Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

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Nuclear Engineering and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nucengdes

Simulation of a compressor cascade with stalled flow using Large Eddy

Simulation with two-layer approximate boundary conditions
N. Tauveron
Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique, Direction de l’Energie Nucléaire, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The final objective of the study is to provide correlations and models, which are able to describe axial
Received 15 November 2007 compressor behaviour in some particular incidental or accidental conditions, such as stall. The present
Received in revised form 10 April 2008 contribution consists to establish and begin to validate numerical simulations by comparison with rep-
Accepted 2 July 2008
resentative experimental data on a planar static compressor cascade. Trio U software is used to perform
Large Eddy Simulations with a standard wall-function (SWF) or a two-layer approximate boundary condi-
tions (TBLE). The results obtained show a good behaviour of the TBLE model compared to an open literature
case of the gas turbine aircraft community. Sensitivity studies are performed on various parameters
(solidity, angle of incidence) and take part of a database.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. Context of the present study
As a result of a screening review of candidate technologies,
CEA has selected an innovative concept of high temperature gas
cooled reactor with a fast neutron spectrum. Direct or indirect
cycles are considered. Design and safety considerations require a
‘system code’ able to describe the thermal hydraulic behaviour of
the whole plant. As both concepts – direct or indirect – use helium
compressors to maintain the flow in the core (the compressor is not
the same for direct or indirect cycle), a special emphasis must be
laid on compressor modelling, especially on low mass flow regimes.
These particular regimes, which are investigated in the present
publication, are of great importance as they can generate ther-
malhydraulic instabilities in the compressor and the circuit. These
instabilities (surge and stall) can also impose negative mass flow
in some parts of the circuit (Tauveron et al., 2007; Kikstra, 2001;
Bammert and Zehner, 1975) and generate high level loads on com-
pressor blades and thrust bearings. In this context, a description
of the turbomachinery has been developed, based on a quasi-
two-dimensional approach to generate performance maps for the
system code CATHARE (Tauveron et al., 2007). However, this type of
model requires cascade correlations as input data (deviation angle,
losses).
At the scale of the compressor, low mass flow rate regimes cor-
respond to high incidence angle (on compressor blades) regimes.
E-mail address: nicolas.tauveron@cea.fr.
When the incidence angle is increased, the compressor blade row
stalls (similarly to an isolated airfoil). The objective of this paper
is to provide knowledge on axial compressor cascade behaviour
in stall conditions, in order to propose correlations and models
adapted to this regime (mid-term objective).
1.2. Paper organisation
At first we briefly present compressor modelling for off-design
situations (Section 2.1). Then the paper focuses on stall regime:
we present analytical models (Section 2.2) and describe an exper-
imental configuration, which is an open literature case of the gas
turbine aircraft community, with which fully stalled results were
obtained (Section 3). Then we focus on the numerical model (Sec-
tion 4): Trio U (Trio U, 2007), a software for computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), is used to perform Large Eddy Simulations with
a standard wall-function or a two-layer approximate boundary
conditions (TBLE). This method takes place among general hybrid
methods (RANS-LES) used to treat some unstaedy problems con-
cerning the safety analysis of nuclear reactors (CSNI, 2007). Section
5 is devoted to the validation of the numerical simulations by com-
parison with the representative experimental data. In the last part
(Section 6) other parameters are investigated with the simula-
tions.
2. Compressor off-design performance model
In CATHARE simulation each turbomachine element is defined
in a 0D approach: pressure change and enthalpy change are given
by solving modified momentum transfer and energy equations in

0029-5493/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2008.07.015
322 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

frame (absolute for stators, with V velocities, ˛ angles or relative for

Nomenclature rotors with W velocities, ˇ angles).
To take into account blade forces, source terms for the lift and
c blade chord drag of each row in the blade cascade are derived from correlations.
GFR gas fast reactor From a formal point of view, equations are reformulated to use the
Ma Mach number based on axial velocity correlations of total pressure losses and deviation angle.
MU Mach number based on peripheral velocity
MHTGR modular high temperature gas reactor 2.1. Off-design stable conditions
P pressure
Ps static pressure We shortly present off-design modelling in stable conditions to
Pt total pressure illustrate the similarities in treating off-design regimes (formalism,
Re Reynolds number based on the chord transposition from air to helium data) and the differences (physical
S spacing between adjacent blades phenomena, maturity of description and validation processes).
SWF standard wall function For design and off-design stable situations, blade total pressure
U peripheral velocity losses are calculated as the sum of profile, annulus, secondary and
V absolute velocity tip clearance losses, whereas the deviation angle is the sum of
W relative velocity the deviation angle at the design point, corrected for off-design
WALE wall-adapting local Eddy-viscosity regimes. The profile losses and design deviation angle are given
1 relative to inlet by Lieblein (1959, 1960) with the modifications proposed by Swan
2 relative to outlet (see Fig. 4) (1961) for the evaluation of the blade boundary layer momentum
3 relative to outlet fully mixed flow (see Fig. 4) thickness. Mach number and Reynolds number influences are taken
into account following Koch and Smith (1976) data. For secondary
Greek symbols
and annulus losses, we use expressions given by Dixon (1975). Tip
˛ absolute angle
clearance losses are evaluated through formulae from Hubert and
ˇ relative angle
Bauermeister (1963), where the constant has been adapted to com-
 ratio of specific heats
pressor case; we have chosen this model as it takes into account
c camber angle
corrections on blade deflection angles, which is a well-known effect
 stagger angle
(Lakshminarayana, 1970).
 viscosity
The correlations use physical conditions (pressure, enthalpy and
 gas density
velocity triangles) and numerous geometrical parameters (radii,
 solidity = c/S
blade camber, thickness, stagger angle, height, cord, shape, num-
˚ flow coefficient (VX /U)
ber and tip clearance for each compressor cascade). Inlet nozzle and
 pressure coefficient ( P/(1/2)U2 )
outlet diffusers are also described in our model.
ω total pressure loss coefficient
The presented case is a helium axial compressor, which was used
as the primary circulator for Fort-Saint-Vrain reactor. On this case,
air experimental data were also obtained. The data are taken from
which source terms representing overall characteristics are added.
Cavallaro and Yampolsky (1974), Brey (1987), Mac and Yampolsky
These source terms are modelled in a quasi-steady approach. The
(1987).
assumption of quasi-steady behaviour is almost justified in numer-
The cross-comparisons between experimental data and simula-
ous transient phenomena: the transit time of the working fluid
tion results show a good agreement, for design and off-design stable
through a row in the machine is far below delays in numerous
points (Fig. 2). We also conclude that the transposition between
transient phenomena if we consider variations of pressure, tem-
air and helium flows seems correctly described by our model. As
perature, speed of the different components of the system. The
a consequence we are quite confident in the pertinence of testing
following considerations are devoted to the generation of the
the model with air machines. However, more test cases are needed
source terms: pressure rise and enthalpy rise.
to verify the models.
The model – more detailed in (Tauveron et al., 2007) – is based on
velocity triangles, deflection angle ( ˇ for the rotor, ˛ for the sta-
2.2. Stall regime
tor, see Fig. 1) and total pressure losses correlations. This approach
first consists in the solution of 1D axisymmetric Navier–Stokes
For the stall regime we only investigate profile phenomena. The
equations on an axial grid (z-axis in Fig. 1) inside the machine. Mass,
previous correlations for profile losses are not adapted to the stall
axial momentum (x- or z-axis), circumferential momentum (-axis
regime. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 3. We note that the traditional
in Fig. 1) and total-enthalpy balances are written in the appropriate
correlations are well-suited for low angles of attack.
Particular models were developed in the literature; three of
them are presented here. The main features are derived from
Cornell (1954). They are shortly described hereafter.

2.2.1. Analytical models

Fig. 1. Support of compressor modelling (from Ottavy, 2004).
The flow is assumed to be planar, steady and incompressible.
The blades are supposed to be closely spaced, i.e.  ≥ 1, thus the
flow behaviour is assumed to be similar to that for closely spaced
flat plates. The flow separates at the leading edge producing a jet
zone and a recirculation zone. After the leading edge, an intense
mixing process in the wake occurs. The fully mixed flow is of great
interest as it is supposed to be representative of the flow entering
the next row. This is the reason why the fully mixed state is used in
 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335 323

Fig. 2. Cross-comparisons between simulation and experimental data for Fort-Saint-Vrain circulator in helium (left) and in air (right).

the correlations. Mass, and momentum conservations are solved to 2.2.3. Moses and Thomason model
give fully mixed flow. It is also assumed that the jet-wake structure Three additional hypotheses are also added (Moses and
leaves the cascade parallel to the stagger direction. Thomason, 1986):

2.2.2. Cornell models • effects of friction within the blade passage are supposed to follow
For the clarity of presentation we call these models Longley
the empirical relation:
model, as they are fully described in Longley (2007), for negative
flows. Three additional hypotheses are added:
Pt,1 − Pt,2 cos2 (˛1 )
= MT (1)
• isentropic flow is assumed in the jet structure (potential flow), (1/2) V12 cos2 (˛2 )
• in the momentum conservation equation parallel to the stagger
angle, friction is ignored, where MT is a non-dimensional loss of pressure in Moses and
• the mixing process is either: Thomason model:
1. a constant area mixing process, 
2. a constant pressure mixing process.
With this hypothesis and the free streamline theory, losses and
deflection at the fully mixed state can be calculated. Results are pre-
sented in Fig. 3. For reasons of clarity, we only present results about
total pressure losses. In particular Taylor expansion calculations
lead to, when ˛1 → 90◦ :
• ˛3 → 90◦
• ω3 → cos2 ()
Fig. 3. Cross-comparisons between experimental from Yocum and O’Brien, tradi-
tional correlations and specific analytical models: total pressure loss, vs. angle of
attack.
MT = 0.15 (2)
cos (˛1 )
• the sum of the pressure and shear force parallel to the chord line
is zero,
• the mixing process is a constant area mixing process.
With this hypothesis and the free streamline theory, losses and
deflection at the fully mixed state can be calculated. Results are
presented in Fig. 3. In particular Taylor expansion calculations lead
to, when ˛1 → 90◦ :
• ˛1 → 90◦
• ω3 → 1
Unfortunately it is very difficult to validate the different models,
as the experimental data do not reach full stall regime (Fig. 3). This
is the reason why we decide to investigate a wider range of angle
of attack with CFD simulations.
3. Experimental configuration considered
To our best knowledge the experimental data by Yocum and
O’Brien (Yocum, 1988; Yocum and O’Brien, 1993) constitute one
of the most interesting data base on stall conditions in order to
establish correlations (losses, deflection) at row scale for low speed
machines. As suggested in Section 2.1, a great amount of work has
been devoted to design point, off-design and stall occurrence, fully
stalled cascade performance investigation is more limited in the
open literature (see Yocum, 1988 for a specific bibliography).
324 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

ing to the fully mixed flow, where the outlet angle is ˛3 :

S
0
VX,2 VY,2 dyS
tan (˛3 ) =  2 (5)
S
0
VX,2 dy

The deflection is ˛1 − ˛3 . The losses ω3 are

S
0
(Pt,1 − Pt,3 ) dy
ω3 = (6)
(1/2)SV12

3.2. Representativeness of the tests of Yocum and O’Brien

compared to the compressors and axial circulators of GFR

3.2.1. Parameters to consider

Turbomachine similarity studies performed have lead to under-
line the following parameters to be investigated (see for example
Tauveron et al., 2006):

1. ratio of specific heats ,

2. Mach number based on axial velocity Ma ,
3. Mach number based on peripheral velocity MU (or the flow coef-
Fig. 4. Geometry of the blade cascade.
ficient ˚ if Ma is satisfied as Ma /MU = ˚),
4. Reynolds number based on the chord Re,
5. pressure coefficient  ,
3.1. Experimental data
6. solidity .
We present only a limited view of the work. Cascades of a sin-
gle blade geometry and a solidity matching unity were studied for As cascade data do not concern parameters based on the periph-
three stagger angles and a wide range of angles of attack extending eral velocity (MU or ˚,  ), we will replace them by the stagger angle
well into the stalled flow regime. Results from velocity and pres-  and the camber angle  c .
sure measurements made in the cascade and the overall cascade
performance evaluated from these measurements are presented. 3.2.2. Reference design for the GFR
In addition, results from a numerical simulation are also available. For the direct cycle, we consider the GFR design given by (Bassi,
These measurements are essentially time averaged. As a conse- 2003) and the turbomachinery design given by (Paniagua and Van
quence other “similar” configurations (isolated airfoil, flat plate) den Braembussche, 2003); three states are considered: high pres-
results are also used in the present paper. sure (7 MPa), medium (2.5 MPa) and low (.7 MPa). For the indirect
Yocum and O’Brien define (and we will use their definitions, see cycle, we consider GFR design as published in (Garnier et al., 2006)
Fig. 4) the outlet angle ˛2 : and the turbomachinery design performed at CEA (close to MHTGR
and Fort-Saint-Vrain design, see Mac and Yampolsky, 1987); four
S
VX,2 VY,2 dy states are studied: high (7 MPa), medium (.5 and 1 MPa) and low
0
tan (˛2 ) = S 2 dy
(3) (.1 MPa) pressure.
0
VX,2
3.2.3. Comparisons
where S is the blade spacing,  is the gas density. The deflection is
Table 1 presents comparisons between Yocum and O’Brien data,
˛1 − ˛2 . The loss of total pressure (Pt ) is
low pressure compressor of the Brayton cycle of direct cycle GFR
S   and the axial circulator for primary flow in indirect cycle GFR.
S
0
(Pt,1 − Pt,2 )(VX,2 )/ 0
VX,2 dy) dy We do not detail what relates to the high pressure compressor
ω2 = (4) of the Brayton cycle of direct cycle GFR because it is very similar
(1/2)V12
with the low pressure compressor. The results show that the ranges
Mixing wake considerations (for rotating to static frames transition) investigated by the tests of Yocum and O’Brien correspond rather
conducted to define a hypothetical (3) stage (see Fig. 4), correspond- well to the situations of medium and low pressure of GFR.

Table 1
Comparisons of various parameters between Yocum and O’Brien data, low pressure compressor of the Brayton cycle of direct cycle GFR and the axial circulator of indirect
cycle GFR

Parameter Data: Yocum and O’Brien GFR

Direct cycle Indirect cycle

7 MPa 2.5 MPa .7 MPa 7 MPa 1 MPa .5 MPa .1 MPa

 1.4 1.67
 25◦ , 36.5◦ , 45◦ 16◦ (stator) 47◦ (rotor) 17◦ (stator) 43◦ (rotor)
c 23◦ 30◦ (stator) 15◦ (rotor) 31◦ (stator) 30◦ (rotor)
 1 0.75 1 (stator) 1.3 (rotor)
Re 2 × 105 2 × 106 7 × 105 2 × 105 2 × 106 3 × 105 1.5 × 105 3 × 104
Ma 0.14 0.15 0.17
 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335
4. CFD simulations
4.1. Presentation
In gas cooled reactor applications, compressor flows are char-
acterized by a quite high Reynolds number (see Table 1 to have an
order of magnitude for Reynolds number), and they are also often
turbulent and wall bounded flows. In particular for stall regimes
the near wall unsteadiness of the flow is usually a crucial feature
for determining performance of the cascade. Unsteady Reynolds
Averaged Navier–Stokes approach (URANS) is commonly used, but
is only able to take into account low frequency features of the flow.
Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) seems to be a relevant technique to
perform flow simulations able to capture accurately the major part
of the unsteadiness of the flow (see Section 5.1.2 to have an order
of magnitude of frequencies). The part of the turbulent spectrum
that is explicitely simulated by LES is much more extended than the
part simulated by URANS; the other part is covered by special mod-
els (see CSNI, 2007). As a result, it has been proved that RANS and
URANS simulations gave very limited results compared to experi-
mental data on flow past bluff bodies (Rodi et al., 1997; Cummings
et al., 2003), which was not the case for LES (Shah, 1998; Guénot
and Aupoix, 2003). We will illustrate this fact for our particular
2 .2 The friction Reynolds number can be related
application in Section 5.
Wall-resolved LES requires a tremendous mesh refinement in
the near wall region, which implies a prohibitive computational
cost, especially for parametric simulations. In order to alleviate this
mesh constraint, many research works have been performed to cre-
ate wall models (see Piomelli and Balaras, 2002; Sagaut, 2003 for an
exhaustive review). These latters are meant to approximate the wall
boundary conditions, allowing this way, the use of coarser meshes.
Wall models for LES can be divided into two categories. The first
one concerns the wall models based on equilibrium laws such as
the logarithmic law for example. The other one consists on using
a different approach (most of the time a (U)RANS approach) in the
near-wall region to provide accurately the wall shear stress to the
coarse LES mesh.
Introducing a wall model called “two-layer model” or “TBLE
(Thin Boundary Layer Equations)”, Balaras (Cummings et al., 2003)
embedded a one-dimensional grid between the wall and the
first LES computation node. A RANS equation is solved in this
inner mesh (Eq. (13), see Fig. 5). As an upper boundary condi-
tion, the outer LES mesh supply the inner mesh with the velocity
and the pressure gradient of the first LES node. In return, the
TBLE inner mesh using a non-slip condition at the wall provide a
wall shear stress to the LES outer mesh. The key of this method
is that the pressure gradient is assumed to be constant in the
fine mesh which avoids Poisson equation inversion for incom-
pressible flows, hence a huge reduction of the computational
cost.
We must also mention a second attempt of the same kind is
the Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) used as a wall model (Spalart,
1999; Nikitin et al., 2000). In this method, the inner layer is
Fig. 5. Near-wall TBLE one-dimensional mesh and unstructured LES mesh (from
Benarafa, 2005).
325
resolved thanks to a RANS approach1 and the outer layer is a LES
region. Such methods can be appropriate in turbomachinery appli-
cations (de Saint-Victor et al., 2005; Daeninck et al., 2006) and
for nuclear safety issues (CSNI, 2007). Another particular hygrid
(URANS in the near wall region: LES away from walls) implementa-
tion is Scale-Adaptative Simulation which improves prediction of
unsteady flows, compared to URANS results (CSNI, 2007).
In order to highlight the benefit of the hydrid methodology
(URANS: LES) we can recall general results on present computa-
tional capabilities relative to wall-bounded flows. Moreover, these
general results will show that the methodology is relevant to treat
some unstaedy problems concerning the safety analysis of nuclear
reactors (CSNI, 2007). Chapman (1979) was probably the first to
emphasize the Reynolds number dependency of the mesh require-
ments near the wall. He evaluated that the mesh resolution should
scale as Re18 in the inner layer of the boundary layer, and as Re0.4
in the outer layer. Piomelli and Balaras (2002), using the same esti-
mation tools, consider that in a boundary flow case, if the Reynolds
number is about one million, 99% of the computational nodes
should be used to compute the inner layer given that this latter
represents only 10% of the boundary layer. Moreover, Baggett et
al. (1997) estimate that the required LES mesh for a plane channel
flow scales as Re
to the “classical” Reynolds number thanks to the Dean correlation
(Benarafa, 2005). According to this criteria and Dean correlation,
a flow with a Reynolds number of one hundred million requires
approximately a mesh of 1012 nodes to be computed. Even with the
nowadays computer power, a simulation with a mesh of 109 nodes
remains very impressive (Benarafa, 2005). As a consequence, wall-
resolved LES applied to wall bounded flow configurations for high
Reynolds numbers implies a prohibitive computational cost. This
explains the interest of hydrid methodology (URANS: LES) such as
TBLE.
4.2. Numerical setup and modelling framework
4.2.1. Governing equations
In this study, the flow is considered incompressible (as sug-
gested by Yocum and O’Brien, see also Mach number value in
Table 1: 0.14) and turbulent so that the mass conservation and the
momentum conservation filtered equations can be expressed as
follows (Benarafa, 2005):
∂V j
=0 (7)
∂xj
∂V̄i ∂V i V j 1 ∂P ∂
+ =− +2 (( + sgs )S ij ) (8)
∂t ∂xj  ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂V i ∂V j
with S ij = + (9)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
where (·) is LES filter operator. sgs is a subgrid-scale viscosity.  is
the molecular viscosity.
As for the turbulence models, we generally used Smagorinsky
model (Sagaut, 2003). The results for isolated airfoils submitted
to high incidence angle flows seem satisfactory (Cummings et al.,
2003) with this model. However, alternative choices can be men-
tioned for the wall model (Strelets, 2001) or for the turbulence
model (Daeninck et al., 2006).
1
No one-dimensional model and grid are used, as for TBLE model.
2
Re␶ is the friction Reynolds number based on the friction velocity u␶ , the half
channel height h and the molecular viscosity .
326 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

Table 2 cell as it is shown in Fig. 5 instead of localizing it between the veloc-

Boundary conditions
ity nodes and the wall. On this mesh, the solved equations are the
Edge Type of boundary conditions following.
Upstream Velocity imposed (two or three components)
For the TBLE velocity field i = x or z:
Downstream Pressure imposed (zero)  
∂Vi ∂ ∂Vi ∂P
Blade Non-slip − ( + t ) =− (13)
Upper and lower Periodical ∂t ∂y ∂y ∂xi
Front and back (only for 3D) Periodical
The turbulent viscosity t is evaluated thanks to a mixing length
model with the Van Driest damping function Dvd 4 :
4.2.2. Numerical procedure  2  2
1/2
All the computations of this study were achieved with the ∂VX ∂VZ
Trio U code. This object oriented code solves Eqs. (7) and (8) in
a mixed finite volume/finite element approach for both struc-
tured and unstructured grids (Calvin et al., 2002). For the present
study, unstructured grids are considered with tetrahedral elements.
The unknown variables are the velocity and the pressure. Velocity
unknowns are located at the center of the faces of the tetrahedral
elements, whereas the pressure unknowns are located at the centre
and the vertices of the elements. The discretization method ensures
that the fluxes through the surfaces of each cell are continuous. As a
consequence conservation of main physical parameters is guaran-
teed (which is not the case for finite element methods). The discrete
formulation of the equations is solved using a matrix projection
scheme (similar to the method presented in Hirt et al (1975)).
Time advancement was ensured by a second order
Crank–Nicholson implicit scheme. For the momentum Eq. (8),
we use a centred second order scheme for convection and diffusion
terms. An additional term due the discretization method ensures
the stability of the simulations (Heib, 2003).
4.2.3. Mesh and boundary conditions
Table 2 indicates the boundary conditions for the simulations.
4.2.4. Wall modelling
4.2.4.1. Wall models based on equilibrium laws. Most of common
wall models (as in other CFD codes, see Benarafa, 2005) are based
on equilibrium laws such as the logarithmic law (Grötzbach, 1987):
V + = y+ ; if y+ < 5 (viscous sublayer)
 y+
2 d˛
V+ =  ; if 5 < y+ < 30
0 1+ 1 + 4lm2+ (˛)
  ˛ 
t = Dvd (y)2 + (14)
∂y ∂y
Various boundary conditions have been tested at the interface
between the inner TBLE one-dimensional grid and the outer LES
mesh. Balaras et al. (1996) proposed to use the velocity of the first
node velocity of the first LES node as boundary conditions and the
pressure gradient as a given source term. In addition to these lat-
ters, Diurno et al (2001) attempted to impose the continuity of the
shear stress or the one of the turbulent viscosity which they con-
clude to be a better choice for numerical stability reasons. Wang
and Moin (2002), to study a trailing edge flow, also connected the
subgrid-scale viscosity to the TBLE turbulent viscosity at the inter-
face between the LES outer mesh and the TBLE inner mesh.
In the present TBLE implementation, the velocity of the first LES
node is interpolated at the center of the cell to compute the upper
boundary conditions for the TBLE mesh.
5. Simulation on a configuration with a high angle of
attack (45◦ )
This configuration has been chosen as full stall has occurred
and as it is extensively described in the publications by Yocum and
O’Brien.
5.1. 2D simulations
5.1.1. k−ε models
(10)
Even if there is a strong limitation of the turbulence description
with the use of URANS simulations, k−ε computations are per-
formed. As suggested in CSNI (2007) results obtained with different
discretization schemes are employed to provide a rough estimation
of numerical error: k−ε simulations are performed with different
with lm+ (˛) = ˛+ 1 − exp − (buffer layer) (11) numerical schemes (first order, second order: see Table 3). All of
26 them suffer from difficulties to correctly predict the losses, which
1 is a well-known fact for (U)RANS for isolated airfoil cases (Section
V+ = log (y+ ) + A; if y+ > 30 (logarithmic layer) (12) 4.1). The use of less diffusive schemes (than the first order) improves

the quality of the results, as such models supports dissipation and
The wall Cartesian coordinates are expressed in wall units: (x+ , y+ , stall. However with such models, filtering the eddy viscosity was
z+ ) = (xv
/, yv
/, z v
/), and the velocity is V + = V /v
where v
is necessary, which is a strong disadvantage. The value of filter (t,filt )
the friction velocity defined as the square root of wall shear stress can also be set in doubt.

w divided by the density .  is the kinematic viscosity of the
fluid, P is the pressure.  is Von Karman constant, A is a numerical 5.1.2. “LES” models
constant of the model.3 However, debatable is the question of using LES-similar model in
2D, some authors have shown that such models can provide accept-
4.2.4.2. Velocity TBLE wall model. The TBLE wall model has been able results on complex configurations (Hassan and Ibrahim, 1997;
developed for the first time by Balaras et al. (1996). This wall model Bouris and Bergeles, 1999).
relies on the embedding of a one-dimensional mesh where RANS
Thin Boundary Layer Equations are solved to supply the LES compu- 5.1.2.1. Unsteadiness. The first characteristics of the flow is
tation with the wall shear stress. In return, the LES first computation unsteadiness. We see in Fig. 6 the shedding of two vortices, at the
node will impose the upper boundary condition. It was chosen in
this study to embed the one-dimensional mesh at the center of the
  3 
+ y
4
Dvd = 1 − exp − w
25
.
3
We have used: A = 5.32,  = 0.415.
 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335 327

Table 3
Cascade performance with k−ε model

˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3

Experimental data 31 39 0.46 50 20 0.77

First order 21.5 48.5 0.30 51.6 18.4 0.41
Second order (centered), t < t,filt /2 35.2 34.8 0.43 51.6 18.4 0.59
Second order (centered), t < t,filt 34.2 35.8 0.43 50.7 19.3 0.60
Second order (Muscl), t < t,filt 25.7 44.3 0.39 46.6 23.4 0.59

Table 4
Cascade performance, simulations performed with various options

˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3

Experimental data 31 39 0.46 50 20 0.77

Standard case 28.6 41.4 0.80 42.0 28.0 1.11
Slow time marching 28.7 41.3 0.79 42.4 27.6 1.10
Second order convection scheme 27.5 42.5 0.89 37.5 32.5 1.11
WALE model 25.6 44.4 0.93 36.7 33.3 1.11
TBLE model 28.5 41.5 0.84 41.6 28.4 1.16

leading edge and at the trailing edge of the blade profile. They have
an opposite sign and the same frequency; their birth is in opposition
of phase. From a quantitative point of view their intensity is approx-
imately identical and their period is five times the period between
two figures, which is 0.0008 s. These points are coherent with Sarp-
kaya views (Sarpkaya, 1975). The size of each vortex approximately
respects the order of one tenth of the length scale, here the blade
spacing (Rodi, 1980).
The literature on the subject indicates that Strouhal number St
characterizing this vortex shedding on a purely flat plate at high
incidence is approximately equal to 0.15–0.17 (Fage and Johansen,
1927; Abernathy, 1962). We have adopted the  same formalism as
Sarpkaya, showing spectral evolution of ∂/∂t V dl. We have seen
in the simulations the frequency of 195 Hz. Expressed in Strouhal
number, we have
fc sin (˛)
St =
V tance of the tridimensionality of the flow and the necessity of 3D
where f is the frequency, c is the cord, ˛ is the incidence angle on
the plat, V is the upstream velocity. We find 0.18 for St, showing
the same tendency as those experimentally obtained with an iso-
lated flat plate (Yocum and O’Brien, 1993 did not measure these
frequencies).
5.1.2.2. Time average fields. Fig. 7 shows the time averaged velocity
field. It clearly illustrate the “immediate” full stall at the leading
edge, for the suction side and the attached flow for the pressure
side. The size of the detached zone is important (more than the
half of the “outlet” section). Such zone is a zone of recirculation
(backflow due to adverse pressure gradient) and of large losses.
Upstream, we see a mixing zone between detached and attached
flows.
Fig. 7 shows the time averaged Pt,1 − Pt /(1/2)V12 field. The zero
value is the upstream zone. On the suction side we see a zone with
large losses (detached zone). The attached (potential) zone shows
a very low value of losses, but not equal to zero. The mixing zone is
also well illustrated in Fig. 8.
5.1.2.3. Cascade performance. LES simulations are performed with
different numerical and physical features (time marching man-
agement, convection scheme, turbulence model, wall function, see
Table 4). All of them overestimate the losses and the deflection,
which is a coherent with observations on an isolated airfoil (Guénot
and Aupoix, 2003). The overestimation of losses is coherent with
some remarks about Fig. 7, where the attached zone has a signifi-
cant loss of head. The use of various options does not significantly
improve the quality of the results.
5.2. 3D simulations
An important characteristic of the flow is its tridimensionality.
5.2.1. Tridimensionality
We first give results of the simulations performed with a small
spansize (7% of the cord) in Table 5. They do not improve the quality
of results.
These results are coherent with simulations performed with a
larger spansize (Figs. 9 and 10): we find small 3D structures and a
very developed 2D structure, close to that described in (Guénot and
Aupoix, 2003) for an isolated airfoil. In Fig. 10, we note structural
elements similar to those described by (Naijar and Vanka, 1995)
and (Hussain and Hayakawa, 1987) for a flat plate and a cylinder:
“rib”-like structures between two adjacent spanwise rollers. These
structures occur in pair of opposite vorticity. They show the impor-
(15)
simulations.
5.2.2. Time average fields
Fig. 11 shows the time averaged velocity field. It clearly illus-
trates the “immediate” full stall at the leading edge, for the
suction side and the attached flow for the pressure side. The
size of the detached zone is important (more than half of the
“outlet” section), but less important than in 2D simulations
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 12 shows the time averaged (Pt,1 − Pt )/(1/2)V12 field. On the
suction side we see a zone with large losses (detached zone). The
attached (potential) zone shows a lower value of losses than in 2D
(Fig. 7), but not completely equal to zero.
5.2.3. Results
The angular results in Table 6 are of good quality, as for this
stalled regime the difference between simulations and measure-
ments is only 2.6◦ or 0.4◦ . For the stage (3) the difference is limited
to 3.4◦ or 2.1◦ , which is a significant improvement if we compare
to 2D results. This can be explained by the definitions of ˛2 and
˛3 (Eqs. (3) and (5) and Table 7). All the simulations in LES (2D,
3D standard wall function, 3D TBLE) underestimate the size of the
S S 2 dy are
attached zone, as a consequence VX,2 VY,2 dy and VX,2
S 0 0
underestimated. As 0 VX,2 dy is correct (mass conservation), ˛3 is
less correctly estimated than ˛2 . When the attached zone is well
estimated (3D TBLE > 3D standard wall function > 2D), the angles
are better estimated.
328 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

Fig. 6. Instantaneous vorticity with velocity (arrows).

As far as losses are concerned, simulations results overestimate

ω2 and ω3 . The classification of models is the same as for angles:
the better estimation is performed with 3D TBLE. It seems that Table 5
Cascade performance in 2D and Pseudo-3D
the overestimation of the detached zone size is directly respon-
sible of the overestimation of losses. We go further in detail with ˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3
Figs. 13 and 14. On the total pressure loss ((Pt,1 − Pt,2 )(y)/(1/2)V12 ) Experimental data 31 39 0.46 50 20 0.77
we see that the detached zone (i.e. zone with high pressure losses) 2D 28.6 41.4 0.80 42.0 28.0 1.11
is more extended in the simulations, which is coherent with the Pseudo-3D 28.3 41.7 0.88 41.3 28.7 1.16
 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335 329

Fig. 7. Time averaged velocity (2D).

Fig. 8. Non-dimensional total pressure loss (2D).

previous observations. We also see that the difference is a kind of up to “zero axial flow” regimes. Secondly, we investigate solidity
“constant low shift” between simulations and experimental data influence which is usually considered as an important parameter
(Fig. 13), especially in the attached zone. This could be explained for losses. At the present time we have not investigated stagger
by numerical effects of the stabilization technique (Section 4.2.2). angle and Reynolds number influence as experimental data partly
As far as the static pressure difference ((Pt,1 − Ps,2 )(y)/(1/2)V12 ) treated these aspects. Camber angle influence will be treated in the
is concerned, we see a good agreement between simulations and future.
measurements (Fig. 13). Some simple analytical developments lead
to
6.1. Investigation of a larger range of angle of attack
S S 2 dy 2 2
(Pt,1 − Ps,2 ) dy 0
VX,2 VX,3 VY,3
0
ω3 = −2 + − (16) When the angle of attack is increased the recirculation zone
(1/2)SV12 SV12 V12 V12 becomes more extended: this is clear if we compare Figs. 15 and 11.
We see in this equation that the overestimation of losses can again If we consider the results obtained on cascade performance
S S 2 dy (Table 8), we first notice that the fact that ˛2 ∼  (and as a con-
be explained by underestimation of VX,2 VY,2 dy and VX,2
0 0 sequence ˛1 − ˛2 ∼ ˛) seems approximately valid. This is certainly
(Table 7).
due to the facts that near the pressure surface of the blades, the
6. Use of CFD simulations velocity remains parallel to the chord line (Fig. 15), i.e. following
 and that the recirculation zone has a very small contribution
S S 2 dy, due to the small velocity.
As LES model with TBLE wall modelling gives satisfying results in 0 VX,2 VY,2 dy and in 0 VX,2
compared to experimental data, we can explore a wider range of The behaviour of ˛1 − ˛3 seems qualitatively logical (an increase
parameters variations than those investigated by the experimental followed by a decrease): it is a well-known fact that for an iso-
data. First we investigate the angle of attack up to very high values, lated airfoil the circulation (and lift) decreases when stall occurs
330 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

Fig. 9. Surfaces of instantaneous spanwise vorticity.

Table 6 and develops. As far as losses are concerned, the increase of

Cascade performance with LES (two wall modelling)
both ω2 and ω3 can be explained by the size of the recirculation
˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3 zone. On this last point also, the fact that a value (not equal to
Experimental data 31 39 0.46 50 20 0.77
unity) seems reached at higher angles of attack is more surpris-
LES SWF 28.4 41.6 0.74 46.6 23.4 0.98 ing, but can be explained by Cornell models (described in Section
LES TBLE 31.4 38.6 0.65 47.9 22.1 0.95 2.2).

Fig. 10. Surfaces of instantaneous streamwise vorticity.

 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335 331

Fig. 11. Time averaged velocity.

Fig. 12. Non-dimensional total pressure loss with TBLE model.

Table 7
Cascade results with LES (two wall modelling)
S  S 
S S S S (Pt,1 − Pt,2 )(VX,2 )/ VX,2 dy
VX,2 VY,2 dy VX,2
2
dy (Pt,1 − Ps,2 ) dy (Pt,1 − Pt,2 ) dy 0 0
S
0
= VY,3 (m/s) 0S (m/s) 0
(1/2)SV12
0
(1/2)SV12 (1/2)SV12
dy
VX,2 dy VX,2 dy
0 0

Experimental data 19.5 32.5 1.37 0.9 0.46

LES SWF 17.3 32.1 1.45 1.12 0.74
LES TBLE 17.85 28.63 1.37 1.08 0.63

6.1.1. Conclusion 6.2. Preliminary study of the influence of solidity

The points we have added with this study are shown in Fig. 16.
We can notice that Longley model with constant area mixing
(called “Longley1” in Fig. 16) gives a decreasing curve for the
total pressure loss for high angles of attack, which is the same
trend as the curve given by CFD simulations. Moreover, the final
value of cos2 () seems to be a reasonable limit value for CFD
results. We must also mention that the CFD simulations results
must be carefully considered, as the typical error range is indi-
cated by the difference between CFD and experimental data for
˛ = 45◦ .
One of the most important parameter to consider for turbo-
machinery performance is the solidity (see Section 2.1). We recall
that solidity is the ratio between the the chord size and the spac-
ing between adjacent blades. However, the solidity dependency
on losses is not easy to forecast: on the one hand a high solidity
implies a large number of blades and as a consequence larger fric-
tion losses, on the other hand a low solidity implies a wide space
between blades and as a consequence a tendency for the flow to
separate at the suction side. We performed simulations with three
332 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335

Table 8
Cascade performance with four different angles of attack

˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3
◦
˛ = 30 25.5 29.5 0.355 30 25 0.5
˛ = 50◦ 30.9 44.1 0.66 57.4 17.6 0.98
˛ = 55◦ 29 51 0.64 68.5 11.5 0.88
˛ = 60◦ 27 58 0.82 73.5 11.5 0.89

Fig. 13. Non-dimensional downstream total pressure loss.

Fig. 16. Cross-comparisons between experimental data from Yocum and O’Brien,
traditional correlations, specific analytical models and CFD simulations: total pres-
sure loss, vs. angle of attack.

size would have also affected Reynolds number, blade geometry

and blade mesh. As these different variations would be difficult
to analyse, we decided to change spacing. However, the doubling
of spacing leads to a doubling of the grid size if we do not want
to change mesh refinement. As LES are large CPU consuming, we
decided, at a first step, to consider k−ε simulations. Due to the con-
siderations about the analytical models (Section 2.2) we present
separately the cases  ≥ 1 and  ≤ 1.
Fig. 14. Non-dimensional downstream static pressure difference.

different spacings, the second is the half of the first, and the third 6.2.1.  ≥ 1
is twice the first, which is a quite large range of variation for such a If we compare Figs. 17 to 11, we see that the main stall phe-
parameter. For solidity variation we had the choice between: chang- nomena are quite similar, with the development of a half zone of
ing the chord size and changing the spacing. Changing the chord recirculation. The flow is better conducted with a larger number of

Fig. 15. Time averaged velocity with ˛ = 60◦ .

 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335 333

Fig. 17. Time averaged velocity with  = 2.

Fig. 18. Time averaged velocity with  = 1/2.

blades. In the case of smaller spacing, the extent of the recirculation model is quite weak. Phenomena are not governed by friction, but
zone seems more limited. The downstream zone seems also more by the separation process.
homogeneous, which is normal as we have four blades instead of
two. 6.2.2.  ≤ 1
We see in Table 9 that results are quite similar, with a lower If we compare Figs. 18 to 11, we see that the main stall phenom-
extend of the stall zone for the lower spacing, as suggested before. ena are qualitatively similar, with the development of a wide zone
In a first correlation building, it can be supposed that the solidity of recirculation. The extent of the recirculation zone seems more
dependency is weak. important in the case  = 1/2. Fig. 18 seems also comparable with
We can conclude that Longley models give total pressure loss isolated airfoil simulations results (Hoarau and Braza, 2005), if we
independent from solidity which is the same trend as the curve consider the recirculation zone size.
given by CFD simulations, whereas Moses and Thomason gives a If we recall that (see Moses and Thomason, 1986) the adapted
contrary trend. In fact solidity dependence in Moses and Thomason normal coefficient Cn , characterising the lift Fn , is expressed by
Fn 2 V2
Cn = − = cos (˛1 )(sin (˛1 − ) − sin (˛2 − ))
V12 c/2  V1
Table 9
Cascade performance with two different spacings P2 − P1
+ sin() (17)
Reference configuration ˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ ) ω3 V12 /2
 =1 35.2 34.8 0.43 51.6 18.4 0.59 We find that Cn ( = 1) ∼ 0.45, Cn ( = 0.5) ∼ 0.85. In the case of an
 =2 37.2 32.8 0.39 51.35 18.65 0.49
isolated airfoil, Cn ∼ 1.3 (from Guénot and Aupoix, 2003). The
334 N. Tauveron / Nuclear Engineering and Design 240 (2010) 321–335
Table 10
Cascade performance with two different spacings
Reference configuration ˛2 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛2 (◦ ) ω2 ˛3 (◦ ) ˛1 − ˛3 (◦ )
 =1 35.2 34.8 0.43 51.6 18.4
 = .5 37.4 32.6 0.68 47.3 22.7
behaviour of a cascade with a wide spacing looks like the behaviour
of an isolated airfoil, which is quite logical.
We see in Table 10 that results are different, as suggested before.
In a first correlation building, it can be supposed that the solidity
dependency is more important when  ≤ 1.
7. Conclusion
The final objective of the study is to provide models or correla-
tions, adapted to describe compressor behaviour in very off-design
conditions (stall conditions) which can be used in our compressor
performance generation model. In this paper, we have established
and begun to validate the numerical simulations with Trio U soft-
ware by comparison with representative experimental data on stall
regime (for profile phenomena). Large Eddy Simulations with a
two-layer approximate boundary conditions (TBLE) has given the
most precise results compared to the open literature case (in air).
Simulations with a larger span size domain will be performed to
improve the quality of simulations. Numerical aspects will also be
investigated.
However, we have used the present numerical model to
perform sensitivity studies on various parameters of inter-
est (solidity, angle of incidence) to improve the experimental
database. Enrichment of database shows analytical model with
constant section mixing trends are valuable. The limited impact
of solidity when the solidity is greater than unity is also estab-
lished.
In the future, other parameters influence will be investigated to
enrich this data base (wider ranges of incidence, stagger and cam-
ber angles, Reynolds number). Negative velocities are also of great
interest for simulating stall and surge transients. A large amount
of work is still required to evaluate the importance of additional
effects (3D, role of tip clearance, etc.) and finally simulate stall in a
compressor.
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