
3 Semicircle-3 -6.28 2.00 8.15 -12.57 -51.22
4 Quadrant-4 -7.07 8.73 1.27 -61.69 -9.00
Sum 85.65 474.75 407.78
x
ax  y
ay 
5.54 mm 4.76 m
a a

1 Rectangle-1 9,600.00 80.00 30.00 768,000.00 288,000.00
2 Semicircle-2 -628.32 20.00 51.51 -12,566.37 -32,365.78
3 Triangle-3 -400.00 146.67 53.33 -58,666.67 -21,333.33
4 Rectangle-4 -1,600.00 80.00 20.00 -128,000.00 -32,000.00
Sum 6,971.68 568,766.96 202,300.89
x
ax  y
ay 
81.58 mm 29.02 mm
a a

16
1 Rectangle-1 12,000.00 60.00 50.00 720,000.00 600,000.00
2 Triangle-2 3,600.00 40.00 120.00 144,000.00 432,000.00
3 Semicircle-3 3,926.99 141.22 50.00 554,572.23 196,349.54
4 Circle-4 -1,256.64 60.00 50.00 -75,398.22 -62,831.85
Sum 18,270.35 1,343,174.01 1,165,517.69
x
ax  y
ay 
73.52 mm 63.79 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 900.00 -15.00 15.00 -13,500.00 13,500.00
2 Quadrant-2 706.86 12.73 12.73 9,000.00 9,000.00
3 Quadrant-3 -706.86 -17.27 17.27 12,205.75 -12,205.75
Sum 900.00 7,705.75 10,294.25
x
ax  y
ay 
8.56 mm 11.44 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 30,000.00 100.00 75.00 3,000,000.00 2,250,000.00
2 Triangle-2 -3,750.00 166.67 125.00 -625,000.00 -468,750.00
3 Circle-3 -7,853.98 90.48 67.86 -710,598.34 -532,948.75
Sum 18,396.02 1,664,401.66 1,248,301.25
x y
ax ay
 
90.48 mm 67.86 mm
a SOLVE-X a SOLVE-Y

1 Rectangle-1 1,000.00 315.00 315,000.00
2 Rectangle-2 3,000.00 160.00 480,000.00
3 Rectangle-3 2,000.00 5.00 10,000.00
4 Rectangle-4 2,000.00 315.00 630,000.00
mm
Sum 8,000.00 0.00 1,435,000.00
x y
ax ay
 0.00 mm  179.38
a a

1 Triangle-1 19,200.00 160.00 3,072,000.00
2 Semicircle-2 -2,513.27 223.02 -560,519.12
3 Rectangle-3 -2,400.00 140.00 -336,000.00
4 Circle-4 -1,256.64 60.00 -75,398.22
Sum 13,030.09 0.00 2,100,082.65
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 161.17 mm
a a

1 Triangle-1 1,500.00 33.33 20.00 50,000.00 30,000.00
2 Rectangle-2 12,000.00 150.00 30.00 1,800,000.00 360,000.00
3 Triangle-3 8,000.00 150.00 86.67 1,200,000.00 693,333.33
4 Semicircle-2 -3,926.99 150.00 21.22 -589,048.62 -83,333.33
5 Quadrant-5 2,827.43 275.46 25.46 778,858.35 72,000.00
Sum 20,400.44 3,239,809.72 1,072,000.00
x y
ax ay
 158.81 mm  52.55 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 80.00 -4.00 5.00 -320.00 400.00
2 Semicircle-2 39.27 -10.12 5.00 -397.49 196.35
3 Triangle-3 9.00 -4.00 -1.00 -36.00 -9.00
4 Quadrant-5 -3.14 -0.85 0.85 2.67 -2.67
5 Circle -3.14 -8.00 5.00 25.13 -15.71
Sum 121.99 -725.69 568.97
x y
ax ay mm
 -5.95 mm  4.66
a a

1 Rectangle-1 2,500.00 82.50 206,250.00
2 Rectangle-2 1,400.00 35.00 49,000.00
Sum 3,900.00 0.00 255,250.00
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 65.45 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 160,000.00 200.00 200.00 32,000,000.00 32,000,000.00
2 Triangle-2 -45,000.00 300.00 300.00 -13,500,000.00 -13,500,000.00
3 Quadrant-3 -70,685.83 127.32 127.32 -9,000,000.00 -9,000,000.00
Sum 44,314.17 9,500,000.00 9,500,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
214.38 mm 214.38 mm
a a

1 Quadrant-1 31,415.93 84.88 84.88 2,666,666.67 2,666,666.67
2 Semicircle-2 -15,707.96 100.00 42.44 -1,570,796.33 -666,666.67
Sum 15,707.96 1,095,870.34 2,000,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
69.77 mm 127.32 mm
a a

1 Rectangle-1 432.00 12.00 9.00 5,184.00 3,888.00
2 Triangle-2 -54.00 20.00 15.00 -1,080.00 -810.00
3 Circle-3 -113.10 10.86 8.14 -1,227.91 -920.94
Sum 264.90 2,876.09 2,157.06
x
ax  y
ay 
10.86 mm 8.14 mm
a SOLVE-X
a SOLVE-Y

MOMENT OF INERTIA


Perpendicular Axis Theorem

Theorem of the perpendicular axis states that if IXX and IYY be the moment of
inertia of a plane section about two mutually perpendicular axis X-X and Y-Y in
the plane of the section, then the moment of inertia of the section I ZZ about the
axis Z-Z, perpendicular to the plane and passing through the intersection of X-X
and Y-Y is given by:
IZZ = IXX + IYY

The moment of inertia IZZ is also known as polar moment of inertia.
Determination of the moment of inertia of an area by integration



Properties of plane areas



Problems:
Determine the moment of inertia.
S.No Component Area (mm2) x (mm) y (mm) ax ay ax2(mm4) ay2(mm4) Īx Īy
1 Rect-1 20,000.00 700.00 14,000,000.00 9,800,000,000.00 4,166,666.67 266,666,666.67
2 Rect-2 30,000.00 375.00 11,250,000.00 4,218,750,000.00 900,000,000.00 6,250,000.00
3 Rect-3 15,000.00 37.50 562,500.00 21,093,750.00 7,031,250.00 50,000,000.00
Sum 65,000.00 0.00 25,812,500.00 0.00 14,039,843,750.00 911,197,916.67 322,916,666.67
x
ax  y
ay

0.00 mm 397.12 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 911,197,916.67 Ì 14,039,843,750.00 14,951,041,666.67 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 322,916,666.67 Ì 0.00 322,916,666.67 mm4
Īx= 14,951,041,666.67 65,000.00 157,700.63 4,700,500,801.28 mm4
Īy= 322,916,666.67 65,000.00 0.00 322,916,666.67 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 4,700,500,801.28 Ì 322,916,666.67 5,023,417,467.95 mm4 Fig.244
k
Radius of Gyration x 268.92 mm
Radius of Gyration ky 70.48 mm
Radius of Gyration kz 278.00 mm

1 Rect-1 2,000.00 315.00 630,000.00 198,450,000.00 16,666.67 6,666,666.67
2 Rect-2 3,000.00 160.00 480,000.00 76,800,000.00 22,500,000.00 25,000.00
3 Rect-3 3,000.00 5.00 15,000.00 75,000.00 25,000.00 22,500,000.00
Sum 8,000.00 0.00 1,125,000.00 0.00 275,325,000.00 22,541,666.67 29,191,666.67
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 140.63 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 22,541,666.67 Ì 275,325,000.00 297,866,666.67 mm4
Īx= 297,866,666.67 8,000.00 19,775.39 139,663,541.67 mm4

mm4 Fig.245
Īy= 29,191,666.67 8,000.00 0.00 29,191,666.67
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 139,663,541.67 Ì 29,191,666.67 168,855,208.33 mm4
k
Radius of Gyration k 60.41 mm

y

z

1 Rect-1 1,200.00 60.00 115.00 72,000.00 138,000.00 4,320,000.00 15,870,000.00 10,000.00 1,440,000.00
2 Rect-2 1,200.00 6.00 60.00 7,200.00 72,000.00 43,200.00 4,320,000.00 1,000,000.00 14,400.00
3 Rect-3 1,800.00 90.00 5.00 162,000.00 9,000.00 14,580,000.00 45,000.00 15,000.00 4,860,000.00
Sum 4,200.00 241,200.00 219,000.00 18,943,200.00 20,235,000.00 1,025,000.00 6,314,400.00
x
ax  y
ay 
57.43 mm 52.14 mm
a a
Reference axis Iy = 6,314,400.00 Ì 18,943,200.00 25,257,600.00 mm4
Īx= 21,260,000.00 4,200.00 2,718.88 9,840,714.29 mm4
Īy= 25,257,600.00 4,200.00 3,298.04 11,405,828.57 mm4
k

y

z

1 Tri-1 1,500.00 66.67 65.00 100,000.00 97,500.00 6,666,666.67 6,337,500.00 75,000.00 833,333.33
2 Rect-2 5,500.00 50.00 27.50 275,000.00 151,250.00 13,750,000.00 4,159,375.00 1,386,458.33 4,583,333.33
3 Semicircle-3 -981.75 75.00 10.61 -73,631.08 -10,416.67 -5,522,330.84 -110,524.27 -42,968.75 -153,398.08
Sum 6,018.25 301,368.92 238,333.33 14,894,335.83 10,386,350.73 1,418,489.58 5,263,268.59
x
ax  y
ay 
50.08 mm 39.60 mm
a a
Īx= 11,804,840.32 6,018.25 1,568.30 2,366,422.82 mm4
Īy= 20,157,604.42 6,018.25 2,507.59 5,066,308.34 mm4
k

y

z

1 Rect-1 96.00 2.00 192.00 384.00 128.00 576.00
2 Rect-2 72.00 10.00 720.00 7,200.00 864.00 216.00
3 Semicircle-3 56.55 18.55 1,048.78 19,451.15 -142.56 -508.94
Sum 224.55 0.00 1,960.78 0.00 27,035.15 849.44 283.06
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 8.73 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 849.44 Ì 27,035.15 27,884.59 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 283.06 Ì 0.00 283.06 mm4
Īx= 27,884.59 224.55 76.25 10,762.90 mm4 6

Īy= 283.06 224.55 0.00 283.06 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 10,762.90 Ì 283.06 11,045.96 mm4
k Fig.248

y

z

1 Tri-1 1,250.00 200.00 116.67 250,000.00 145,833.33 50,000,000.00 17,013,888.89 173,611.11 130,208.33
2 Rect-2 5,000.00 175.00 75.00 875,000.00 375,000.00 153,125,000.00 28,125,000.00 1,041,666.67 4,166,666.67
3 Semicircle-3 981.75 114.39 75.00 112,301.80 73,631.08 12,846,165.48 5,522,330.84 153,398.08 42,968.75
Sum 7,231.75 1,237,301.80 594,464.41 215,971,165.48 50,661,219.73 1,368,675.86 4,339,843.75
x
ax  y
ay 
171.09 mm 82.20 mm
a a
Īx= 52,029,895.58 7,231.75 6,757.18 3,163,708.52 mm4
Īy= 220,311,009.23 7,231.75 29,272.83 8,617,266.87 mm4
Radius of Gyration kx 20.92 mm

1 Tri-1 3,000.00 0.00 40.00 120,000.00 4,800,000.00 2,400,000.00 416,666.67
2 Rect-2 16,800.00 0.00 60.00 1,008,000.00 60,480,000.00 20,160,000.00 27,440,000.00
3 Tri-1 3,000.00 0.00 40.00 120,000.00 4,800,000.00 2,400,000.00 416,666.67
4 Semicircle-3 -7,696.90 0.00 29.71 -228,666.67 -6,793,440.33 -2,641,100.00 -9,428,704.95
Sum 15,103.10 0.00 1,019,333.33 0.00 63,286,559.67 22,318,900.00 18,844,628.38
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 67.49 mm
a a
Īx= 85,605,459.67 15,103.10 4,555.13 16,808,948.88 mm4
Īy= 18,844,628.38 15,103.10 0.00 18,844,628.38 mm4
k

y

z

1 Rect-1 100,000.00 200.00 125.00 20,000,000.00 12,500,000.00 4,000,000,000.00 1,562,500,000.00 520,833,333.33 1,333,333,333.33
2 Tri-2 -24,375.00 108.33 200.00 -2,640,625.00 -4,875,000.00 -286,067,708.33 -975,000,000.00 -30,468,750.00 -143,033,854.17
3 Quad-3 -7,853.98 42.44 42.44 -333,333.33 -333,333.33 -14,147,106.05 -14,147,106.05 -5,500,000.00 -5,500,000.00
4 Circle-4 -5,026.55 325.00 100.00 -1,633,628.18 -502,654.82 -530,929,158.46 -50,265,482.46 -2,010,619.30 -2,010,619.30
Sum 62,744.47 15,392,413.49 6,789,011.84 3,168,856,027.16 523,087,411.49 482,853,964.04 1,182,788,859.87
x
ax  y
ay 
245.32 mm 108.20 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 482,853,964.04 Ì 523,087,411.49 1,005,941,375.52 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 1,182,788,859.87 Ì 3,168,856,027.16 4,351,644,887.03 mm4

Iz = 1,005,941,375.52 Ì 4,351,644,887.03 5,357,586,262.55 mm4
Īx= 1,005,941,375.52 62,744.47 11,707.45 271,363,783.21 mm4
Īy= 4,351,644,887.03 62,744.47 60,181.43 575,592,710.72 mm4

1 Rect-1 15,000.00 75.00 1,125,000.00 84,375,000.00 28,125,000.00 12,500,000.00
2 Tri-2 6,000.00 -40.00 -240,000.00 9,600,000.00 4,800,000.00 23,333,333.33
3 Circle-4 -1,963.50 75.00 -147,262.16 -11,044,661.67 -306,796.16 -306,796.16
Sum 19,036.50 0.00 737,737.84 0.00 82,930,338.33 32,618,203.84 35,526,537.18
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 38.75 mm
a a
Īx= 115,548,542.17 19,036.50 1,501.86 86,958,360.38 mm4
Īy= 35,526,537.18 19,036.50 0.00 35,526,537.18 mm4
k

y

z

1 Rect-1 1,400.00 35.00 0.00 49,000.00 1,715,000.00 46,666.67 571,666.67
2 Tri-2 400.00 76.67 0.00 30,666.67 2,351,111.11 26,666.67 8,888.89
3 Rect-3 -300.00 35.00 0.00 -10,500.00 -367,500.00 -2,500.00 -22,500.00
Sum 1,500.00 69,166.67 0.00 3,698,611.11 0.00 70,833.33 558,055.56
x
ax  y
ay

46.11 mm 0.00 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 70,833.33 Ì 0.00 70,833.33 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 558,055.56 Ì 3,698,611.11 4,256,666.67 mm4
Īx= 70,833.33 1,500.00 0.00 70,833.33 mm4
Īy= 4,256,666.67 1,500.00 2,126.23 1,067,314.81 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 70,833.33 Ì 1,067,314.81 1,138,148.15 mm4

1 Rect-1 1,600.00 140.00 224,000.00 31,360,000.00 213,333.33 213,333.33
2 Rect-2 9,600.00 60.00 576,000.00 34,560,000.00 14,400,000.00 5,120,000.00
3 Rect-3 -1,600.00 80.00 -128,000.00 -10,240,000.00 -213,333.33 -213,333.33
Sum 9,600.00 0.00 672,000.00 0.00 55,680,000.00 14,400,000.00 5,120,000.00
x
ax  y
ay 
0.00 mm 70.00 mm
a a
Īx= 70,080,000.00 9,600.00 4,900.00 23,040,000.00 mm4
Īy= 5,120,000.00 9,600.00 0.00 5,120,000.00 mm4
k
Radius of Gyration k mm
y 23.09
z 54.16

1 Tri-1 4,500.00 30.00 135,000.00 4,050,000.00 2,025,000.00 7,500,000.00
2 Rect-2 -600.00 45.00 -27,000.00 -1,215,000.00 -45,000.00 -20,000.00
Sum 3,900.00 0.00 108,000.00 0.00 2,835,000.00 1,980,000.00 7,480,000.00
x
ax  y
ay

0.00 mm 27.69 mm
a a
Īx= 4,815,000.00 3,900.00 766.86 1,824,230.77 mm4
Īy= 7,480,000.00 3,900.00 0.00 7,480,000.00 mm4

13
1 Rect-1 1,000.00 70.00 70,000.00 4,900,000.00 8,333.33 833,333.33
2 Rect-2 800.00 60.00 48,000.00 2,880,000.00 6,666.67 426,666.67
3 Rect-3 900.00 40.00 36,000.00 1,440,000.00 67,500.00 67,500.00
4 Rect-4 250.00 12.50 3,125.00 39,062.50 13,020.83 2,083.33
Sum 2,950.00 0.00 157,125.00 0.00 9,259,062.50 95,520.83 1,329,583.33
x
ax  y   
ay
0.00 mm 53.26 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 95,520.83 Ì 9,259,062.50 9,354,583.33 mm4
Īx= 9,354,583.33 2,950.00 2,836.92 985,679.73 mm4
Īy= 1,329,583.33 2,950.00 0.00 1,329,583.33 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 985,679.73 Ì 1,329,583.33 2,315,263.06 mm4

x
y 21.23

z

1 Tri-1 2,400.00 20.00 26.67 48,000.00 64,000.00 960,000.00 1,706,666.67 853,333.33 480,000.00
2 Semicircle-2 1,413.72 30.00 -12.73 42,411.50 -18,000.00 1,272,345.02 229,183.12 89,100.00 318,086.26
3 Circle-3 -1,256.64 30.00 0.00 -37,699.11 -1,130,973.36 -125,663.71 -125,663.71
Sum 2,557.08 52,712.39 46,000.00 1,101,371.67 1,935,849.78 816,769.63 672,422.55
x
ax  y
ay

20.61 mm 17.99 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 816,769.63 Ì 1,935,849.78 2,752,619.41 mm4
Īx= 2,752,619.41 2,557.08 323.61 1,925,112.92 mm4
Īy= 1,773,794.22 2,557.08 424.95 687,165.58 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 1,925,112.92 Ì 687,165.58 2,612,278.50 mm4

Fig.257
k
y 16.39
z 31.96

1 Rectangle-1 80.00 -4.00 5.00 -320.00 400.00 1,280.00 2,000.00 666.67 426.67
2 Triangle-2 9.00 -4.00 -1.00 -36.00 -9.00 144.00 9.00 4.50 18.00
3 Semicircle-3 39.27 -10.12 5.00 -397.49 196.35 4,023.45 981.75 490.87 68.75
4 Quadrant-4 -3.14 -0.85 0.85 2.67 -2.67 -2.26 -2.26 -0.88 -0.88
5 Circle-5 -3.14 -8.00 5.00 25.13 -15.71 -201.06 -78.54 -0.79 -0.79
Sum 121.99 -725.69 568.97 5,244.12 2,909.94 1,160.38 511.75
x
ax  y
ay

-5.95 mm 4.66 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 1,160.38 Ì 2,909.94 4,070.32 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 511.75 Ì 5,244.12 5,755.87 mm4
Īx= 4,070.32 121.99 21.76 1,416.49 mm4
Īy= 5,755.87 121.99 35.39 1,438.76 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 1,416.49 Ì 1,438.76 2,855.24 mm4

16

1 Rect-1 20.00 11.00 220.00 220.00 4,400.00 2,420.00 968,000.00 6.6666666667 166.6666666667
2 Rect-2 20.00 5.00 100.00 100.00 2,000.00 500.00 200,000.00 166.6666666667 6.6666666667
Sum 40.00 320.00 6,400.00 2,920.00 1,168,000.00 173.33 173.33
x
ax  y
ay 
8.00 mm 160.00 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 173.33 Ì 1,168,000.00 1,168,173.33 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 173.33 Ì 2,920.00 3,093.33 mm4
Īx= 1,168,173.33 40.00 25,600.00 144,173.33 mm4
Īy= 3,093.33 40.00 64.00 533.33 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 144,173.33 Ì 533.33 144,706.67 mm4
x 60.04

z

1 Rect-1 20.00 13.00 260.00 3,380.00 6.67 166.67
2 Rect-2 20.00 7.00 140.00 980.00 166.67 6.67
3 Rect-3 30.00 1.00 30.00 30.00 10.00 562.50
Sum 70.00 0.00 430.00 0.00 4,390.00 183.33 735.83
x
ax  y
ay

0.00 mm 6.14 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 183.33 Ì 4,390.00 4,573.33 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 735.83 Ì 0.00 735.83 mm4
Īx= 4,573.33 70.00 37.73 1,931.90 mm4
Īy= 735.83 70.00 0.00 735.83 mm4
Polar Moment ofInertia Īz= 1,931.90 Ì 735.83 2,667.74 mm4
k

1 Rectangle-1 360 20.00 4.50 7,200.00 1,620.00 144,000.00 7,290.00 2430.00 48000.00
2 Rectangle-2 560 10.00 23.00 5,600.00 12,880.00 56,000.00 296,240.00 36586.67 18666.67
3 Triangle-3 81 46.00 3.00 3,726.00 243.00 171,396.00 729.00 364.50 1458.00
4 Semicircle-4 307.88 25.94 23.00 7,986.85 7,081.15 207,193.27 162,866.45 15085.93 4225.76
-0.79 -0.79
Sum 1,308.88 24,512.85 21,824.15 578,589.27 467,125.45 54,466.31 72,349.64
x
ax  y
ay

18.73 mm 16.67 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 54,466.31 Ì 467,125.45 521,591.76 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 72,349.64 Ì 578,589.27 650,938.91 mm4
Īx= 521,591.76 1,308.88 278.02 157,696.71 mm4
Īy= 650,938.91 1,308.88 350.74 191,857.97 mm4
k
y 12.11
z 16.34

1 Rectangle-1 27,000.00 75.00 90.00 2,025,000.00 2,430,000.00 151,875,000.00 218,700,000.00 27,462,500.00 36,562,500.00
2 Semicircle-2 12,723.45 188.20 90.00 2,394,517.54 1,145,110.52 450,641,463.12 103,059,947.00 25,764,986.75 7,217,100.00
3 Triangle-3 -2,500.00 33.33 146.67 -83,333.33 -366,666.67 -2,777,777.78 -53,777,777.78 -347,222.22 -1,388,888.89
4 Rectangle-4 -13,000.00 50.00 65.00 -650,000.00 -845,000.00 -32,500,000.00 -54,925,000.00 -18,308,333.33 -10,833,333.33
Sum 24,223.45 3,686,184.20 2,363,443.86 567,238,685.34 213,057,169.22 34,571,931.19 31,557,377.78
x
ax  y
ay 
152.17 mm 97.57 mm
a a

Iz = 247,629,100.42 Ì 598,796,063.12 846,425,163.54 mm4
Īx= 247,629,100.42 24,223.45 9,519.60 17,031,609.08 mm4
Īy= 598,796,063.12 24,223.45 23,156.99 37,853,924.61 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 17,031,609.08 Ì 37,853,924.61 54,885,533.69 mm 4

x

y

z


1 Rectangle-1 20,000.00 290.00 20.00 5,800,000.00 400,000.00 1,682,000,000.00 8,000,000.00 2,666,666.67 416,666,666.67
2 Rectangle-2 13,600.00 20.00 170.00 272,000.00 2,312,000.00 5,440,000.00 393,040,000.00 131,013,333.33 1,813,333.33
3 Quadrant-3 70,685.83 167.32 167.32 11,827,433.39 11,827,433.39 1,979,012,925.79 1,979,012,925.79 445,500,000.00 445,500,000.00
4 Semicircle-4 -35,342.92 103.66 190.00 -3,663,716.69 -6,715,154.30 -379,788,116.55 -1,275,879,316.44 -198,803,910.11 -55,687,500.00
Sum 68,942.92 14,235,716.69 7,824,279.09 3,286,664,809.24 1,104,173,609.35 380,376,089.89 808,292,500.00
x
ax  y
ay 
206.49 mm 113.49 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 380,376,089.89 Ì 1,104,173,609.35 1,484,549,699.24 mm4
Reference axis Iy = 808,292,500.00 Ì 3,286,664,809.24 4,094,957,309.24 mm4

Iz = 1,484,549,699.24 Ì 4,094,957,309.24 5,579,507,008.49 mm4
Īx= 1,484,549,699.24 68,942.92 12,879.81 596,578,234.63 mm4
Īy= 4,094,957,309.24 68,942.92 42,636.29 1,155,487,417.68 mm4
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 596,578,234.63 Ì 1,155,487,417.68 1,752,065,652.31 mm4

1 Rectangle-1 1,800.00 15.00 30.00 27,000.00 54,000.00 405,000.00 1,620,000.00 540,000.00 135,000.00
2 Triangle-2 900.00 40.00 20.00 36,000.00 18,000.00 1,440,000.00 360,000.00 180,000.00 45,000.00
3 Semicircle-3 -1,413.72 12.73 30.00 -18,000.00 -42,411.50 -229,183.12 -1,272,345.02 -318,086.26 -89,100.00
Sum 1,286.28 45,000.00 29,588.50 1,615,816.88 707,654.98 401,913.74 90,900.00
x
ax  y
ay 
34.98 mm 23.00 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 401,913.74 Ì 707,654.98 1,109,568.72 mm4

Iz = 1,109,568.72 Ì 1,706,716.88 2,816,285.60 mm4
Īx= 1,109,568.72 1,286.28 529.14 428,941.61 mm4
Īy= 1,706,716.88 1,286.28 1,223.92 132,413.62 mm4

1 Rectangle-1 18,000.00 50.00 900,000.00 45,000,000.00 48,600,000.00 15,000,000.00
2 Triangle-2 9,000.00 133.33 1,200,000.00 160,000,000.00 12,150,000.00 5,000,000.00
3 Circle-3 -7,853.98 50.00 -392,699.08 -19,634,954.08 -38529027.7483465 -19,634,954.08
Sum 19,146.02 1,707,300.92 0.00 185,365,045.92 0.00 22,220,972.25 365,045.92
x
ax  y
ay

89.17 mm 0.00 mm
a a
Reference axis Ix = 22,220,972.25 Ì 0.00 22,220,972.25 mm4

Iz = 22,220,972.25 Ì 185,730,091.83 207,951,064.08 mm4
Īx= 22,220,972.25 19,146.02 0.00 22,220,972.25 mm4
Īy= 185,730,091.83 19,146.02 7,951.76 33,485,569.24 mm4

y

24
1 Triangle-1 4,500.00 0.00 30.00 135,000.00 4,050,000.00 2,025,000.00
2 Rectangle-2 -600.00 0.00 45.00 -27,000.00 -1,215,000.00 -45,000.00
Sum 3,900.00 0.00 108,000.00 0.00 2,835,000.00 1,980,000.00 0.00
x
ax  y
ay
 30
a
0.00 mm 27.69 mm
a
Reference axis Iy = 0.00 Ì 0.00 0.00 mm4 30
Iz = 4,815,000.00 Ì 0.00 4,815,000.00 mm4
Īx= 4,815,000.00 3,900.00 766.86 1,824,230.77 mm4
Īy= 0.00 3,900.00 0.00 0.00 mm4

30
Polar Moment of Inertia Īz= 1,824,230.77 Ì 0.00 1,824,230.77 mm4
A B
40 40
Radius of Gyration kx 21.63 mm kAB = 35.14 mm 10 10

y

MODULE 5
KINEMATICS
INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the branch of science which deals with the study of behaviour of body or particle
in the state of motion under the action of force system. The first significant contribution to
dynamics was made by Galileo in 1564. Later, Newton formulated the fundamental laws of
motion.
Dynamics branches into two streams called kinematics and kinetics.
Kinematics is the study of relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration and time
of the given motion without considering the forces that causes the motion, or Kinematics is
the branch of dynamics which deals with the study of properties of motion of the body or
particle under the system of forces without considering the effect of forces.
Kinetics is the study of the relationships between the forces acting on the body, the mass of
the body and the motion of body, or Kinetics is the branch of dynamics which deals with the
study of properties of motion of the body or particle in such way that the forces which cause
the motion of body are mainly taken into consideration.
TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO MOTION
Motion: A body is said to be in motion if it is changing its position with respect to a reference
point.
Path: It is the imaginary line connecting the position of a body or particle that has been
occupied at different instances over a period of time. This path traced by a body or particle
can be a straight line/liner or curvilinear.
Displacement and Distance Travelled
Displacement is a vector quantity, measure of the interval between two locations or two
points, measured along the shortest path connecting them. Displacement can be positive or

negative.
Distance is a scalar quantity, measure of the interval between two locations measured along
the actual path connecting them. Distance is an absolute quantity and always positive.
A particle in a rectilinear motion occupies a certain position on the straight line. To define this
position P of the particle we have to choose some convenient reference point O called origin
(Figure 5.1). The distance x1 of the particle from the origin is called displacement.
Figure 5.1
Let,
P —> Position of the particle at any time t1

x1—> Displacement of particle measured in +ve direction of O
x2—> Displacement of particle measured in -ve direction of O
In this case the total distance travelled by a particle from point O to P to P1 and back to O is
not equal to displacement.
Total distance travelled = x1+ xl + x2 + x2 = 2(x1 + x2).

Whereas the net displacement is zero.
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement with respect to time is called velocity denoted by v.
Mathematically v = dx/dt
Average velocity: When an object undergoes change in velocities at different instances, the
average velocity is given by the sum of the velocities at different instances divided by the
number of instances. That is, if an object has different velocities v1, v2, v3, ... , vn, at times t =
t1, t2, t3, ..., tn, then the average velocity is given by

V = (v1+v2+v3+….vn)/n
Instantaneous velocity: It is the velocity of moving particle at a certain instant of time. To

calculate the instantaneous velocity Δx is considered as very small.
Instantaneous velocity v = Δt0 Δx/Δt

,
Speed: Rate of change of distance travelled by the particle with respect to time is called
speed.
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration
Mathematically a = dv/dt
Average Acceleration
Consider a particle P situated at a distances of x from O at any instant of time t having a

velocity v. Let Pl be the new position of particle at a distance of (x + Δx) from origin with a
velocity of
(v + Δv). See Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2
Average acceleration over a time t, is given by
aavg = Δv/Δt
Acceleration due to gravity: Each and everybody is attracted towards the centre of the earth
by a gravitational force and the acceleration with which the body is pulled towards the centre
of the earth due to gravity is denoted by 'g'. The value of g is normally taken as 9.81 m/s2.
Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's first law: This law states that 'everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion, so long as it is under the influence of a balanced force system'.
Newton's second law: This law states that 'the rate of change momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of force acting on it.
Newton's third law: This law states that 'action and reaction are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction'.
Types of Motion
1. Rectilinear motion
2. Curvilinear motion
3. Projectile motion
Graphical representation: The problems in dynamics can be analysed both analytically and
graphically without compromising on the accuracy. Most of the times graphical
representations can lead to simpler solutions to complicated problems. Using the simple terms
defined in the initial portions of the section, we can draw different types of graphs.
Displacement-time graph: The representation with graph in Figure 5.3 shows that the
displacement is uniform with time. Hence it is understood that the body is under rest as the
displacement is constant with respect to time.
The representation with graph in Figure 5.4 shows that the plot is having a constant slope and
the variation of displacement is uniform with time. The slope indicates the ratio. of
displacement to time which is equal to velocity of the body; Hence it is understood that the
body is moving under uniform velocity.
Figure 5.5 shows variation of displacement with time as a curve. The tangent to this curve at
any point indicates the velocity of the body at that instant. As can be seen the slope of the
tangent is changing with respect to time and ever increasing, it indicates that the velocity is
changing with respect to time and also indicates that the velocity is increasing with respect to

time. This increasing velocity with respect to time is termed acceleration.
Figure 5.3 Variation of displacement with time.
Figure 5.4 Variation of displacement with time
In case of Figure 5.6, the curvature is decreasing, and the slope of the tangent is decreasing
with respect to time and rate change of velocity is decreasing. This is termed as deceleration.

Velocity-time graph: A plot of velocity with respect to time is termed as velocity-time graph
Figure 5.7 Variation of velocity with time.
Unit of velocity = v = LT-l

Unit of time = T
Velocity x Time = LT-l xT=L Distance
Hence, the area under V-T graph will produce the distance traveled by the body/particle
from time t1 to t2,
s = v* (t2 –t1,) = vt .. (i)
This is applicable only when the velocity is uniform.
In case of Figure 5.8, the velocity is varying uniformly with respect to time as seen from
sloped straight line.

The slope of the line is gives acceleration

a = (v2-v1)/(t2-t1)
(v2-v1) = a(t2-t1)
v2 = v1+a(t2-t1)
= u + at (1)
where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = (t2-t1)
As seen from earlier graph, the total distance traveled is given by the area under the curve and
hence the area is given as
S = v1*t + 0.5(v2-v1)t
But acceleration = a = (v2-v1)/t
Substituting, we get
S = v1 x t + 0.5 x at2 or ut + 0.5at2
where u is the initial velocity or velocity at time t1
Acceleration-time graph: It is a plot of acceleration versus time graph as shown in Figure

5.9
It is seen that die acceleration is constant with respect to time t. The same can be connected to
velocity-time graph (Figure 5.6), wherein the velocity variation is constant.

The coordinates in acceleration-time graph show the area under the velocity-time curve.
In case of Figure 5.10, it is seen that the acceleration line in acceleration-time plot, it shows
the variation of acceleration to be uniform.
Figure 5.9 Variation of acceleration with time.
The curve in velocity-time graph will be simplified as a straight line in acceleration-time

graph.
Using Eqs (1) and (2), to get an equation without tim, we substitute for t from Eq. 1 in Eq. 2,
we get

S = u(v-u)/a + 0.5[(v-u)/a]2
v2 - u2 = 2as …(3)
Rectilinear Motion
When a particle or a body moves along a straight line path, then it is called linear motion or
rectilinear motion.
Equation of motion along a straight line

v= u + at
v2 - u2 = 2as
s = ut + 0.5at
Example 1: The motion of a particle is given by the equation x = t3 – 3t2 -9t + 12. Determine
the time, distance travelled and acceleration of particle when velocity becomes zero.
Solution
X = t3-3t2-9t+l2 (1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to 'x', we get

v= dx/dt = 3t2-6t-9 (2)
when v = 0
The above equation is in the form of
and the solution is ax2+bx+c=0
x= -b±√(b2-4ac)/2a (3)

substituting the respective values in Eq. (3), we get
t = -1 or t = 3 s (negative value of t can be discarded)

Substitute t = 3 s in (1), we get
x = -15 m
Differentiating Eq. (2), we get
a =12 m/s2
Example 2: The motion of a particle is defined by the relation x = t3- 9t2 + 24t - 6. Determine
the position, velocity and acceleration when t = 5 s.
Solution
x=t3-9t2+24t-6 (1)
dx/dt=v = 3t2-18t + 2 (2)
Differentiating Eq. (2). we get

d2x/dt2 = a =6t -18
Substitute t = 5 s in Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we get

x = 14 m
v = 9 m/s
a =12 m/s2
Example 3: A car is moving with a velocity of 15 m/s. The car is brought to rest by applying
brakes in 5 s. Determine (i) Retardation (ii) Distance travelled by the car after applying the
brakes.
Solution
(i) Retardation

We know that v = u + at
0= 15 + ax5
a = -3 m/s2
(ii) Distance travelled by the car after applying the brakes.
We know that
s = ut + 0.5at2
s= 15x5+ 0.5x(-3)x(5)2
s = 37.5m
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
We know that everybody on the earth experiences a force of attraction towards the centre of
the earth is known as gravity. When a body is allowed to fall freely, it is acted upon by
acceleration due to gravity and its velocity goes on increasing until it reaches the ground. The
force of attraction of the earth that pulls all bodies towards the centre of earth with uniform
acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity. The value of acceleration due to gravity
is constant in general and its value is considered to be 9.81 m/s2 and is always directed
towards the centre of earth. Acceleration due to gravity is generally denoted by 'g'.
When the body is moving vertically downwards, the value of g is considered as positive and if
the body is projected vertically upwards, then acceleration due to gravity is considered as
negative. Evidently, all equations of motion are applicable except by replacing uniform
acceleration V with acceleration due to gravity 'g1 and are written as
(i) When a body is projected vertically downward, under the action of gravity, the equations
of motion are
v = u + gt
v2 = u2 + 2gh
h = ut + 0.5gt2
(ii) When a body is projected vertically upward, under the action of gravity, the equations of
motion are
v = u-gt
v2 = u2 - 2gh

h = ut -0.5gt2
Example 4: A ball is thrown vertically upward into air with an initial velocity of 35 m/s. After
3 s another ball is thrown vertically. What initial velocity must be the second ball has to pass
the first ball at 30 m from the ground.
-
Solution Consider the first ball, we know that
h = u1t-0.5gt2
30 = 35t – 0.5*9.81*t2
t2 – 7.135t + 6.116 = 0
t = 6.138 s
Consider the second ball
t2 = (6.138 -3) = 3. 138s

h = u2t2 – 0.5gt22
h = 30 m
u2 = 24.91m/sec
CURVILINEAR MOTION
Introduction
When a moving particle describes a path other than a straight line is said be a particle in
curvilinear motion. If the curved path lies in a single plane is called plane curvilinear motion.
Most of the motions of particles encountered in engineering practices are of this type.
Curvilinear Motion in Cartesian Coordinates
In Cartesian coordinates two axes of reference will be chosen. To define the position of
particle at any instant of time we have to choose a reference axis namely A and y.

Let, P be the position of particle at any instant of time t

'P1' be the new position at an instant of time (t + Δt) from origin.
Join O to P and O to P1
Let r be the position vector of P having magnitude and direction.
r1 be the position vector P1
Δr be the rate of change in displacement amount over a time Δt
Average velocity over a time Δt = Δr/Δt
Figure 5.11
Velocity of particle is vector tangent to the path of panicle'

Let, Δx be the distance travelled in x direction
Δy be the distance travelled in y direction
Velocity in 'x' direction = vx = dx/dt

Velocity in y direction = vy = dv/dt
Resultant velocity = v = \/(vx2 + vu2)
Normal and tangential component of acceleration:

Velocity of moving particle is always vector tangential to the path of particle. But acceleration
is not tangential to path. But it is convenient to resolve the acceleration along tangential and
normal direction.

Figure 5.11
Tangential acceleration = at = dv/dt
Normal acceleration = an = (v2/ρ)ρ = r
Where 'ρ' is the radius of curvature.
From the above expression it is evident that tangential component of acceleration is equal the
rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Normal component of acceleration is equal to
the square of velocity divided by the radius of curvature.
Example 6: The motion of a particle is described by the following equation x = 2(t + 1 )2 , y =

2(t + 1) -2. Show that path travelled by the particle is rectangular hyperbola. Also find the
velocity and acceleration of particle at t = 0
Solution To find the path travelled, we know that
x = 2(t+1)2
y = 2(t+1)2
Multiplying the two equation
xy = 2 [xy = constant]
This represents a rectangular hyperbola

We know x = 2(t + 1)2
Component of velocity in x direction vx= 2 x 2(t + 1)

Component of acceleration in x direction ax = d2x/db2 = 2x2 = 4 m/s2
When t = 0, vx = 4 m/s2
ax = 4 m/s2
We know y = 2(t + 1)-2

Component of velocity in y direction
vy = dy/dt = 2(-2)(t+1)-3
= -4(t+1)-3
Cornponent of acceleration in y direction

ay = d2y/dt2 = -12(t+1)-4
When t = 0
v y = 4m/s
ay = 12m/s
y
2
velocity = v = √(vx2 +v )
tan Ѳ = vy/vx = -1
Ѳ = 45o

2 2 2
Acceleration = a = √(ax + ay ) = 12.65 m/s

α = 71.6o
CURVILINEAR MOTION IN POLAR COORDINATES
The curvilinear motion of particle can be expressed in terms of rectangular components and
components along the tangent and normal to the path of particle.
In certain problems the position of particle is more conveniently described by its polar
coordinates. In that case it is much simpler to resolve the velocity and acceleration of particle
into components that are parallel and perpendicular to the position vector V of the particle.
These components are called radial and transverse components.
Figure 5.12
Consider a collar P sliding outward along a straight rod OA, which itself is rotating about
fixed point O. It is much convenient to define the position of collar at any instant in terms of
distance r from the point 'O' and angular position 'Ѳ' of rod OA with x axis.
Thus polar coordinates of point P these are (r, Ѳ).
It can be shown that the radial and transverse components of velocity are v r = r
(Radial component directed along position vector r)

Transverse component
vѲ = rѲ
(Transverse component directed along the normal to the position vector r)
Total velocity = v = √(vr2 + v Ѳ2)
Radial component of acceleration ar = r.. - r(Ѳ)2
Figure 5.13
Transverse component of acceleration aѲ = rѲ.. + 2 rѲ
Total acceleration = a = √(ar2 +aѲ2)
The component of velocity and acceleration are related as

ar = vr - vѲѲ
ar = vѲ - vrѲ
From the above equation it can be seen that 'ar' is not equal to vr and aѲ' is not equal to vѲ
It would be noted that radial component of velocity and acceleration are taken to the positive
in the same sense of position vector r.
Transverse components of velocity and acceleration are taken to the positive if pointing
towards the increasing value of Ѳ.
To understand the physical significance of above results let us assume the following two
situations.
(i) If r is of constant length and Ѳ varies. Then r reduces to rotation along circular path.

r = constant
r=r= 0
vѲ = rѲ
vr = r = 0
aѲ = rѲ
ar = -r(Ѳ)2
(-ve sign indicates that ar is directed opposite to the sense of position vector 'r' or towards 'O')
(ii) If, only r varies and Ѳ constant it then resolves a rectilinear motion along a fixed
direction Ѳ
Ѳ = constant
Ѳ =0
vѲ = 0
vr = raѲ = 0
ar = r
Example 7: The plane curvilinear motion of particle is defined in polar coordinates by r = t3/3
+ 2t and Ѳ = 0.3t2 Find the magnitude of velocity, acceleration of path when t = 1 s.
Solution: Equations of motion are

r = t3/3 + 2t & Ѳ = 0.3t2
Evaluating Ѳ, dѲ/dt. d2Ѳ/dt2 Ѳ

=0.3t2
dѲ/dt = 2*0.3t
d2Ѳ/dt2 = 0.6
At t = 1s
Ѳ = 0.3 rad
dѲ/dt = 0.6 rad

d2Ѳ/dt2 = 0.6 rad/s2
r = 2.33m
dr/dt = 3m/s
d2r/dt2 = 2m/s2
Velocity
Vr = dr/dt = 3m/s vѲ = rѲ =
2.33*0.6
PROJECTILES
Whenever a particle is projected upwards with some inclination to the horizontal (but not
vertical), it travels in the air and traces a parabolic path and falls on the ground point (target)
other than the point of projection. The particle itself is called projectile and the path traced by
the projectile is called trajectory.
Figure 5.14
Terms used in projectile
1. Velocity of projection (u): It is the velocity with which projectile is projected in the
upward direction with some inclination to the horizontal.
2. Angle of projection (α): It is the angle with which the projectile is projected with respect
to horizontal.

3. Time of flight (T): It is the total time required for the projectile to travel from the point of
projection to the point of target.
4. Horizontal range (R): It is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and
target point.
5. Vertical height (h): It is the vertical distance/height reached by the projectile from the
point of projection.
Some relations
Time of flight:
Let T be the time of flight. We know that the vertical ordinate at any point on the path of
projectile after a time T is given by
y = (u sin α)t – 0.5gt2
When the projectile hits the ground, say at B: y = 0 at t = T
Above equation becomes
0 = (u sin α)t- 0.5gt2
(u sin α) = 0.5gt
T = (2u sin α)/g
Horizontal range of the projectile:

During the time of flight, the horizontal component of velocity of projectile = u cos α
{Horizontal distance of the projectile} = R= {Horizontal component of velocity of projection}
{Time of flight} = u cos α x T
R = (u cos α *2u sin α)/g = (u2 sin (2α))/g
sin (2 α) will be maximum only when sin 2 α = 1

sin 2 α = sin 90 or α = 45°
Hence maximum horizontal range is given by
Rmax = (u2 sin 90)/g = u2/g
Maximum height attained by the projectile: When the projectile reaches its maximum height,
vertical component of velocity of projection becomes zero.
V2 – u2 = 2gs
0 – u2 sin2 α = -2ghmax
hmax = u2 sin2 α/ 2g
Time required to reach the maximum height is given by
v = u + at
0 = u sin α - gt
t = u sin α / g
Motion of projectile: Let a particle be projected upward from a point O at an angle a with
horizontal with an initial velocity of u m/s as shown in Figure 11.39. Now resolving this
velocity into two components, we get
ux = u sinα
uy = u cosα
Figure 5.15
The vertical component of velocity is always affected by acceleration due to gravity. The
particle will reach the maximum height when vertical component becomes zero. The
horizontal component of velocity will remains constant since there is no effect of acceleration
due to gravity. The combined effect of horizontal and vertical components of velocity will
move the particle along some path in air and then fall on the ground other than the point of

projection.

Equation for the path of projectile (Trajectory equation): Let a particle is projected at a certain
angle from point O. The particle will move along a certain path OPA in the air and will fall
down at A.
Let u = velocity of projection
α = angle of projection
After t seconds, let a particle reach any point 'P' with x and y as coordinates as shown in
Figure 5.16
We know that, horizontal component of velocity of projection = u cosα
Vertical component of velocity of projection = u sin α
Therefore, x = u cosαt
y = u sin αt – 0.5gt2
From Eq. (1)

t = x/(u cos α)
substitute in Eq. (2), we get
y = u sinα[x/(u cosα)] – 0.5g[x/ucosα]2

y = x tanα – [gx2/(2u2cos2α)

Example 8: A particle is projected at an angle of 60° with horizontal. The horizontal range of
particle is 5 km. Find
(i) Velocity of projection (ii) Maximum height attained by the particle
Solution Data given; R = 5 km = 5000 m, g = 9.81 m/s2 and α =

60° To find: u and hmax
We know that
R = (u2 sin 2α)/g
…………(1
) Substituting the known values in Eq. (1), we get
u = 237.98 m/s
Again, maximum height attained by the particle
hmax = (u2 sin α)/2g = 2164.9m
Motion of a body thrown horizontally from a certain height into air
The figure shows a body thrown horizontally from certain height 'H' into air. At 'B' there is
only horizontal component of velocity. As the body moves in the air towards the ground, the
body has both horizontal and vertical components of velocity.
The horizontal component of velocity from B to A remains constant and will be equal to u.
But the vertical component of velocity in the downward direction will be subjected to
gravitational force and hence will not be a constant.
Resultant velocity = R = √(u2 + v2) & Ѳ = tan-1(v/u)
(i) Vertical downward distance travelled by the body is given

by H = (vertical component of velocity at B)t + 0.5gt2

Figure 5.17
(ii) The horizontal distance travelled by the body

R = (horizontal component of velocity at B)t
R = ut
(iii) The vertical component of velocity at point A is obtained from the
equation v = u + gt
or v = gt
Resultant Velocity at A = R = √(u2 + v2)
Example 9: An aircraft is moving horizontally at a speed of 108 km/h at an altitude of 1000

m towards a target on the ground releases a bomb which hits the target. Estimate the
horizontal distance of aircraft from the target when it release a bomb. Calculate also the
direction and velocity with which bomb hits the target.
Solution
Speed of aircraft = (108xl00)/(60x30) = 30m/s
Horizontal velocity of bomb = u = 200 m/s

Height H= 1000m

Let t be the time required for the bomb to hit the target
We know that
H = 0.5gt2
1000 .5 x 9.81 x t2 or t = 14.278 s
(i) Horizontal distance of aircraft from the target when it releases a

bomb. We know that
R = u x t = 30 x 14.278 = 428.57 m
(ii) Velocity with which bomb hits the target.
Vertical component of velocity = v = gt = 9.8 1 x 14.278 = 1 39.9 m/s
Horizontal component of velocity = u = 30 m/s
Resultant velocity = R = √(u2 + v2)= 143.08 m/s

Direction = Ѳ= tan-1 (v/u) = 77

MODULE 5
KINEMATICS
INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the branch of science which deals with the study of behavior of body or particle
in the state of motion under the action of force system. The first significant contribution to
dynamics was made by Galileo in 1564. Later, Newton formulated the fundamental laws of
motion.
Dynamics branches into two streams called kinematics and kinetics.
Kinematics is the study of relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration and time
of the given motion without considering the forces that causes the motion, or Kinematics is
the branch of dynamics which deals with the study of properties of motion of the body or
particle under the system of forces without considering the effect of forces.
Kinetics is the study of the relationships between the forces acting on the body, the mass of
the body and the motion of body, or Kinetics is the branch of dynamics which deals with the
study of properties of motion of the body or particle in such way that the forces which cause
the motion of body are mainly taken into consideration.
TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO MOTION
Motion: A body is said to be in motion if it is changing its position with respect to a reference
point.
Path: It is the imaginary line connecting the position of a body or particle that has been
occupied at different instances over a period of time. This path traced by a body or particle
can be a straight line/liner or curvilinear.
Displacement and Distance Travelled
Displacement is a vector quantity, measure of the interval between two locations or two
points, measured along the shortest path connecting them. Displacement can be positive or
negative.
Distance is a scalar quantity, measure of the interval between two locations measured along
the actual path connecting them. Distance is an absolute quantity and always positive.
A particle in a rectilinear motion occupies a certain position on the straight line. To define this
position P of the particle we have to choose some convenient reference point O called origin
(Figure 5.1). The distance x1 of the particle from the origin is called displacement.
Figure 5.1
Let,

P —> Position of the particle at any time t1
x1—> Displacement of particle measured in +ve direction of O
x2—> Displacement of particle measured in -ve direction of O
In this case the total distance travelled by a particle from point O to P to P1 and back to O is
not equal to displacement.
Total distance travelled = x1+ xl + x2 + x2 = 2(x1 + x2).

Whereas the net displacement is zero.
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement with respect to time is called velocity denoted by v.
Mathematically v = dx/dt
Average velocity: When an object undergoes change in velocities at different instances, the
average velocity is given by the sum of the velocities at different instances divided by the
number of instances. That is, if an object has different velocities v1, v2, v3, ... , vn, at times t =
t1, t2, t3, ..., tn, then the average velocity is given by
V = (v1+v2+v3+….vn)/n
Instantaneous velocity: It is the velocity of moving particle at a certain instant of time. To

calculate the instantaneous velocity Δx is considered as very small.
Instantaneous velocity v = Δt0 Δx/Δt

,
Speed: Rate of change of distance travelled by the particle with respect to time is called
speed.
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration
Mathematically a = dv/dt
Average Acceleration
Consider a particle P situated at a distances of x from O at any instant of time t having a

velocity v. Let Pl be the new position of particle at a distance of (x + Δx) from origin with a
velocity of
(v + Δv). See Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2

Average acceleration over a time t, is given by
aavg = Δv/Δt
Acceleration due to gravity: Each and everybody is attracted towards the centre of the earth
by a gravitational force and the acceleration with which the body is pulled towards the centre
of the earth due to gravity is denoted by 'g'. The value of g is normally taken as 9.81 m/s2.
Newton's Laws of Motion
Newton's first law: This law states that 'everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion, so long as it is under the influence of a balanced force system'.
Newton's second law: This law states that 'the rate of change momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of force acting on it.
Newton's third law: This law states that 'action and reaction are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction'.
Types of Motion
1. Rectilinear motion
2. Curvilinear motion
3. Projectile motion
Graphical representation: The problems in dynamics can be analysed both analytically and
graphically without compromising on the accuracy. Most of the times graphical
representations can lead to simpler solutions to complicated problems. Using the simple terms
defined in the initial portions of the section, we can draw different types of graphs.
Displacement-time graph: The representation with graph in Figure 5.3 shows that the
displacement is uniform with time. Hence it is understood that the body is under rest as the
displacement is constant with respect to time.
The representation with graph in Figure 5.4 shows that the plot is having a constant slope and
the variation of displacement is uniform with time. The slope indicates the ratio. of
displacement to time which is equal to velocity of the body; Hence it is understood that the
body is moving under uniform velocity.
Figure 5.5 shows variation of displacement with time as a curve. The tangent to this curve at
any point indicates the velocity of the body at that instant. As can be seen the slope of the
tangent is changing with respect to time and ever increasing, it indicates that the velocity is
changing with respect to time and also indicates that the velocity is increasing with respect to
time. This increasing velocity with respect to time is termed acceleration.

Figure 5.4 Variation of displacement with time
In case of Figure 5.6, the curvature is decreasing, and the slope of the tangent is decreasing
with respect to time and rate change of velocity is decreasing. This is termed as deceleration.

Velocity-time graph: A plot of velocity with respect to time is termed as velocity-time graph
Unit of velocity = v = LT-l

Unit of time = T
Velocity x Time = LT-l xT=L Distance
Hence, the area under V-T graph will produce the distance traveled by the body/particle
from time t1 to t2,
s = v* (t2 –t1,) = vt .. (i)
This is applicable only when the velocity is uniform.
In case of Figure 5.8, the velocity is varying uniformly with respect to time as seen from
sloped straight line.

The slope of the line is gives acceleration

a = (v2-v1)/(t2-t1)
(v2-v1) = a(t2-t1)
v2 = v1+a(t2-t1)
= u + at (1)
where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = (t2-t1)
As seen from earlier graph, the total distance traveled is given by the area under the curve and
hence the area is given as
S = v1*t + 0.5(v2-v1)t
But acceleration = a = (v2-v1)/t
Substituting, we get
S = v1 x t + 0.5 x at2 or ut + 0.5at2
where u is the initial velocity or velocity at time t1
Acceleration-time graph: It is a plot of acceleration versus time graph as shown in Figure

5.9
It is seen that die acceleration is constant with respect to time t. The same can be connected to
velocity-time graph (Figure 5.6), wherein the velocity variation is constant.
The coordinates in acceleration-time graph show the area under the velocity-time curve.
In case of Figure 5.10, it is seen that the acceleration line in acceleration-time plot, it shows
the variation of acceleration to be uniform.

Figure 5.9 Variation of acceleration with time.
The curve in velocity-time graph will be simplified as a straight line in acceleration-time

graph.
Using Eqs (1) and (2), to get an equation without tim, we substitute for t from Eq. 1 in Eq. 2,
we get
S = u(v-u)/a + 0.5[(v-u)/a]2
v2 - u2 = 2as …(3)
Rectilinear Motion
When a particle or a body moves along a straight line path, then it is called linear motion or

rectilinear motion.

Equation of motion along a straight line
v= u + at
v2 - u2 = 2as
s = ut + 0.5at
Example 1: The motion of a particle is given by the equation x = t3 – 3t2 -9t + 12. Determine
the time, distance travelled and acceleration of particle when velocity becomes zero.
Solution
X = t3-3t2-9t+l2 (1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to 'x', we get

v= dx/dt = 3t2-6t-9 (2)
when v = 0
The above equation is in the form of
ax2+bx+c=0
and the solution is
x= -b±√(b2-4ac)/2a (3)
substituting the respective values in Eq. (3), we get
t = -1 or t = 3 s (negative value of t can be discarded)

Substitute t = 3 s in (1), we get
x = -15 m
a =12 m/s2
Example 2: The motion of a particle is defined by the relation x = t3- 9t2 + 24t - 6. Determine
the position, velocity and acceleration when t = 5 s.
Solution
x=t3-9t2+24t-6 (1)
dx/dt=v = 3t2-18t + 2 (2)
Differentiating Eq. (2). we get

d2x/dt2 = a =6t -18
Substitute t = 5 s in Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we get

x = 14 m
v = 9 m/s
a =12 m/s2
Example 3: A car is moving with a velocity of 15 m/s. The car is brought to rest by applying
brakes in 5 s. Determine (i) Retardation (ii) Distance travelled by the car after applying the
brakes.

Solution
(i) Retardation
We know that v = u + at
0= 15 + ax5
a = -3 m/s2
(ii) Distance travelled by the car after applying the brakes.
We know that
s = ut + 0.5at2
s= 15x5+ 0.5x(-3)x(5)2
s = 37.5m
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
We know that everybody on the earth experiences a force of attraction towards the centre of
the earth is known as gravity. When a body is allowed to fall freely, it is acted upon by
acceleration due to gravity and its velocity goes on increasing until it reaches the ground. The
force of attraction of the earth that pulls all bodies towards the centre of earth with uniform
acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity. The value of acceleration due to gravity
is constant in general and its value is considered to be 9.81 m/s2 and is always directed
towards the centre of earth. Acceleration due to gravity is generally denoted by 'g'.
When the body is moving vertically downwards, the value of g is considered as positive and if
the body is projected vertically upwards, then acceleration due to gravity is considered as
negative. Evidently, all equations of motion are applicable except by replacing uniform
acceleration V with acceleration due to gravity 'g1 and are written as
(i) When a body is projected vertically downward, under the action of gravity, the equations
of motion are
v = u + gt
v2 = u2 + 2gh
h = ut + 0.5gt2
(ii) When a body is projected vertically upward, under the action of gravity, the equations of
motion are
v = u-gt
v2 = u2 - 2gh
h = ut -0.5gt2
Example 4: A ball is thrown vertically upward into air with an initial velocity of 35 m/s. After
3 s another ball is thrown vertically. What initial velocity must be the second ball has to pass
the first ball at 30 m from the ground.
-
Solution Consider the first ball, we know that
h = u1t-0.5gt2
30 = 35t – 0.5*9.81*t2
t2 – 7.135t + 6.116 = 0
t = 6.138 s
Consider the second ball

t2 = (6.138 -3) = 3. 138s
h = u2t2 – 0.5gt22
h = 30 m
u2 = 24.91m/sec
CURVILINEAR MOTION
Introduction
When a moving particle describes a path other than a straight line is said be a particle in
curvilinear motion. If the curved path lies in a single plane is called plane curvilinear motion.
Most of the motions of particles encountered in engineering practices are of this type.
Curvilinear Motion in Cartesian Coordinates
In Cartesian coordinates two axes of reference will be chosen. To define the position of
particle at any instant of time we have to choose a reference axis namely A and y.
Let, P be the position of particle at any instant of time t

'P1' be the new position at an instant of time (t + Δt) from origin.
Join O to P and O to P1
Let r be the position vector of P having magnitude and direction.
r1 be the position vector P1
Δr be the rate of change in displacement amount over a time Δt
Average velocity over a time Δt = Δr/Δt
Figure 5.11
Velocity of particle is vector tangent to the path of panicle'

Let, Δx be the distance travelled in x direction

Δy be the distance travelled in y direction

Velocity in 'x' direction = vx = dx/dt
Velocity in y direction = vy = dv/dt
Resultant velocity = v = \/(vx2 + vu2)
Normal and tangential component of acceleration:

Velocity of moving particle is always vector tangential to the path of particle. But acceleration
is not tangential to path. But it is convenient to resolve the acceleration along tangential and
normal direction.
Figure 5.11
Tangential acceleration = at = dv/dt
Normal acceleration = an = (v2/ρ)ρ = r
Where 'ρ' is the radius of curvature.
From the above expression it is evident that tangential component of acceleration is equal the
rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Normal component of acceleration is equal to
the square of velocity divided by the radius of curvature.
Example 6: The motion of a particle is described by the following equation x = 2(t + 1 )2 , y =

2(t + 1) -2. Show that path travelled by the particle is rectangular hyperbola. Also find the
velocity and acceleration of particle at t = 0
Solution To find the path travelled, we know that
x = 2(t+1)2
y = 2(t+1)2
Multiplying the two equation
xy = 2 [xy = constant]
This represents a rectangular hyperbola

We know x = 2(t + 1)2
Component of velocity in x direction vx= 2 x 2(t + 1)
Component of acceleration in x direction ax = d2x/db2 = 2x2 = 4 m/s2

When t = 0, vx = 4 m/s2

ax = 4 m/s2

We know y = 2(t + 1)-2
Component of velocity in y direction
vy = dy/dt = 2(-2)(t+1)-3
= -4(t+1)-3
Cornponent of acceleration in y direction

ay = d2y/dt2 = -12(t+1)-4
When t = 0
v y = 4m/s
ay = 12m/s
velocity = v = √(v 2 + v 2)
x y
tan Ѳ = vy/vx = -1
Ѳ = 45o
2 2 2
Acceleration = a = √(ax + ay ) = 12.65 m/s
α = 71.6o
CURVILINEAR MOTION IN POLAR COORDINATES
The curvilinear motion of particle can be expressed in terms of rectangular components and
components along the tangent and normal to the path of particle.
In certain problems the position of particle is more conveniently described by its polar
coordinates. In that case it is much simpler to resolve the velocity and acceleration of particle
into components that are parallel and perpendicular to the position vector V of the particle.
These components are called radial and transverse components.
Figure 5.12

Consider a collar P sliding outward along a straight rod OA, which itself is rotating about
fixed point O. It is much convenient to define the position of collar at any instant in terms of

distance r from the point 'O' and angular position 'Ѳ' of rod OA with x axis.
Thus polar coordinates of point P these are (r, Ѳ).
It can be shown that the radial and transverse components of velocity are v r = r
(Radial component directed along position vector r)
Transverse component
vѲ = rѲ
(Transverse component directed along the normal to the position vector r)
Total velocity = v = √(vr2 + v Ѳ2 )
Radial component of acceleration ar = r.. - r(Ѳ)2
Figure 5.13
Transverse component of acceleration aѲ = rѲ.. + 2 rѲ

