Language Problems
Among Students with
Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders
By Dixie Sanger,
John W . M a a g ,
a n d N a d i n e R. Shapera
Y
oungsters with emotional
and behavioral disorders
(EBD) represent a very het-
erogeneous group. These
children experience problems that in-
clude aggressive, disruptive, and anti-
social behavior,- social rejection by
peers,- depression,- and inadequate aca-
demic achievement (cf. Cullinan, Ep-
stein, & Sabomie, 1992). One area in
particular that seems to represent a
central and persistent characteristic
of youngsters with EBD is deficits in
language. Rosenthal and Simeonsson
(1991) found that the communication
of adolescents with emotional distur-
bances was both less informative and
less effective than that of nondisturbed
peers. Because language and communi-
cation are essential components of
interpersonal relationships, children
with EBD may experience difficulties
giving and receiving information from
others. Consequently, language skills
seem to impact upon children's so-
cial skills (McTear & Conti-Ramsden,
1992; Rice, Sell, & Hadley, 1991).
Recently, researchers have docu-
mented the extent of language dif-
ficulties in youngsters with EBD
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Provides an overview of language problems
and the extent of their impact on and the implications
for youngsters with emotional and behavioral disorders
(Camarata, Hughes, & Ruhl, 1988;
Cantwell & Baker, 1985; Giddan, 1991;
McDonough, 1989; Prizant et al., 1990;
Rosenthal & Simeonsson, 1991; Traut-
man, Giddan, & Jurs, 1990). Awareness-
of-incidence figures strongly suggest
that speech-language pathologists and
special educators need to collaborate
and develop improved services for
youngsters with concomitant behav-
ioral, emotional, and language disor-
ders. Therefore, in this article we will
first provide an overview of language
disorders and their impact upon young-
sters with EBD, the extent of language
problems in these youngsters, and the
implications of language impairments
in this population. Recommendations
for special educators will be presented
to address the needs of these young-
sters.
Language and its
Relation to EBD
In order to understand the impact
language difficulties have upon the
emotional and behavioral disorders of
youngsters, it is important to under-
stand the type of language problems a
VOLUME 30 NUMBER 2 NOVEMBER 1994 (PP. 103-108) 103
child can experience. Language prob-
lems are commonly described within
five areas: phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
The component of language that fo-
cuses on rules governing the structure,
distribution, and sequencing of speech
sounds is phonology (Owens, 1992).
Morphology refers to units of language
that convey the nuances of meaning—
such aspects as tense markers, plural-
ity, pronominalization, and case vari-
ation (Laughton & Hasenstab, 1986).
Syntax refers to the form and order of
words,- semantics addresses the mean-
ing component of language and words
(e.g., antonyms, synonyms, analogies,
nonliteral and literal meanings, mean-
ings of sentences). Finally, pragmatics
refers to how language is used for inter-
personal communication. It describes
a set of sociolinguistic rules used to
determine who says what to whom,
how, why, when, and in what situation
(Muma, 1978).
Taken together, youngsters with lan-
guage problems experience a number
of difficulties that include, but are not
limited to, deficiencies in using tense
or plural markers in correct pronoun
usage, limited vocabulary, restricted
word meanings, problems with figura-
tive language and jokes, poor compre-
hension and spoken language skills,
difficulty understanding questions and
following directions, and problems par-
ticipating effectively in conversations.
Specific examples of pragmatic behav-
ior could include the ability to main-
tain or stay on a topic, as opposed to
irrelevant comments, unorganized nar-
ratives, inappropriate questions, or
excessive interruptions. Of the five
areas of language problems, pragmatics
is particularly relevant to practitioners
working with youngsters with EBD be-
cause of its relation to interpersonal
competence.
