Phases and Microstructure

Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Iron and Steel
Steel Microstructures

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 2
Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram
0.18

0.10

2.11

0.77

0.008 at RT

Identify the terminal phases and its solubility

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
3

 Iron-‘Iron carbide’ phase diagram

 Its not a true equilibrium phase diagram because
iron carbide is not a stable phase
 Iron carbide decomposes into iron and carbon
(graphite)
 Even at elevated temperature (like 700C), it will take
several years for decomposition
 Hence for all practical purpose Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram represents equilibrium changes

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 4

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Source: Wikipedia
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
5

 Carbon being a very small atom gets into the

interstitial of ferrite/ austenite phases to form solid
solution
 Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about 75%
of metal tonnage in the world. Broadly three main
alloys
 Iron = C content < 0.008 wt%
 Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.008 to 2.11% C)
 Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2.11% to 6.7% C)

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 6

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Materials Science and Metallurgy by Pollack
 Allotropes of Iron and various phases
7

1538  -ferrite (BCC)

 Max solubility of C is 0.022 wt %
1394
 RT solubility of C is 0.008 wt %
Temperature

 -austenite (FCC)
912  Max solubility of C is 2.14 wt %
768
 -ferrite (BCC)
 Stable only at high T
 Max solubility of C is 0.10 wt %

 Fe3C (iron carbide/ cementite)

 Orthorhombic structure
Why is solubility of C higher in  Intermetallic
FCC than in BCC?  Brittle
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 Transformation Temperatures
8

 A1 = Temperature at which austenite begins to form

during heating
 A2 = Temperature at which  iron becomes non-
magnetic
 A3 = Temperature at which transformation of  iron
to austenite is completed during heating
 A4 = Temperature at which austenite transforms to
delta ferrite
 Am = Temperature at which solutionizing of
cementite in austenite is complete
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 Various Transformation Reactions and
development of Microstructure
9

 Peritectic Reaction:
 L+⇌

 Eutectic Reaction: Eutectic of austenite and

cementite is known as ledeburite
 L ⇌  + Fe3C
 Eutectoid Reaction: Eutectoid of ferrite and
cementite is known as pearlite. The ferrite and
cementite phases occur as alternate layers
  ⇌  + Fe3C

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 Definition of Microstructure
10

 The microstructure of crystalline materials is defined

by the type, structure, number, shape and
topological arrangement of phases and/or lattice
defects .

 Elements of microstructure: Point defects,

point-defect clusters, dislocations, stacking faults,
grain boundaries, interphase interfaces are
important elements of the microstructure of most
materials.

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 Steels
11

 Steels can be categorized as

 Low carbon steels (C < 0.3 %)

 Medium carbon steels (0.3 < C <0.6)

 High carbon steels (C>0.6 %)

 Steels can also be grouped as (a) plain carbon steels,

(b) low alloy steels (c) stainless steels and (d) tool
steels
 Hypoeutectoid steels (C between 0.022 to 0.77) and
Hypereutectoid steels ( C > 0.77)
 Several solid state transformations take place in steel

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 Microstructure of Eutectoid steel
12

 When Fe-alloy of 0.77% of C is

cooled slowly it transforms
from single phase of austenite
to pearlite structure, a lamellar
or layered structure of two
phases: ferrite and cementite
 In the micrograph, dark
regions are cementite and
bright regions are ferrite

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Why layered structure?
13
 Layered structures are
formed because of
redistribution of C atoms
between ferrite (0.022 wt %)
and cementite (6.7 wt %) by
diffusion
 Mechanical properties of
pearlite are in between that
of ferrite (soft) and
cementite (brittle)
 What is the fraction of ferrite
for this eutectoid alloy?
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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel
14

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel
15

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 16

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

steel (ferrite + pearlite) (b) Eutectoid
steel (c) Hypereutectoid steel (pearlite
with network of cementite)

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Microstructure of steel with C < 0.022
17

 In this steel content is less than

T3 0.022 wt % so transformation
begins at temperature on
T4 intersection of NM (T3)
 Transformation gets completed
by T4, much earlier than for
hypoeutectoid
 No change until T5
 Below T5, excess carbon gets
rejected in the form of Fe3C
T5
 In most practical cases, since
cooling is not slow enough,
microstructure remains 100%
ferrite
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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Cast Iron
18

 Cast Iron, as defined earlier, has C concentration

greater than 2.11 % and less than 6.7%
 Cast iron can be further subdivided into two
categories
 White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of
cementite
 Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as
graphite

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 Cast Iron
19

 Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as

graphite
 Contains Si (1 to 3 %) which causes formation of graphite
flakes distributed throughout the cast product upon
solidification
 Presence of graphite gives a grey color to the fractured surface
 Good vibration damping because of dispersion of graphite
flakes
 Internal lubricating qualities which make it machinable
 Products made from gray cast iron include automotive engine
blocks and heads, machine tool bases
 When chemically treated to form spheroids rather than flakes,
we end up with ductile iron. It is stronger and more ductile

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 Cast Iron
20

 White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of

cementite
 Contains 0.5 to 2% Si and lower C content
 Formed by rapid cooling of the molten metal
 Its hard, brittle and excellent wear resistance
 Applications include railway brake shoes
 When cast iron is heat treated to separate carbon out of
solution and form graphite, resulting metal is called malleable
(upto 20%)
 Malleable cast iron is utilized for pipe fitting and flanges