Total acceleration = a = √(ar2 +aѲ2 )
The component of velocity and acceleration are related as

ar = vr - vѲѲ
ar = vѲ - vrѲ
From the above equation it can be seen that 'ar' is not equal to vr and aѲ' is not equal to vѲ
It would be noted that radial component of velocity and acceleration are taken to the positive
in the same sense of position vector r.
Transverse components of velocity and acceleration are taken to the positive if pointing
towards the increasing value of Ѳ.
To understand the physical significance of above results let us assume the following two
situations.
(i) If r is of constant length and Ѳ varies. Then r reduces to rotation along circular path.
r = constant
r=r=0
vѲ = rѲ

vr = r = 0

aѲ = rѲ
ar = -r(Ѳ)2
(-ve sign indicates that ar is directed opposite to the sense of position vector 'r' or towards 'O')
(ii) If, only r varies and Ѳ constant it then resolves a rectilinear motion along a fixed
direction Ѳ
Ѳ = constant
Ѳ =0
vѲ = 0
vr = raѲ = 0
ar = r
Example 7: The plane curvilinear motion of particle is defined in polar coordinates by r = t3/3
+ 2t and Ѳ = 0.3t2 Find the magnitude of velocity, acceleration of path when t = 1 s.
Solution: Equations of motion are

r = t3/3 + 2t & Ѳ = 0.3t2
Evaluating Ѳ, dѲ/dt. d2Ѳ/dt2 Ѳ

=0.3t2
dѲ/dt = 2*0.3t
d2Ѳ/dt2 = 0.6
At t = 1s
Ѳ = 0.3 rad
dѲ/dt = 0.6 rad
d2Ѳ/dt2 = 0.6 rad/s2
r = 2.33m
dr/dt = 3m/s
d2r/dt2 = 2m/s2
Velocity
Vr = dr/dt = 3m/s
vѲ = rѲ = 2.33*0.6
PROJECTILES
Whenever a particle is projected upwards with some inclination to the horizontal (but not
vertical), it travels in the air and traces a parabolic path and falls on the ground point (target)
other than the point of projection. The particle itself is called projectile and the path traced by
the projectile is called trajectory.

Figure 5.14
Terms used in projectile
1. Velocity of projection (u): It is the velocity with which projectile is projected in the
upward direction with some inclination to the horizontal.
2. Angle of projection (α): It is the angle with which the projectile is projected with respect
to horizontal.
3. Time of flight (T): It is the total time required for the projectile to travel from the point of
projection to the point of target.
4. Horizontal range (R): It is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and
target point.
5. Vertical height (h): It is the vertical distance/height reached by the projectile from the
point of projection.
Some relations
Time of flight:
Let T be the time of flight. We know that the vertical ordinate at any point on the path of
projectile after a time T is given by
y = (u sin α)t – 0.5gt2
When the projectile hits the ground, say at B: y = 0 at t = T
Above equation becomes
0 = (u sin α)t- 0.5gt2
(u sin α) = 0.5gt
T = (2u sin α)/g
Horizontal range of the projectile:

During the time of flight, the horizontal component of velocity of projectile = u cos α
{Horizontal distance of the projectile} = R= {Horizontal component of velocity of projection}
{Time of flight} = u cos α x T

R = (u cos α *2u sin α)/g = (u2 sin (2α))/g
sin (2 α) will be maximum only when sin 2 α = 1

sin 2 α = sin 90 or α = 45°
Hence maximum horizontal range is given by
Rmax = (u2 sin 90)/g = u2/g
Maximum height attained by the projectile: When the projectile reaches its maximum height,
vertical component of velocity of projection becomes zero.
V2 – u2 = 2gs
0 – u2 sin2 α = -2ghmax
hmax = u2 sin2 α/ 2g
Time required to reach the maximum height is given by
v = u + at
0 = u sin α - gt
t = u sin α / g
Motion of projectile: Let a particle be projected upward from a point O at an angle a with
horizontal with an initial velocity of u m/s as shown in Figure 11.39. Now resolving this
velocity into two components, we get
ux = u sinα
uy = u cosα
Figure 5.15
The vertical component of velocity is always affected by acceleration due to gravity. The
particle will reach the maximum height when vertical component becomes zero. The
horizontal component of velocity will remains constant since there is no effect of acceleration
due to gravity. The combined effect of horizontal and vertical components of velocity will
move the particle along some path in air and then fall on the ground other than the point of
projection.

Equation for the path of projectile (Trajectory equation): Let a particle is projected at a certain
angle from point O. The particle will move along a certain path OPA in the air and will fall
down at A.
Let u = velocity of projection
α = angle of projection
After t seconds, let a particle reach any point 'P' with x and y as coordinates as shown in
Figure 5.16
We know that, horizontal component of velocity of projection = u cosα
Vertical component of velocity of projection = u sin α
Therefore, x = u cosαt
y = u sin αt – 0.5gt2
From Eq. (1)

t = x/(u cos α)
substitute in Eq. (2), we get

y = u sinα[x/(u cosα)] – 0.5g[x/ucosα]2
y = x tanα – [gx2/(2u2cos2α)]
Figure 5.16
Example 8: A particle is projected at an angle of 60° with horizontal. The horizontal range of
particle is 5 km. Find
(i) Velocity of projection (ii) Maximum height attained by the particle
Solution Data given; R = 5 km = 5000 m, g = 9.81 m/s2 and α = 60°

To find: u and hmax
We know that

R = (u2 sin 2α)/g …………(1)
Substituting the known values in Eq. (1), we get

u = 237.98 m/s
Again, maximum height attained by the particle
hmax = (u2 sin α)/2g = 2164.9m
Motion of a body thrown horizontally from a certain height into air
The figure shows a body thrown horizontally from certain height 'H' into air. At 'B' there is
only horizontal component of velocity. As the body moves in the air towards the ground, the
body has both horizontal and vertical components of velocity.
The horizontal component of velocity from B to A remains constant and will be equal to u.
But the vertical component of velocity in the downward direction will be subjected to
gravitational force and hence will not be a constant.
Resultant velocity = R = √(u2 + v2) & Ѳ = tan-1(v/u)
(i) Vertical downward distance travelled by the body is given by

H = (vertical component of velocity at B)t + 0.5gt2
Figure 5.17
(ii) The horizontal distance travelled by the body

R = (horizontal component of velocity at B)t
R = ut
(iii) The vertical component of velocity at point A is obtained from the equation
v = u + gt
or v = gt
Resultant Velocity at A = R = √(u2 + v2)

Example 9: An aircraft is moving horizontally at a speed of 108 km/h at an altitude of 1000 m

towards a target on the ground releases a bomb which hits the target. Estimate the horizontal
distance of aircraft from the target when it release a bomb. Calculate also the direction and
velocity with which bomb hits the target.
Solution
Speed of aircraft = (108xl00)/(60x30) = 30m/s
Horizontal velocity of bomb = u = 200 m/s

Height H= 1000m
Let t be the time required for the bomb to hit the target
We know that
H = 0.5gt2
1000 .5 x 9.81 x t2 or t = 14.278 s
(i) Horizontal distance of aircraft from the target when it releases a

bomb. We know that
R = u x t = 30 x 14.278 = 428.57 m
(ii) Velocity with which bomb hits the target.
Vertical component of velocity = v = gt = 9.8 1 x 14.278 = 1 39.9 m/s
Horizontal component of velocity = u = 30 m/s
Resultant velocity = R = √(u2 + v2)= 143.08 m/s

Direction = Ѳ= tan-1 (v/u) = 77

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Geetha Shishu Shikshana Sangha(R)

GSSS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE

ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & MECHANICS

Vision & Mission

To create quality engineers with the knowledge of Mechanical and civil

 To inspire and develop innovative and pragmatic problem solving skills

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SEMESTER I/II CIE Marks 40

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Support Reactions: Types of Loads and Supports, statically determinate and

Analysis of Simple trusses: Types of trusses, Analysis of statically determinate

Centroid: Centroid of simple figures from first principle, Centroid of

Moment of Inertia: Introduction, second moment of area of plane sections

Kinematics: Definitions, Displacement, Average velocity, Instantaneous

2. Compute the resultant of given force system subjected to various loads.

Question paper pattern:

 R. C. Hibbler, Engineering Mechanics: Principles of Statics and Dynamics, Pearson Press.

 Bansal R.K., AText Book of Engineering Mechanics, Laxmi Publications.

 Reddy Vijaykumar K. and K. Suresh Kumar, Singer’s Engineering Mechanics.

 Irving H. Shames, Engineering Mechanics, Prentice Hall.

Introduction to Civil Engineering

Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical

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3. Structural Engineering: A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like

5. Irrigation & Water resources engineering (Hydraulics Engineering): Irrigation is the

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rainfall in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water flowing in a river can be

6. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (Environmental Engineering): People in

7. Building Materials & Construction Technology: Any engineering structure requires a

Effects of Infrastructure development on the Socio-economic development of a country:

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1. It is a basic necessity for any country or state.

Some ill effects of infrastructure development can also be listed as follows:

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Solids Mechanics of Fluids

Mechanics of Rigid bodies Mechanics of Deformable bodies

Concepts of: Physical quantity, Scalar quantity, and Vector quantity

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Note: 1 kgf = ‗g‘ N (But g = 9.81m/s2) Therefore 1 kgf = 9.81 N or 10 N.

Ex.1: Consider a body being pushed by a force of 10 N as shown in figure below.

Line of action Body

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The characteristics of the force acting on the body are

The characteristics of the force acting on the ladder are

Idealization or assumptions in Mechanics: In applying the principles of mechanics to

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1. Coplanar force system:

3. Collinear force system:

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The force F is producing, simultaneous x displacement and y-displacement. The part of

To resolve a force along any direction

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Fx = - 200 Cos 36.87o

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Fy = - 200 Cos 36.87o