Understanding Pragmatics
Aspects of pragmatics include under-
standing context; changing language
according to the needs of a listener or
situation,- conveying intents; using lan-
guage for different purposes such as
greetings, requests, or commands; and
using rules for participating in con-
versations. The ability to initiate and
maintain a topic, take turns, respond
to requests for clarification, repair
errors in conversation, actively partic-
ipate in a conversation, establish eye
contact, use other nonverbal signals
such as facial expressions, or provide
sufficient information are important
aspects of conversational management
and social competence (Brinton &
Fujiki, 1989; Gallagher, 1991; Kirchner
& Prutting, 1989; Laughton & Hasen-
stab, 1986).
The importance of understanding
pragmatics has been addressed recently
by Neel and Cessna (1993) in their de-
scription of appropriate instructional
content for students with EBD. They
gave the example of aggressive students
who found that striking an intimi-
dating pose or uttering a few well-
chosen words allowed them to escape
an unpleasant spelling assignment.
This example reflects the students'
communicative intent (e.g., Neel &
Billingsley, 1989). From this perspec-
tive, problem behaviors are similar
to their appropriate counterparts in
that they have been determined by the
youngster to be the most effective
means of communicating their needs
in a particular situation or setting.
Although this explanation appears
straightforward, the task of determin-
ing the intent of behavior is much
104 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC
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more difficult. Neel and Cessna (1993)
developed an outcome guide and out-
come analysis worksheet to assist in
this process. However, an area that
could greatly enhance this process is
an understanding of the language dif-
ficulties many youngsters with EBD
experience. Language disorders are
much more prevalent in youngsters
with EBD than one may suspect. This
area is often ignored by educators work-
ing with these children. In fact, a quick
glance through textbooks dealing with
characteristics and interventions for
youngsters with EBD suggests that the
topic of language problems is either
ignored completely or restricted to dis-
cussions of severe behavior disorders
such as autism.
Unless the relatively high prevalence
of language problems among young-
sters with EBD is acknowledged, the
area of language seems destined to
remain solely within the purview of
speech-language pathologists. This cir-
cumstance would indeed be unfortu-
nate because special educators can use
many of the language techniques from
the field of speech pathology to deter-
mine the functional relationship be-
tween problem behavior and its intent.
Therefore, a brief overview of the prev-
alence of language problems among
youngsters with EBD is necessary.
These prevalence figures support addi-
tional collaborative efforts between
speech-language pathologists and spe-
cial educators for more effective pro-
gramming.
Extent of Language Impairments
in Youngsters with EBD
Language disturbances in youngsters
with EBD have only recently been the
topic of investigation; however, many
of the interventions used with young-
sters with EBD rely on some type of
language skill. For example, how effec-
tive can we expect verbal mediation
interventions such as self-instruction
training to be with youngsters who
lack adequate receptive and expressive
language skills? Similarly, the whole
area of pragmatics described previously
has direct impact upon children acquir-
ing and using social skills. Therefore,
it is helpful to examine the extent
to which youngsters with EBD ex-
perience concomitant difficulties in
language.
Prevalence estimates have implica-
tions for identification and treatment
of disorders. For example, Costello
et al. (1988) found that community
prevalence rates of between 12% and
20% for emotional and behavioral dis-
orders were considered to constitute a
major public health problem and, con-
sequently, pediatricians in these com-
munities were more likely to identify
children for treatment. During the past
10 years, studies have reported preva-
lence rates of language problems among
youngsters with EBD ranging from
moderate levels of 24% to a shock-
ing 95% (Baker & Cantwell, 1982;
Camarata et al., 1988; Fessler, Rosen-
berg, & Rosenberg, 1991; Ruhl, Hughes,
& Camarata, 1992). Interestingly, these
studies have addressed the strong co-
existence of language problems (e.g.,
morphological, syntactical, semantic,
and pragmatic) with youngsters who
also have emotional or behavioral
disorders.
In summary, the research to date sug-
gests that rates of language problems
among youngsters with EBD are fairly
high but will vary, depending upon the
age of the sample, the setting from
which they were selected (e.g., clinical
and psychiatric, resource classroom),
and the tests used to determine the
presence of a language disorder.
Implications
Language disorders among young-
sters with EBD can have far-reaching
implications. Within the academic
domain, language impairments ad-
versely impact a youngster's auditory
comprehension, written expression,
reading comprehension, mathematics,
spelling, response to questions, basic
concept development, and participa-
tion in class discussions (Kamhi &
Catts, 1989; Wallach & Liebergott,
1984; Wallach & Miller, 1988). Neel
and Cessna (1993) cogently described
the relation between the intended pur-
pose of inappropriate behavior and
teaching appropriate replacement be-
haviors that achieve the desired out-
come. Although determining the pur-
pose inappropriate behavior serves is
directly related to pragmatics, the im-
pact language problems have upon the
effectiveness of a broad range of inter-
ventions used with youngsters with
EBD cannot be understated.
Intervention Implications. Almost
every intervention used with young-
sters with EBD relies on some form of
communication. Teachers communi-
cate to students whenever they imple-
ment an intervention. The effective-
ness of the intervention also depends,
to a large extent, upon the degree to
which the student understands and is
able to apply it. Communication skills
can impact upon the efficacy of behav-
ioral, cognitive-behavioral, and coun-
seling techniques used with young-
sters with EBD.
A wide variety of behavioral inter-
ventions rely on the use of instructions
to prompt appropriate responses from
youngsters. Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer
(1977) suggested that instructions be-
come discriminatory for specific re-
sponses in exactly the same manner
as do other stimuli such as physical
prompts. Instructions can facilitate
behavioral change in several ways. For
example, they speed up the learning
process and may help youngsters work
for delayed reinforcement (Ziegler,
1987). In addition, instructions repre-
sent an integral component of social
skills training (Maag, 1990). Instruc-
tions are used when requiring students
to imitate a model, rehearse skills, and
perform the skills during role-play sit-
uations. However, many youngsters
with EBD fail to follow instructions
properly. Most often this failure is
attributed to the youngster exhibiting
oppositional behavior. Consequently,
elaborate token economy systems and
behavioral contracts have been used to
enhance compliance with instructions
(e.g., Axelrod, 1974; Rutherford &
Polsgrove, 1981). However, it also is
possible that youngsters either did not
understand the instructions or lacked
the language skills to ask for clarifi-
cation.
Cognitive-behavioral interventions
also rely heavily on the language skills
of the teacher and student. For exam-
ple, self-instruction training, problem-
solving training, self-management tech-
niques, attribution retraining, and
relaxation training all emphasize the
complex interaction among cognitive
events, processes, products, structures,
affect, overt behavior, and environmen-
tal contexts and experiences (Braswell
& Kendall, 1988). The effectiveness
of cognitive approaches is dependent
upon several factors, including the
child's verbal fluency, comprehension,
and capacity for conceptual reasoning.
These factors are directly related to the
level of a child's language skills. There-
fore, many cognitive strategies that
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would be appropriate for use with
adults, such as Albert Ellis's rational
emotive therapy (RET; Ellis, 1962), may
not be fully understood by children.
This problem is exacerbated in chil-
dren with language problems. In fact,
many counseling techniques in addi-
tion to RET, such as reality therapy,
transactional analysis, and gestalt ther-
apy, that have been used with young-
sters rely heavily on children's ability
to understand the practitioner and
express themselves adequately (e.g.,
Maag & Meinhold, 1985).
"Language disorders
are much more prevalent
in youngsters with EBD
than one may expect/'
Assessment Implications. Perhaps
in no other area is the impact of young-
sters' language skills as relevant as in
the area of functional assessment for
social skills training. Functional as-
sessment refers to the process of deter-
mining the reason or nature for a child's
social skill performance deficit (Maag,
1989). Deficits may be due to a variety
of factors: missing requisite skills, poor
problem solving or impulse control,
deficient language skills, or environ-
mental antecedents and consequences
that militate against competent perfor-
mance. For example, a boy who lacks
requisite skills for initiating a conver-
sation with a group of his peers would
benefit from behavioral social skills
training. Conversely, if the boy pos-
sessed requisite skills for introduc-
ing himself and initiating a conver-
sation but is nervous and subsequently
fails to employ the behaviors, self-
instruction training or relaxation train-
ing would be advisable. The process
of linking assessment information to
performance deficits is crucial for
maximizing the effectiveness of inter-
vention.
Although the idea of functional as-
sessment has gained support in the
social skills literature, there has been
a conspicuous lack of emphasis on the
role of children's language skills and
their level of interpersonal function-
ing. For example, several researchers
have developed models for organizing
assessment information to determine
the nature of performance deficits.
Gresham and Elliott (1984) categorized
social skills problems into four general
areas: skill deficits, performance defi-
cits, self-control deficits, and self-
control performance deficits. Distinc-
tions among these four categories are
based on whether or not youngsters
know how to perform the skill in ques-
tion and the existence of emotional
arousal responses (e.g., anger, impul-
sivity) that may interfere with perfor-
mance. Hughes and Hall (1987) de-
scribed a similar model by combining
correct and incorrect social perceptions
with the following strategic reper-
toires: 230 error, behavioral skill defi-
cit, cognitive deficit, and cognitive-
behavioral deficit Their models have
greatly enhanced our knowledge of fac-
tors related to youngsters' poor inter-
personal skills. However, they virtually
ignore the role language skills play in
the acquisition and performance of
social skills.
Recommendations
Research in the past 10 years has
not only addressed the extent of lan-
guage problems in youngsters with
EBD, it has also suggested a larger role
with this population for the speech-
language pathologist (Camarata et al.,
1988; Giddan, 1991; Giddan, Trautman,
& Hurst, 1989; Prizant et al., 1990).
This role has stressed more involve-
ment in both evaluation and interven-
tion (Rosenthal & Simeonsson, 1991;
Ruhl et al., 1992; Trautman et al.,
1990). This expanded involvement is
needed because of the impact language
has on behavior, social skills, aca-
demics, and learning. Valuable inter-
vention contributions could result
from more collaborative efforts among
the speech-language pathologist, edu-
cational consultant, and special educa-
tor to address problems in these areas.
There are a number of recommenda-
tions that can facilitate language skills
for children who have concomitant
language and emotional and behavioral
disorders. However, a lengthy descrip-
tion of these recommendations would
not do justice to the contextual condi-
tions within the school and the com-
VOLUME 30 NUMBER 2 NOVEMBER 1994 105
plexity level of language as they affect
youngsters' interactions. Contextual
support, regularities of daily school
routine, nature of the listening en-
vironment, and the overall language
demands of the curriculum are task de-
mands that can affect ongoing inter-
actions. Nevertheless, there are several
areas that should be considered when
planning a language intervention.
Mismatches in communication
among the language of the teacher, stu-
dent, curriculum, textbook, and ex-
pectations regarding routines of the
classroom might result in successful or
unsuccessful communication (Creag-
head & Tattershall, 1985; Nelson,
1985) and are important considera-
tions. Most appropriate suggestions
will be the result of evaluations that
include classroom observations and
standardized as well as descriptive lan-
guage measures. The effectiveness of
language program development and
implementation of the following rec-
ommendations will be facilitated when
the speech-language pathologist and
special educator work collaboratively.
The following recommendations are
not intended to be inclusive; however,
they may be useful for special educa-
tors in planning programs and develop-
ing language-based intervention activi-
ties in the classroom.
Teach Vocabulary and Words
Denoting Emotional Expression
Vocabulary variety, as well as words
that specifically help youngsters ver-
balize frustrations associated with
complex language (e.g., sad, scared,
embarrassed, confused, lonely, disap-
pointed), could reduce the quantity and
severity of classroom behavior prob-
lems. These types of words could be
acceptable replacements to help young-
sters express themselves, rather than
using inappropriate adverse behaviors
such as sarcasm or verbal threats
(Giddan, 1991). Vocabulary develop-
ment could include learning alternate
words to describe concepts, learning a
network of related concepts, learning
words that have multiple meanings,
and understanding figurative concepts
(i.e., metaphors, idioms). Vocabulary
development should be functionally
relevant and acceptable to a young-
ster's desired outcome, and facilitated
through whole language learning as
well as school- and other literature-
based texts.
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Encourage Children to Practice
Conversational Skills
It is easy to take for granted young-
sters' conversational skills. In fact,
many teachers try to suppress young-
sters' conversation skills when they
occur during a lesson. This practice is
exemplified by the rule of "no talking
while working." However, it is impor-
tant for youth to use conversational
skills within classroom contexts. Some
conversational skills include appropri-
ately getting the teacher's attention,
asking for clarification if information
is not understood, responding to re-
quests for clarification, participating
in peer conversation, taking turns in
conversations, maintaining a topic of
conversation, initiating activities and
conversations, and solving problems
(Brinton & Fujiki, 1989; Giddan, 1991;
Giddan etal., 1989; McDonough, 1989).
In this respect, it is important for teach-
ers to foster interaction among chil-
dren and provide opportunities for
them to build relationships with peers
and teachers. Unfortunately, many spe-
cial education classrooms are devised
to curtail interaction.
Neel (1988) described several steps
for fostering interaction. For example,
putting different children in charge of
particular materials and activities, and
implementing cooperative learning
activities where students can work
together, encourage social interac-
tion. Similarly, management programs
should be developed that facilitate
rather than prevent social interaction.
Neel observed that students typically
are rewarded for sitting quietly and
only talking when they raise their
hand, which, in turn, reduces opportu-
nities to reinforce social interaction. In
addition, it is difficult to enhance in-
teractive problem solving when class-
rooms are structured to the extent that
all obstacles are eliminated for stu-
dents.
Use Clearly Presented Rules
It is important for students to under-
stand classroom rules for all classes,
including music, art, and special edu-
cation. Assumptions cannot be made
that generalizations will occur across
settings or classes. Students with lan-
guage problems may have difficulty in
areas such as understanding expecta-
tions, rules, and scripts. Teachers may
find it helpful to use frequent repeti-
tion of rules and expectations (Stone,
1990). It is important that children
know how to act and interact in the
classroom (e.g., when to be quiet, when
to ask a question, when to ask for help
from a peer, how to follow the teacher's
cues for special directions). Examining
the subtle nuances of classroom rou-
tines and the teacher's cues will pro-
vide valuable information to help facil-
itate students' success in the classroom
(Creaghead, 1992; 1993). Recently,
Fuchs, Fernstrom, Scott, Fuchs, and
Vandermeer (1994) developed a class-
room ecological inventory for determin-
ing expectations, rules, and teacher-
student behavior interaction patterns.
Facilitate Language in
Naturalistic Contexts
Naturalistic contexts could include
the arrival at school, transition between
classes, and interactions occurring dur-
ing athletic activities and through a
variety of classes in a regular school
day. Special educators could use these
contexts to allow children to provide
appropriate responses when asked ques-
tions, to follow instructions, partici-
pate in conversations, introduce a
topic, change a topic appropriately,
maintain a topic while adding new and
relevant information, respond to the
speaker's request for clarification, or to
take turns while conversing. Through-
out the school day there are a variety
of classroom activities wherein lan-
guage skills could be facilitated through
theme-building activities and the use
of scaffolding. Examples of these con-
texts where language could be facil-
itated include, but are not limited
to, learning poetry, role-playing sit-
uations, cooperating in games to solve
mysteries about literature, dialoging
through class meetings, discussing lit-
erature, practicing peer interviews,
retelling stories using dialog journals,
writing narratives, brainstorming po-
lite phrases, creating a list of conver-
sational starters, using round-robin
techniques for brainstorming, holding
class meetings, and pantomiming feel-
ings and situations. Special educators
should use the texts of the curriculum
to build language skills.
Incorporate Whole Language
Strategies
Three principles can serve as guides
to understanding whole language. First,
language is a whole, it is learned from
whole to part, and written language is
developed in parallel with oral lan-
guage (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). Sec-
ond, whole language focuses on rele-
vant literacy and builds on existing
learning. Third, language should not be
decontextualized and fragmented into
isolated parts but rather learned as a
whole text through techniques such as
scaffolding. According to Goodman
(1986), language is easy when it is
whole, sensible, interesting, relevant,
and accessible; belongs to the learner;
and has a purpose. Facilitating language
in classroom contexts should focus
on building success and emphasizing
learners' areas of strength. A number
of topics from the classroom curricu-
lum, such as science, geography, his-
tory, or political science, can be used
for language intervention.
Summary
Prevalence data support the need for
increased involvement of the speech-
language pathologist in identification,
program development, and interven-
tion. The variance among the preva-
lence figures is of interest because
different estimates can impact upon
programming efforts. It is speculated
that too often emotional and behav-
ioral disorders camouflage preexisting
language difficulties and, consequently,
limit the programming needs of special
learners. The connection among aca-
demics, language, and social skills sup-
ports the need for the expanded in-
volvement of the speech-language
pathologist with individuals who have
concomitant language and emotional
and behavioral disorders. Given cur-
rent restricted fiscal budgets, focus
on quality management, and the chang-
ing school populations, the collabo-
rative efforts of the speech-language
pathologist and other special educa-
tors will continue to be beneficial
for better addressing the needs of the
behavioral and language-impaired pop-
ulation. S and classroom success: Assessment of language- McDonough, K. M. (1989). Analysis of the expres-
D i x i e S a n g e r , PhD, is an associate professor
in the Department of Special Education and Commu-
nication Disorders at the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln. She teaches and conducts research in the
area of child language. J o h n W . M a a g , PhD,
is currently an associate professor in the Depart-
ment of Special Education and Communication Dis-
orders at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. He
teaches courses and conducts research related to
the education and treatment of children and ado-
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lescents with emotional and behavioral disorders. learning problems among students with behavior/
N a d i n e R. S h a p e r a is currently a graduate emotional disorders. Behavior Disorders, 16, 97-
student majoring in the area of communication dis- 106.
orders at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Address: Dixie Sanger, 318 Barkley Memorial Fuchs, D., Fernstrom, P., Scott, S., Fuchs, L., & Van-
Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, dermeer, L. (1994). Classroom ecological inven-
NE 68583-0731. tory: A process for mainstreaming. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 26(2), 11-15.
Gallagher, T. M. (1991). Pragmatics of language:
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Severe behavior disorders of children and youth
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dren with Behavioral Disorders.
servation and assessment of classroom pragmatic
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Diego, CA: College-Hill. capped students in social interactions. Behavioral
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behavior disorders of children and youth (Vol. 11,
pp. 25-31). Reston, VA: Council for Children with
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Expanding Autism
Journal Seeks
Manuscripts
The bimonthly journal Focus
on Autistic Behavior will soon be
superseded by a new, peer-reviewed
quarterly journal, to be titled
Focus on Autism and Other
Developmental Disabilities. The
journal will continue to include
articles related to persons with
autism but is being expanded to
address issues concerning persons
with other developmental disabil-
ities, such as mental retardation.
Editorial responsibilities for the
new journal will be shared by
Dr. Richard Simpson, the cur-
rent editor of Focus on Autistic
Behavior and a professor of spe-
cial education at the University of
Kansas, and Dr. Dianne Berkell, a
professor of special education at
Long Island University, C. W.
Post Campus.
The journal's editorial staff seeks
manuscripts from diverse philo-
sophical and theoretical positions.
Five types of full-length manu-
scripts (15 to 30 pages) will be con-
sidered for publication: (a) original
research reports,- (b) reviews and
interpretations of professional lit-
erature; (c) theoretical papers,
conceptual statements, and posi-
tion papers; (d) intervention pro-
108 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC
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L. J., Maher, S. R., & Theodore, G. (1990). Com-
munication disorders and emotional/behavioral dis-
orders in children and adolescents. Journal of
Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 179-192.
children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research,
34, 1299-1307.
Rosenthal, S. L, & Simeonsson, R. J. (1991). Com-
192-199.
Ruhl, K. L, Hughes, C. A., & Camarata, S. M.
(1992). Analysis of the expressive and receptive lan-
students served in public school settings. Journal
of Childhood Communication Disorders, 14(2),
165-176.
Rutherford, R. B., Jr., & Polsgrove, L. J. (1981).
Behavioral contracting with behaviorally dis-
ordered and delinquent children and youth: An
analysis of the clinical and experimental literature.
In R. B. Rutherford, Jr., A. G. Prieto, & J. E.
McGlothlin (Eds.), Severe behavior disorders of
NOTICES
cedures; and (e) program descrip-
tions. The journal will also publish
short manuscripts (2 to 10 pages)
in two areas: (1) teaching tips and
(2) book reviews.
Persons submitting papers for
publication in Focus on Autism
and Other Developmental Disabili-
ties should prepare their manu-
scripts in accordance with the Pub-
lication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (4th ed.,
1994). An original of the com-
plete manuscript and three high-
quality copies (double-space all
manuscript pages, including tables,
figures, references, and headings)
should be submitted; each manu-
script should include a cover
sheet listing the names, affil-
iations, addresses, and phone
numbers of all authors. All manu-
scripts will be screened by one of
the coeditors for appropriateness
of content and form and reviewed
by three peers (selected by the
coeditors on the basis of their
expertise in particular areas).
Authors typically will be notified
of the disposition of their paper
within 8 to 10 weeks of the time
it is sent for peer review. Addi-
tional details may be obtained by
contacting either Dr. Richard L.
Simpson, Department of Special
Education, University of Kansas
children and youth (Vol. 4, pp. 49-69). Reston, VA:
Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
Stone, L. (1990). Managing difficult children in
school. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1977). Apply-
ing behavior-analysis procedures with children and
youth. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Trautman, R. C , Giddan, J. J., & Jurs, S. G.
(1990). Journal of Childhood Communication Dis-
orders, 13(2), 123-133.
Wallach, G. P., & Liebergott, J. W. (1984). Who
shall be called "learning disabled": Some new
directions. In G. P. Wallach & K. G. Butler (Eds.),
Language learning disabilities in school-age chil-
dren (pp. 1-14). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Wallach, G. P., & Miller, L. (1988). Language inter-
vention and academic success. Boston: College-Hill.
Ziegler, S. C. (1987). Effects of stimulus cueing on
the acquisition of ground strokes by beginning
tennis players. Journal of Applied Behavior Anal-
ysis, 20, 405-411.
Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow,
Kansas City, KS 66160-7335; or
Dr. Dianne Berkell, Long Island
University, C. W. Post Campus,
Department of Special Education
and Reading, Brookville, NY 11548.
The Orton Dyslexia
Society's Annual
Outstanding Dissertation
Award
Application guidelines for the
Outstanding Dissertation Award
are available by contacting The
Orton Dyslexia Society. Deadline
for submission to the committee
is March 1, 1995. The award will
be presented at the society's 46th
annual conference in Houston,
Texas, November 1-4, 1995. The
recipient receives a $1,000 cash
award, plus $500 for travel expenses.
Some recent winners include Brenda
H. Stone, PhD, University of
Rhode Island; Lois G. Dreyer, PhD,
Southern Connecticut State Uni-
versity,- and Margaret Semrud-
Clikeman, PhD, University of
Washington. For a copy of the
guidelines, write or phone: The
Orton Dyslexia Society, The
ODS Dissertation Award, Chester
Building/Suite 382, 8600 LaSalle
Road, Baltimore, MD 21286-2044;
410/296-0232.