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 Microstructures of eutectic cast Iron
21
0.18
 On solidification,
0.10
ledeburite is formed
 On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
2.11
out as cementite from
eutectic austenite
 At 727 C, eutectic
0.77
austenite would
contain 0.77 % C and
0.008 at RT
would decompose
into pearlite

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Microstructures of hypoeutectic cast Iron
22
0.18
 In this case, at
0.10 temperature just below
1147 C, consists of
proeutectic austenite
and ledeburite
2.11  On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as cementite from
proeutectic and eutectic
austenite
0.77
 At 727 C, both eutectic
and proeutectic
0.008 at RT austenite would contain
0.77 % C and would
decompose into pearlite

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Microstructures of hypereutectic cast Iron
23
0.18
 In this case, at
0.10 temperature just
below 1147 C, consists
of proeutectic
cementite and
2.11 ledeburite
 On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as proeutectoid
0.77 cementite from
eutectic austenite
0.008 at RT  At 727 C, eutectic
austenite would
decompose into
pearlite
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 24

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectic steel

(ledeburite + pearlite +cementite) (b)
Eutectic steel (ledeburite) (c)
Hypereutectic steel (ledeburite + primary
cementite)

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
25

 Steel consists of several other alloying elements

 Cr: improves strength, hardness, wear resistance, hot hardness,
hardenability. In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion
resistance
 Mn: improves the strength and hardness of steel
 Mo: increases toughness and hot hardness. Also provides
hardenability and wear resistance
 Ni: improves strength and toughness. In significant amounts, it
improves corrosion resistance
 V: grain refiner and hence improves strength and toughness
 Some alloying elements affect the relative stabilities of
alpha and gamma iron and as such are grouped as ferrite
stabilizers or austenite stabilizers

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Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
26

 Cr is also a Ferrite Stabilizer

 Other elements which tend to stabilize
ferrite are W, Mo, V and Si
 These elements are more soluble in α-
phase than in -phase
 Most of these elements are BCC
 They decrease the amount of carbon
present in the gamma-iron and thus
favor formation of larger quantity of
free carbide
 Reduce the austenite region by
lowering A4 point and raising A3 point
 For Cr > 12.8%, austenite phase
completely disappeare and -ferrite
and -ferrite merge
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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Effect of Chromium (Ferrite Stabilizer)
27

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
28
 Ni is also a Austenite Stabilizer
 Other elements which tend to
stabilize austenite are Mn and Cu
 These elements are more soluble
in gamma-phase than in alpha-
phase
 Most of these elements are FCC
 Carbon also has stabilizing effect
(at HT)
 Reduce the austenite region by
raising A4 point and lowering A3
point
 These elements can make it stable
even at room temperature
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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Effect of Nickel (austenite stabilizer)
29

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Phases and Microstructure
30

Microstructure
of annealed mild
steel (0.1% C)

Microstructure of annealed SS316L Microstructure of annealed duplex steel

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar
 Different grades and their applications
31

 (a) plain carbon steels

 Low-C: automobile sheet metal
 Medium-C : engine parts (crank-shaft)
 High-C: springs, blades
 (b) low alloy steels:
 Various automotive components
 (c) stainless steels
 Austenitic: chemical & food processing equipment
 Ferritic: kitchen utensils to jet engine components
 Martensitic: cutlery, surgical instruments
 (d) tool steels:
 high speed tool, shock-resistant tools, die

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 Different grades and their applications
32

 Dual-phase steel (ferrite + martensite):

 Automotive structural parts, longitudinal beams

 Duplex stainless steel (austenite + ferrite):

 Heat exchangers, turbocharger pumps

 Precipitation hardening stainless stee:

 Aerospace and nuclear application

 Gray cast iron

 Automotive engine blocks and heads, machine tool bases

 White cast iron

 pipe fitting and flanges

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 Stainless Steel
33

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
 34

Changing only the C

concentration, itself has
substantial change on the
microstructure and properties of
steel

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Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
Phase transformations

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 36

Phase diagram only tells

us about the
equilibrium phase. It
does not tell us about
the non-equilibrium
phases

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 37

•Solid Lines are Diffusional

•Dotted is Diffusionless

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 What is Martensite?
38

 Martensite forms when

austenite is rapidly cooled
(quenched) to room T.
 Martensite is metastable -
can persist indefinitely at
room temperature, but will
transform to equilibrium
phases on annealing at an
elevated temperature.
 It’s a Non Equilibrium
Phase: Does not appear on
Phase Diagram
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 What is Bainite?
39

 Upper bainite consists of

needles of ferrites
separated by long
cementite particles
 It occurs in the T ~300 -
540C
 Lower bainite consists of
thin plates of ferrite
containing very fine rods
or blades of cementites
 It occurs in T~200-300C
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 Bainite
40

For T~300-450C, upper bainite For T~200-300 C, lower bainite consists

consists of needles of ferrite of thin plates of ferrite containing very
separated by long cementite particles fine rods or blades of cementites
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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Time-temperature
path to obtain
combination of
microstructures

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 42

slide borrowed from Dr. Swati Sharma

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar