Fulltext01 PDF

Improvement of the retention-formation
relationship using three-component retention aid

systems
Anna Svedberg
Doctoral Dissertation
Stockholm 2012
Royal Institute of Technology
Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology
SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
Typeset in Garamond.
TRITA-CHE REPORT 2012:19

ISSN 1654-1081
ISBN 978-91-7501-314-5
Akademisk avhandling som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan i Stockholm

framlägges till offentlig granskning för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen, fredagen den 8
juni 2012 klockan 13.00 i hörsal K1, Teknikringen 56, Stockholm. Avhandlingen försvaras på
engelska.
Copyright © Svedberg Anna 2012.

All rights reserved. Except for the purpose of academic education or research, no part of this
publication may be reproduced by any means without the permission of the author.
Stockholm 2012, Universitetsservice US AB.
To Oskar and Selma
Abstract
Paper formation and filler retention are working in opposite directions during papermaking,
where high filler retention correlates with poor formation, and vice versa. A change in this
interdependency would gain increased competitiveness of paper materials in terms of better
paper properties at profitable process conditions (e.g. less filler content in the white water,
reduced wear of forming fabrics and shorter response times to changes in chemical additives). As
raw material prices increase, there is a greater interest in new applications in papermaking, such as
the production of highly filled papers, and in these contexts the retention-formation relationship
also becomes essential.
Over the years, the use of and demand for retention aids have increased significantly as a
consequence of an enhanced white-water system closure, increased production rates and
increased filler content. Knowledge about whether some retention aid systems are more
detrimental to paper formation than others has, however, been very limited. At the same time,
knowledge regarding other chemical and mechanical factors influencing the retention-formation
relationship has also been insufficient.
In order to investigate retention-formation relationships, a pilot web former (R-F machine) has
been optimized during this thesis work. The R-F machine provides a short circulation of the
white-water and a short residence time to chemical equilibrium and is suitable for systematic
studies predicting a ranking order that corresponds to what could be expected in a full-scale
machine. In this respect this equipment fills an essential gap in earlier available experimental
techniques for studying retention-formation relationships. After establishing the routines for this
pilot web former, a number of different retention aid systems were evaluated with respect to
retention and formation under a given set of experimental conditions. These experiments were
performed using a fine paper stock consisting of 90% bleached hardwood and 10% softwood
and with an addition of 25% CaCO3 filler (based on solids content).
It was shown that single-component retention aids (three cationic polyacrylamides of varied
molecular weights) and polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems (two systems
with different microparticles) resulted in similar retention-formation relationships. The results
from all these systems suggested a linear relationship, where an increased filler retention was
accompanied by a deterioration in paper formation.
The investigation of different retention aid systems also included three-component retention aid
systems. These systems combined a cationic polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid
system with a formation aid. Three high molecular weight anionic polymers of different structure
were used as formation aids (linear, partly structured and structured). It was shown that with such
three-component systems, the retention-formation relationship could be improved. At a given
level of retention, the formation was significantly improved. The key for this improvement was to
add the high molecular weight polymers at such high amounts that the anionic polymer was free
in solution and able to disperse the papermaking fibres. It was also found that the structure of the
polymer was decisive for the favourable formation effect. The drainage rate, however, was also
affected by high added amounts of anionic polymer. In contradiction to the formation
improvements, a high amount of added polymer correlated to reduced drainage properties of the
fibrous dispersions.
The continued thesis work was focused on finding molecular mechanisms that could explain the
findings with the R-F machine, showing a deviation from the linear relationship between
retention and formation.
In these studies the same three high molecular weight anionic polymers were investigated as
single-component additives in a flow loop system which simulated forming conditions (fibre
consistency of 5 g/l). In these studies it was shown that the high molecular weight anionic
polymers reduced the mean size of the flocs when present in high amounts in the suspension,
meaning that these adjuvants can act as deflocculation aids. Again, the polymer structure was
found to be important for the dispersion effect.
The main hypothesis was that the formation aids, when added at such high amounts that they
were free in solution, could suppress the turbulence and thereby gain favourable dispersion
effects. From that point of view, both phase flow encoded magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
experiments and adsorption studies on model surfaces were performed. In addition, R-F machine
trials were performed to elucidate whether the changed retention-formation relationship was an
effect of changed drainage performance. However, these R-F machine trials showed that the
detected effect was related to changed chemistry upon the addition of formation aids in high
amounts, and not to changed drainage rate of the fibrous furnish.
Adsorption studies using QCM and DPI techniques were performed for two three-component
retention aid systems, including the linear and the structured anionic polymer. The objective of
these studies was to investigate whether surface effects, due to adsorption of the anionic polymer,
contributed to changed retention-formation relationships. Since both systems demonstrated
similar results and only slight adsorptions of the anionic polymers were observed, it was
concluded that interaction effects between the fibre surfaces were not a contributing factor to the
changed relationships. Hence, the mechanism was attributed to solution effects where the free
anionic polyelectrolyte caused a dispersion of the papermaking fibres.
The effect of formation aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous suspension in turbulent
flows was studied in MRI experiments. The objective was to correlate changes in rheological
properties of the suspending medium to changes in formation and fibre flocculation. Flow
imaging measurements and pressure drop analysis were performed for water and fibre
suspensions (0.5% consistency) with and without additions of formation aids. The results
indicated that high molecular weight anionic polymers as formation aids effectively act as drag
reducing additives in turbulent flows. Drag reduction effects were shown in terms of reduced
turbulence fluctuations (as determined by signal intensities) and reduced pressure drops. Synergy
effects were observed when fibres and formation aids were used in combination. Again, the
importance of the polymer structure was revealed in these MRI studies in terms of drag reduction
effects.
The overall results in this thesis work, given from independent R-F machine trials, flow loop
experiments and MRI experiments, are all consistent regarding the effect of the formation aids
and the influence of the polymer structure. Consistently, the deflocculation effects were shown
only for the linear and the partly structured polymer. No effects were shown for the structured
polymer. Hence, the extension of the polymer in solution and the polymer flexibility are
important characteristics for drag reduction phenomena and the beneficial effects that can be
generated therefrom.
To sum up, this work documents for the first time that the established retention-formation
relationship can be changed; that is, the formation can be improved at a given level of retention.
This was shown in pilot web former trials for three-component systems, combining
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems with formation aids. These trends
were later also supported by flocculation investigations, model experiment studies and MRI
measurements. The mechanism of changed retention-formation relationships and fibre
dispersion could hence be related to turbulence damping effects and not to adsorption effects of
the formation aids.
Turbulence is generated within the headbox nozzle passage to ensure a uniform dispersion of the
fibres in the jet stream delivered to the forming fabric, so that an even cross-directional mass
distribution of the fibres is obtained in the paper sheet. However, the fibres tend to reflocculate
in the decaying turbulence, after passing the turbulence generator in the headbox, and when
distributed on the wire. A high degree of turbulence introduced in the headbox, and hence an
increased inherent energy in the fibre networks, correlates to a more pronounced degree of
reflocculation of the fibres. By using formation aids as drag reducing additives, the turbulence
was damped and the degree of reflocculation was thereby reduced, which contributed to
improved paper formation. Owing to turbulence damping effects, there is a reduction in the flow
hydraulic resistance that is expected to reduce the internal stress of the coherent fibre network.
When the internal stress is reduced, the stability of the flocs is reduced and hence a favourable
fibre dispersion is achieved.
KEYWORDS: Dewatering, drag reduction, fibre flocculation, filler retention, fine paper, flow
imaging, flow loop, formation aid, kraft pulp, magnetic resonance imaging, MRI, paper
formation, pilot web former, pressure drop, retention aid, turbulence damping
List of publications
This thesis is based on the following papers and additional unpublished data. The papers are
appended at the end of the thesis.
I. A pilot web former designed to study retention-formation relationships

Svedberg, A. and Lindström, T. (2010)
Nord. Pulp Paper Res. J., 25(2), pp. 185-194.
II. The effect of various retention aids on retention and formation

III. Improvement of the retention-formation relationship using three-component retention aid systems
IV. The effects of formation aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous suspensions
Svedberg, A., Tozzi, E. J., Lavenson, D. M., Lindström, T., McCarthy, M. J. and Powell, R. L.
(2012)
Manuscript.
Other relevant disseminations not included in the thesis:
1. Storage of chemical pulp - Inactivation of retention aids

Nordin, L. (2006). Supervised by: Westlund, P-O., Wågberg, L. and Svedberg, A.
Degree project in Engineering Chemistry, Umeå University.
2. Valuation of the retention/formation (R/F) relationship using a laboratory pilot-paper machine

Svedberg, A. (2007)
Intertech Pira Conference Filler and Pigments for Papermakers, Berlin, Germany.
3. Valuation of retention/formation relationships using a laboratory pilot-paper machine

Svedberg, A. (2007)
Licentiate thesis, Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
4. On-line applikation för signifikanta studier av avvattning på en pappersmaskin i pilotskala

Nilsson, P. (2009). Supervised by: Hägglund, J-E. and Svedberg, A.
Degree project in Technical Physics, Umeå University.
5. Förbättring av formations/retentionssambandet
Svedberg, A. (2010)
Ekmandagarna, Stockholm, Sverige.
6. A strategy of improving the retention-formation relationship by using drag reducing additives

8th International Paper and Coating Chemistry Symposium, Stockholm, Sweden.
7. A strategy of improving the retention-formation relationship by using drag reducing additives

Svedberg, A., Tozzi, E. J., Lavenson, D. M., Lindström, T., McCarthy, M. J. and Powell, R. L.
(2012)
The XVIth International Congress on Rheology - August 5-10, 2012.
Patent applications:
Filed patent application “Composition and Process for Improving Paper and Paper Board” on
December 15, 2011. Application no. in the US: 61576250. Application no. in Sweden: 1151205-0.
Manuscripts in preparation:
The effect of formation aids on fiber suspension flocculation

Svedberg, A., Ankerfors, M. and Lindström, T. (2012)
Adsorption study – The interactions of cationic polyacrylamide, high molecular weight anionic polymer and anionic
montmorillonite clay on model surfaces
Svedberg, A., Utsel, S., Lindström, T. and Wågberg, L. (2012)
Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Setting the scene ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objective ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Outline of the thesis........................................................................................................... 2
2 Background ........................................................................................................................3
2.1 Retention and formation .................................................................................................... 3
2.2 The retention-formation relationship ................................................................................. 3
2.3 Paper formation, fibre flocculation and network strength .................................................. 4
2.4 Machine design and operational variables........................................................................... 5
2.5 Retention aid systems – aspects on retention mechanisms and reversibility of flocculation 7
2.6 Other chemical adjuvants and dosage strategies - aspects on dispersion mechanisms ....... 13
2.7 Drag reduction of turbulent flows by additives ................................................................ 15
3 Materials ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Pulp ................................................................................................................................. 17
3.2 Filler ................................................................................................................................ 18
3.3 Retention aid systems....................................................................................................... 18
3.4 Formation aids ................................................................................................................. 19
4 Methods ............................................................................................................................ 21
4.1 The retention and formation machine .............................................................................. 21
4.2 Retention and formation .................................................................................................. 24
4.3 Dewatering analysis .......................................................................................................... 24
4.4 Flocculation analysis – The flow loop system ................................................................... 25
4.5 Magnetic resonance flow imaging .................................................................................... 26
4.6 Adsorption analysis (QCM and DPI) ............................................................................... 28
5 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................... 29
5.1 The effect of the jet-to-wire speed ratio on paper formation ............................................ 29
5.2 The effect of different retention aids on retention and formation .................................... 30
5.2.1 Single-component polyacrylamide retention aids ....................................................... 30
5.2.2 Polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems ......................................................... 32
5.2.3 Three-component retention aid systems .................................................................... 35
5.3 The effect of formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation .......................................... 41
5.4 The effects of formation aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous suspensions .......... 43
5.5 Adsorption studies – The interactions of cationic polyacrylamide, high molecular weight
anionic polymer and anionic montmorillonite clay on model surfaces.................................... 46
6 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 49
7 Future work ...................................................................................................................... 51
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 52
References ........................................................................................................................... 54
1 Introduction
1.1 Setting the scene
Papermakers strive for uniform networks of fibres when producing paper materials in order to
optimize paper strength and optical performance. Paper formation describes how the fibres are
distributed, arranged and mixed in the sheet structure. The paper formation is important for
obtaining good strength and printability properties. Forming of paper materials starts from a
dilute aqueous suspension of papermaking pulp (0.2-1% mass consistency depending on the
product), which is transformed to a coherent sheet structure during forming on the wire. Most of
the water is drained on the wire (96-99%), yielding a wet paper web which is pressed and dried in
subsequent steps to form the final product. The resulting paper formation depends on the
shearing conditions in the forming zone and the degree of fibre flocculation in the papermaking
furnish.
Filler is a finely divided, usually white pigment (e.g. calcium carbonate, kaolin and talc). It is
added to the stock in order to raise the opacity and smoothness of the paper and also for
economic reasons related to the increased costs of wood as a raw material. A fine paper consists
of approximately 20% filler and the rest is a mixture of fully bleached chemical hardwood and
softwood fibres. Retention aids are stock additives known to be effective for improving the
retention of fine particles during the forming of paper. However, retention aids are not selective;
they help in attaching fine materials such as fillers to fibres but also cause additional fibre
flocculation, which is detrimental to paper formation. Hence, there is a delicate balance between
The composition of retention aid systems varies among the supplier portfolios, and it has often
been questioned whether some systems are more detrimental to paper formation than others.
Although it has been communicated in conference articles that certain developments in retention
strategies are superior to formation, there are very few convincing academic investigations found
in the open literature.
The general trend reported in the literature describes difficulties in breaking the interdependency
between retention and formation (Albinsson et al. 1995; Brouillette et al. 2004; Huber et al. 2004;
Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Krogerus 1994; Rooks 2004). Although other strategies to improve the
retention-formation relationship have been suggested, such as preflocculation of filler (Mabee
2001; Silenius 2003) and the usage of formation aids (Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Lindström et al.
1986), there are few publications available in the literature. Exploration of the literature revealed
the need for more focused developments in this area, including systematic studies on the
influence and interplay of chemical and mechanical aspects on the interdependency between
A simple and cost-effective method for evaluating retention and formation under chemical
equilibrium situations has also been identified. The low number of systematic studies found may
be explained by the limited number of suitable evaluation methods. Industrial trials are rarely
reported, since they are costly and do not include controlled experimental conditions because of
variations in the process parameters (e.g. grammage, reuse of broke from different paper
machines, etc.). Moreover, the residence time to chemical equilibrium is long on full-scale paper
machines, due to large white-water systems. Further, most of the laboratory experimental set-ups
1
for flocculation analysis do not simulate recirculation of the white water, which results in lower
concentration of fine materials in the investigated furnishes.
1.2 Objective
The objective of this thesis was threefold. The first objective was a reliable R-F machine, being a
significant tool for systematic reproducible studies of retention, formation and dewatering under
realistic conditions. The second objective was a strategy to improve the retention-formation
relationship. Finally, the third objective was a fundamental understanding about flocculation
mechanisms that contribute to an improved retention-formation relationship in papermaking.
1.3 Outline of the thesis
The thesis is based on the four papers appended at the end and additional unpublished data. The
thesis is divided into seven main chapters, which are followed by acknowledgements and
references. The first two chapters introduce and give background information on the
investigations. The next two chapters are self-explanatory, being entitled Materials and Methods.
Chapter 5 is the central part of the thesis, presenting the results and discussions. Chapter 5 is
divided into five main subchapters.
Chapter 5.1 presents the effect of the jet-to-wire speed ratio on paper formation, results which
were presented in Paper 1. Chapter 5.2 gives a survey of the impact of various retention aids on
retention and formation. The impacts of single-component polyacrylamide retention aids (5.2.1),
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems (5.2.2) and three-component
retention aid systems (5.2.3) are presented and compared. The main results presented in Paper 2
are discussed in chapters 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, and the main results presented in Paper 3 are discussed
in chapter 5.2.3.
Chapter 5.3 presents the effect of formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation, which was
investigated in a flow loop system. These data are not yet published. The effects of formation
aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous suspensions, investigated by using magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), are presented in chapter 5.4. These results refer to Paper 4. The last
paragraph in chapter 5 presents the results obtained from adsorption studies on model surfaces,
in which the interaction between cationic polyacrylamide, high molecular weight anionic
polymers and montmorillonite clay was studied. Finally, the thesis work is summarized and the
most important findings are given in the Conclusion chapter. The last chapter also presents
suggestions for future work.
2
2 Background
2.1 Retention and formation
Two parameters that are almost always critical to good papermaking are paper formation and
filler retention.1 Paper formation is one of the most important quality characteristics of paper
materials, while filler retention is an important issue with regard to productivity and system
stability of the wet end of the paper machine.
A sheet with good formation has positive impacts on paper strength (Norman, Wahren 1973;
Hallgren, Lindström 1989; Nazhad et al. 2003), printability (Huang, LePoutre 1994; Kajanto
1989; Bernié et al. 2006) and optical properties such as opacity (Jordan 1985; Wahren 1987). On
the other hand, there are several advantages to be derived from improved filler retention, such as
higher paper machine and additive efficiency, faster responses to changes in process conditions,
cost savings and reduced effluent loading. Higher retention gives smaller amounts of circulating
materials, which gives smaller changes in the mix composition and hence a more constant
product quality but also less material carry-over between paper machines with connected white-
water systems. Poor filler retention can also cause sheet quality problems. Uneven filler
distribution, as one example, might result in poor optical properties and increased two-sidedness
of the produced paper.
1Retention is defined as the proportion of a component present in the original mixture which remains in the mixture
at some stage of the process or in the final product (Fellers, Norman 1998).
2.2 The retention-formation relationship
It is generally recognized that retention and paper formation are opposing parameters in
papermaking, where high filler retention correlates to poor paper formation and vice versa. The
papermaker has several economic and practical reasons for wanting to attain both high filler
retention and good paper formation, that is, to break the interdependency between retention and
formation. General trends in modern papermaking include a higher degree of white-water system
closure, faster paper machines, more highly filled papers and twin-wire forming. These trends,
together with the demands of producing higher-quality paper, shed new light on the retention-
formation relationship.
The retention-formation relationship is influenced by several chemical and mechanical factors.

Retention aid choices, machine designs, operational variables, furnish characteristics and dosage
strategies are all factors that influence retention and formation (e.g. Solberg, Wågberg 2003).
Other important chemical aspects are the chemistry of the suspending medium and the addition
of other chemical adjuvants, such as formation aids. The influences of mechanical factors on
paper formation have been reviewed by Norman and Söderberg (2001), and factors influencing
the retention-formation relationship have been reviewed by Swerin and Ödberg (1997). To
balance retention and formation, the papermaker must acknowledge the interplay between these
chemical and mechanical factors. Chemical and mechanical factors influencing the retention-
formation relationship are discussed in more detail in the following chapters.
3
2.3 Paper formation, fibre flocculation and network strength
Formation is a concept which describes the grammage distribution of paper on a scale up to 50

mm (Norman 1989; Norman, Söderberg 2001). The final distribution of fibres in paper materials
is principally influenced by two interacting phenomena: fibre flocculation and shearing conditions
in the forming section (Kiviranta, Dodson 1995; Kiviranta 1996).
Fibre flocs, defined as local fibre concentration variations, have a negative impact on paper
formation. The correlation between fibre flocculation and paper formation has been addressed by
several authors (Wahren 1972; Jokinen, Ebeling 1985; Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Swerin, Ödberg
1996a; Yan et al. 2006). Fibre flocculation depends on both chemical and mechanical factors.
Before Mason (1954), the research claimed that flocculation was mainly governed by chemical
factors, based on classical colloidal phenomena. Mason first showed that collisions and
subsequent mechanical entanglement of fibres were primary factors affecting flocculation of
fibres, a concept described as mechanical flocculation. Mason’s mechanistic concept laid the
foundation for the subsequent research on fibre flocculation.
Mechanical flocculation gives rise to local fibre networks (flocs), where the fibres are
mechanically interlocked in the network if the fibre is in contact with at least three other fibres.
Regarding fibre flocculation, the number of contacts per fibre is critical. To quantify the number
of contacts, Kerekes and Schell (1992) introduced the crowding factor concept (N), where values
for N can be calculated from:
N=2Cv(L/d)2/3 [1]
where Cv is the volumetric concentration of fibres, L is the fibre length and d is the fibre
diameter.
The crowding factor concept combines fibre geometry with fibre consistency and can be used to
characterize the flocculation tendency of a given furnish. When the N-value increases (increased
crowding), the probability that fibres will collide increases. Longer fibres, stiffer fibres and an
increased consistency will increase the N-value, that is, the flocculation of fibres.
Kerekes and Schell (1992) classified fibre suspensions in three regimes (a-c), depending on the
crowding factor (a: N<1, dilute; b: 1<N<60, semi-concentrated; c: N>60, concentrated). In
commercial papermaking, the range of 1<N<60 is of key importance. From laboratory
sedimentation experiments, Martinez et al. (2001) concluded that within the range 1<N<60,
there were two different sub-regimes present regarding fibre flocculation. These sub-regimes
were delineated at the critical level N=16, where formation was found to be slightly dependent
on N in the region N<16 and then to worsen significantly with N>16. The machine design and
the operational variables should hence be carefully considered when critical levels for fibre
flocculation are discussed.
Fibre flocculation affects the behaviour and the rheology of the pulp suspension, influencing the
fibre network strength. The network strength of fibre suspensions arises from the cohesive forces
that act between fibres at the fibre-fibre contact points. The fibre network strength is one
important parameter affecting paper formation (Swerin, Ödberg 1996a; Wahren 1979).
4
The fibre network strength is affected by several factors, such as the addition of retention aids or
other chemical adjuvants, fibre consistency, fibre dimensions, fibre properties and several other
factors. One simple method to reduce the network strength and thereby to improve the
formation is to reduce the fibre consistency to such a low level that the network strength is
negligible. However, this method has a negative influence on the retention, which decreases with
decreased fibre consistency and naturally on the volumes that have to be passed through the
headbox during papermaking operations.
The shearing conditions, including turbulence, are essential for fibre flocculation and the
subsequent paper formation. Due to shearing of the stock during the dewatering process, fibres
and flocs are more evenly distributed, which results in better paper formation in the sheets being
produced.
Reflocculation of the stock in decaying turbulence is one very important aspect of paper
formation. The pulp being deflocculated in the headbox turbulence generator reflocculates
quickly in the decaying turbulence when distributed on the wire, and the resulting paper
formation will suffer. Meyer and Wahren (1964) have elucidated how and why fibre flocs form
after dispersion, offering the following explanation:
“…When a fiber suspension is agitated, the fibers are exposed to viscous and dynamic forces that tend to bend
them. When agitation ceases, the fibres tend to regain their original unstrained shape. However, if there are many
fibers per unit volume, they can not straighten out freely but will come in contact with other fibers. A fraction of the
fibers will come in contact with so many others that they will come to rest in a strained position, and forces will be
transmitted from fiber to fiber. These fibers become interlocked by normal and frictional forces, constituting a fiber
network, where forces can be transmitted through the fibers and from fiber to fiber. Thus, fiber networks are
coherent because of internal stresses…”
2.4 Machine design and operational variables
The design of the wet end of the paper machine (e.g. the former type, headbox design, and
dewatering and shearing conditions) and the operational variables (e.g. the stock consistency, jet-
to-wire speed ratio, machine speed, wire tension and slice opening) have significant impacts on
paper formation. By optimizing these variables, it is possible to improve the formation without
any loss in retention. The effects of machine design and operational variables on paper formation
have been reviewed by Norman (1989) and Norman and Söderberg (2001).
Paper machine performance has developed over time to embrace new web-forming techniques
and headbox designs, both including increased shearing conditions. The main reasons for these
developments were the calls for increased running speeds with higher production, better
grammage profiles, better paper formation and less two-sidedness.
In medium or high-speed paper machines the turbulence generator is a key part of the headbox.
A turbulence generator is basically a tube bank that assists in deflocculating the pulp, since the
stock which enters the tube bank is accelerated and fibre flocs are broken. The basic function of
the turbulence generator is to even out the cross-directional (CD) mass distribution of fibres, so
an even CD mass distribution of fibres in the paper sheet is obtained. When the deflocculated
stock leaves the tube bank in the headbox, it starts to reflocculate in the decaying turbulence. The
reflocculation tends to be more pronounced with a higher degree of turbulence. Hence, there is a
need to dampen the turbulence produced in the headbox. The design of the headbox is
important for the resulting paper formation. Recent developments in headbox designs can be
5
seen on some paper machine supplier home pages. For instance, a company offering equipment
with optimized turbulence generation and nozzle geometry reports improved paper formation as
one of its main benefits. The new turbulence generator configuration and nozzle geometry
reduce the residence time and accelerate the flow, which minimize the fibre reflocculation.
Both retention and formation are influenced by the stock consistency (Albinsson et al. 1995;
Norman 1989). A higher stock consistency gives a higher filler retention but, on the other hand,
it also results in poorer paper formation. It has been suggested that paper formation is improved,
to a certain extent, by dewatering, adjusting elongational shear and supplying oriented shear and
turbulence to the stock during forming (Norman, Söderberg 2001).
A higher machine speed correlates to a higher dewatering rate; both properties have
consequences for the web formation. Dewatering has a self-healing effect on the grammage
distribution (Norman, Söderberg 2001; Norman 1974). A rapid initial drainage, however, tends to
set the sheet too early in the forming zone, which affects the formation negatively. A higher stock
temperature correlates to a more rapid initial drainage.
When accelerating the stock in the headbox nozzle, an elongational flow is developed. This
elongational flow tends to orient fibres and cause flocs to stretch or rupture. By changing the
headbox contraction ratio, the overall acceleration of the flow can be modified. Norman and
Söderberg (2001) have suggested that a high contraction ratio2 should be set in order to achieve
improved paper formation. By adjusting the jet-to-wire speed ratio to such an extent that a small
difference in velocity of the jet and wire occurs, a certain oriented shear is achieved, which is
favourable for paper formation (Swerin, Mähler 1996; Svensson, Österberg 1965). The jet-to-wire
speed ratio has not, however, shown any considerable effect on the retention level (Swerin,
Mähler 1996; Lindström et al. 2006).
Another way to introduce shear during forming is by varying the wire tension in a blade former,
influencing the dewatering pulses. For filled papers, Albinsson et al. (1995) investigated, the
effect of varied wire tensions on paper formation, using the experimental paper machine,
EUROFEX, in a twin-wire blade former configuration. This study reported that an increased
wire tension gave an improved formation without affecting the retention level. Another factor
that has been shown to be important for paper formation is the jet impact, including the free jet
length and the jet angle (Norman 1989).
2Here contraction ratio is defined as the ratio between headbox height at the exit from the tube bank into the
contraction and the headbox jet thickness (slice opening).
6
2.5 Retention aid systems – aspects on retention mechanisms and
reversibility of flocculation
Retention aids are used to retain filler and fines in the wet paper web during the forming process,
by aggregating these stock components to larger units. Hence, retention aids also cause fibres to
aggregate, which causes mass formation to deteriorate. This chapter briefly reviews the
development of retention aids with some common materials used, and it discusses retention
mechanisms and reversibility of flocculation. The mechanism of action and the development of
retention aids has been reviewed by several authors, including Lindström (1989), Eklund and
Lindström (1991), Horn and Linhart (1996) and Swerin and Ödberg (1997).
Development of retention aid systems
Early retention aids were single-component products, most often based on acrylamide chemistry,
alum, starch, polyamines or polyethyleneimines (PEI). A further development of these retention
aids was the dual-component systems, which are usually based on interactions between a long-
chain charged polyelectrolyte and a second polymer with the opposite charge.
The microparticulate systems were introduced some 25 years ago, and these systems still
dominate the retention aid market. Microparticulate retention aids are normally based on
combinations of cationic polymers and anionic inorganic microparticles (Eklund, Lindström
1991). Some work using inorganic cationic microparticles has also been reported in the literature
(e.g. Ovenden, Xiao 2002).
The first two commercial microparticle retention aid systems used anionic colloidal silica in
combination with cationic starch (Andersson 1984) and anionic montmorillonite clay in
combination with cationic polyacrylamide (Langley, Litchfield 1986). Later, Smith (1991) reported
on systems based on cationic polyacrylamide together with anionic silica sol. Since these
precursors, there have been several further developments in the use of microparticulate systems,
based on, for example, aluminium hydroxide sols (Lindström et al. 1989), polymeric aluminium
species (Carré 1993) and nano-sized inorganic oxides (Gerli et al. 1999). Moreover, modifications
of silica sols have also been developed (Jaycock, Swales 1994; Swerin et al. 1995) together with
on-site production of the microparticles (Moffet 1994).
Today, there are still ongoing developments in the area of retention and dewatering aid systems.
For certain paper grades, a development of new systems is the multi-component systems. In
1986, Lindström et al. reported the use of long-chain polymers in conjunction with dual-
component systems. It has recently been demonstrated, both in laboratory evaluations and in
machine trials, that it is possible to change the retention-formation relationship by using a new
multi-component organic/inorganic system (Ledda et al. 2005). The retention-formation
relationship was obtained by decoupling the effects of retention, drainage/dewatering and
formation. There has also been considerable progress in structured microparticles, such as micro-
aggregated silica sols (Andersson, Lindgren 1996), and also systems based on organic polyacrylate
gel particles (Honig et al. 1993, 2000, 2005).
7
Aspects on retention mechanisms and reversibility of flocculation
There are several functional mechanisms describing the action of different retention aid systems.
Table 1 summarizes some different flocculation mechanisms and the influence of shear and
soluble substances on these mechanisms (Eklund, Lindström 1991).
Table 1. Survey of retention mechanisms and the impact of shear and soluble substances
(Eklund, Lindström 1991).
Mechanism Shear resistance of the Effect of increased Effect of simple
floc content of dissolved electrolytes
anionic polymers
Charge neutralization - -- +
Patch flocculation + -- -
Bridging ++ -- --
-adsorption
flocculation
Bridging ++ -/+ ++
-sensitization
flocculation
Complex flocculation +++ -- --
-classical dual systems
Complex flocculation +++ -- --
-microparticulate
systems
Network flocculation +++ -/+ -/+
-, -- means retention decrease
+, ++ means retention increase
The flocculation mechanism for the particles in a suspension is determined by the physical and
chemical surface characteristics of the particles and by the physical and chemical nature of the
retention aid system used (Eklund, Lindström 1991). Particles (fibres, fillers and fines) assume an
electric charge when dispersed in water. This charge originates from dissociation of ionic groups
on the particle, adsorption of ions and isomorphous substitution3 (van Olphen 1977). The
charged particles will affect the distribution of ions in the surrounding interfacial region, resulting
in an electrostatic double layer around each particle (inner Stern layer and outer diffuse layer)
(Evans, Wennerström 1999).
The charged surface might be described in terms of surface charge density and surface potential.
The surface potential decays exponentially with distance, with a decay constant given by the
Debye length (1/Κ), which is an estimate of the thickness of the electrostatic double layer
(Evans, Wennerström 1999). The Debye length is strongly influenced by the ionic strength and
the valency of the counter-ions.
Two forces are dominating the interaction between particles in solution: electrostatic repulsion
and attraction by dispersion forces (London forces). The DLVO theory (Derjaguin-Landau-
Verwey-Overbeek) describes the colloidal stability of a dispersed system from the total potential
energy between particles, which is the sum of the attractive and repulsive energies (Evans,
Wennerström 1999). According to the total energy balance from the DLVO theory, illustrated in
Fig 1, coagulation between colliding particles occurs in primary and secondary minima of the
potential energy, where the attractive energy (VA) overcomes the repulsive energy (VR).
3Isomorphous substitution: The replacement of one atom by another of similar size in a crystal lattice without
disrupting or changing the crystal structure of a mineral.
8
In comparison with coagulation in the primary minimum, coagulation in the secondary minimum
gives rise to flocs which are easier to redisperse. The order of the repulsive barrier (Vmax) is
decisive for primary coagulation to occur and correlates to the Debye length (Vmax decreases with
smaller Debye length). By reducing the surface potential, the electrostatic repulsive barrier (Vmax)
is reduced and coagulation is promoted.
Fig 1. Total potential energy between two colloidal particles according to the DLVO theory (Kruyt 1952).
According to the charge neutralization mechanism, the charges on the particle surfaces are
neutralized by adsorbed polyelectrolytes. Attractive van der Waals forces will then, as described
by the DLVO theory (Evans, Wennerström 1999), destabilize the system and flocculation occurs.
However, if the amount of polyelectrolyte is increased further, above the amount required for
charge neutralization, the particle charge is reversed and the dispersion is again stable.
Even if the charge neutralization mechanism can be demonstrated in the laboratory at low shear
conditions, this mechanism alone is not widely used in practical papermaking today because of
the high shear forces on fast-running paper machines.
For single-component retention aids based on polymers, bridging (LaMer, Healy 1963) and patch
flocculation (Gregory 1973; Kasper 1971) are the two principal flocculation mechanisms. The
bridging and patch flocculation mechanisms are illustrated in Fig 2.
9
a) b) c)
Fig 2. Schematic illustrations of (a) patch flocculation (Horn, Linhart 1991), (b) bridging (Horn, Linhart 1991)
and (c) bridging, effect of shear (Hubbe 2005).
Cationic condensation polymers of high charge density and low or moderate molecular weight
are normally considered to be patch flocculants (Fig 2a). The concept of patch flocculation is to
form cationic “patches” on the negatively charged particles, which will attract oppositely charged
parts on another particle. The patches are formed by adsorbing cationic polymers of high charge
density in a flat conformation.
Patch flocculation is promoted by the long-range attractive van der Waals forces and attractive
electrostatic forces. Hence, flocs formed by patch flocculation are more shear resistant than flocs
formed by charge neutralization, where only attractive dispersion forces act.
Patch flocculation is favoured by sensitization, that is, reducing the thickness of the double layer
with electrolytes. Too high an electrolyte concentration, however, has a negative effect on patch
flocculation, which distinguishes the patch flocculation mechanism from charge neutralization.
The degree of patch flocculation is dependent on the charge density of the polymer and the
degree of surface coverage, where maximum flocculation is often found around the isoelectric
point (i.e.p.).
Fibre flocculation induced by polycations of high molar weight and low or moderate charge
density is usually described by the bridging adsorption flocculation model (Fig 2b). Bridging is a
common feature for retention aid systems used today (single-component products and dual and
microparticulate systems).
In bridging adsorption theory, polymers adsorb to particle surfaces, forming loops and tails,
which act as bridges between particles. The anchoring of the polymer on the surface and the
conformation of the formed loops and tails are two parameters essential for bridging. These two
parameters are determined by the charge balance between polymer and particle, the contact time
affecting the conformation of the adsorbed polymer, non-ionic interactions between the polymer
and the surface and other properties of the solution (electrolyte content, etc.). In general, the
protruding loops and tails must exceed twice the double layer thickness (2/Κ) for bridging to
occur.
As emphasized, the charge density of the polymer and the particles are decisive for bridging. Too
low a charge density of the polymer or the surface gives poor anchoring and, with that, the
formation of weak flocs. On the other hand, too high a charge density (polymer or surface) will
result in too strong interactions, giving polymers adsorbed in a flat conformation, which are
unfavourable for bridging. In such situations, the mechanism is transferred to patch flocculation
or charge neutralization. Moderate charge interaction between polymer and surface is therefore
10
desirable. A moderate charge density also favours the polymer to adopt a more extended
conformation, due to charge repulsion.
According to La Mer’s bridging theory, Ufloc~ α(1- α), the rate of flocculation (Ufloc) is
proportional to both the fraction of surface covered by polymer (α) and the fraction of
uncovered surface (1- α). Hence, optimum flocculation occurs when α = 0.5, but the flocculation
starts before charge reversal.
Increased electrolyte content negatively affects bridging flocculation. The adsorption is reduced
because the polymers coil up and will have a lower extension out from the surface once adsorbed
on the particle surface. The thickness of the double layer may, however, be reduced by a smaller
electrolyte content, which promotes bridging (sensitization).
Flocculation of negatively charged colloids by anionic polyelectrolytes or non-ionic polymers (e.g.

polyacrylamide) is described as sensitization flocculation (Ives 1978). Sensitization flocculation
is only possible if an appropriate electrolyte concentration is present in the solution, which
screens the surface charges and then reduces the thickness of the double layer. In these
conditions, the flocculation results from adsorption of polymers/polyelectrolytes on the colloid
surface and from the bridging of the polymer chains between the colloids.
Flocs created in bridging flocculation are generally more shear resistant than flocs created by
patch flocculation. Patch formation, however, in comparison with bridging, is considered to be
more reversible due to the reversible cohesive electrostatic attractions. Patch flocculants are
adsorbed in a flat conformation, where chain breakage is less likely to occur during shearing. For
bridging flocculants, however, both polymer chain cleavage (Tanaka et al. 1993; Sikora, Stratton
1981) and kinetic factors such as reconformation towards a flatter conformation (Wågberg et al.
1988) can account for the more or less irreversible nature of the flocculation.
The floc structure, important for retention, formation and dewatering, may vary depending on
the flocculation mechanism. Patch-charge flocs are generally compact and their dimensions are
considerably smaller than those formed by bridging flocculation, which usually have a loose,
voluminous structure (Horn, Linhart 1991).
Charge neutralization, patch formation and bridging as separate retention mechanisms are not
sufficient on modern high-speed paper machines including high shear, because the formed flocs
are too weak and more or less irreversible. Patch flocculation aids, however, are normally used on
low-speed board machines as dewatering agents, where their more reversible nature of
flocculation is favourable for dewatering. They are also used in wood containing furnishes for
production of publication papers where their main action is to retain dissolved and colloidal
material from the mechanical pulps and also to improve filler retention. As such they are still
successful since they can avoid large scale fibre flocculation while maintaining their retention
increasing action.
By using combinations of flocculants, synergistic effects can be achieved resulting in stronger

flocs and a higher degree of reflocculation after dispersion. Hence, the dual complex flocculation
systems were developed from the single-component retention aids. Depending on the interacting
components, the dual-complex flocculation systems are divided into classical dual systems and
microparticulate systems (Eklund, Lindström 1991; Swerin, Ödberg 1997). The idealized
mechanisms of classical dual systems and microparticulate systems are illustrated in Fig 3.
11
a) b)
Fig 3. Schematic illustrations of (a) classical dual systems (Eklund, Lindström 1991) and (b) microparticulate
systems (Hubbe 2005).
The classical dual systems are often based on a short-chain cationic polymer of high charge,
followed by an anionic polymer of high molecular weight. First, the cationic polymers create a
primary flocculation according to the patch model, and second, the anionic polymers link
together the primary flocs according to interparticle bridging (Aksberg, Ödberg 1990).
The combination of both patch and bridging flocculation and the strong electrostatic interaction
between the oppositely charged polymers explains the higher floc strength and higher resistance
to shear. Like patch and bridging flocculants, the classical dual systems are also favoured by
sensitization. However, at too high salt concentrations the efficiency is again decreased due to a
decrease in interaction between the polymer and the solids and eventually a desorption of
polymer will occur.
None of the classical dual systems have the ability to reflocculate sufficiently after floc disruption,
resulting in poorer retention levels at high shear rates. The incapability to reflocculate can partly
be explained by polymer chain cleavage during dispersion, which hinders polymers to
reflocculate.
Microparticulate systems are most often based on combinations of cationic polymers and
anionic microparticles. The general idea behind these systems is to add the cationic polymer at an
early stage to the stock, inducing a primary large-scale flocculation (bridging) which is broken
down by shear. Next, the microparticles are added close to the headbox, creating a secondary
flocculation (bridging), mainly governed by charge interactions with the adsorbed cationic
polymers. Due to the electrostatic interactions and the higher amount of added polyelectrolyte
the flocculation induced by microparticle addition is less sensitive to reconformation and chain
cleavage of the adsorbed cationic polymers (Swerin et al. 1996).
Most of today’s commercial microparticulate retention aids are able to achieve acceptable levels
of filler retention, even in high-speed twin-wire formers. This is partly explained by their ability to
produce shear-resistant flocs which can also reflocculate after dispersion. Lindström (1989) first
described the microparticulate retention aid systems as reversible, giving a more rapid dewatering
in the wire and press section and also a higher porosity of the dried sheet.
Swerin (1995) and Swerin et al. (1997) compared cationic polyacrylamide (C-PAM), as a single-
component product, with a microparticulate system in terms of the flocculation reversibility.
They found that C-PAM alone gave a decaying trend in floc size with time, whereas the addition
of microparticles resulted in a high degree of reflocculation; that is, the decaying trend was
reduced. That microparticulate systems have a more reversible flocculation pattern has also been
shown by Alfano et al. (1999), Hedborg and Lindström (1996) and also Clémençon and Gerli
12
(1999). Swerin et al. (1996) also developed a semiquantitative model for description of the
mechanism behind the microparticle systems where the surface coverage of the polymer and the
microparticle, as well as the conformation of the polymer on the particle surfaces were taken into
account.
The real reason why reflocculation after dispersion is possible with microparticulate systems is
probably due to the lack of failure at the interface between the microparticles and the cationic
polymer adsorbed on the particle surface (Eklund, Lindström 1991). Moreover, a number of
studies also claim that the stock reflocculates to smaller and denser flocs when microparticulate
retention aids are used (e.g. Hedborg, Lindström 1996; Wall et al. 1992 and Swerin et al. 1993).
This also explains the increased drainage performance of microparticulate retention aid systems.
In contrast to the earlier-mentioned flocculation mechanisms, network flocculation is

envisioned to occur in solution rather than on particle surfaces (Lindström 1989). The
mechanism of network flocculation is basically to form diluted transient three-dimensional
networks, in which dispersed material can be occluded. The transient network may be formed by
cross-linking a cationic polyelectrolyte with an anionic component, by electrostatic interactions or
hydrogen bonds, for example, the polyethylene oxide (PEO) –phenolic resin systems.
The transient networks are unstable and a collector is needed to collect the dispersed material.
Without the collector, which is often made of fibres, the transient network breaks apart to a
noneffective colloidal dispersion before flocculation occurs. The irreversible nature of the
network, however, is essential for the dewatering, since a gelatinous network structure would
diminish the dewatering capacity. The network flocculants are also characteristically independent
of the dispersed particle surface characteristics, where the particle separation instead takes place
with respect to particle size. These type of retention aids have been used a lot for paper
production, specially in Canada, and have attracted a considerable amount of research (e.g. van de
Ven and Alince (1996) and Xiao et al. (1996).
In comparison with, for example, microparticulate systems, many non-ionic network flocculants
are generally less sensitive to high contents of dissolved organic material and colloids in the
system if the interaction between the network components is not based on electrostatic
interactions. Considering the shear resistance of the flocs created by network flocculants, the
stability to shear is relatively high. This may be explained by the increased number of junction
points between the constituent parts, generated when the networks concentrate after flocculation
(Lindström 1989).
It should be stressed, however, that the knowledge regarding the mechanisms of microparticulate
retention aid systems is by no means extensive, which indeed holds for the other flocculation
mechanisms as well. Since there is a complexity in defining real systems (fibres, chemicals,
chemical equilibrium situations and hydrodynamic situations), further research on retention
mechanisms is needed.
2.6 Other chemical adjuvants and dosage strategies - aspects on dispersion

mechanisms
Apart from retention aid systems, the state of flocculation is also affected by other chemical
adjuvants (e.g. dispersion aids), dosage strategies (e.g. preflocculation of filler) and properties of
the suspending medium (e.g. medium temperature).
13
Dispersion aids are chemical additives known to decrease fibre flocculation, thereby also
enhancing paper formation when added to the stock prior to the headbox. They have been
known for a long time and rather significant studies were performed already in the 1930´s by
Woolwage (1939) and Erspamer (1940). Dispersion aids include chemical adjuvants affecting the
properties of the suspending medium and/or surface characteristics (fibre-fibre friction, surface
charge of fibres and steric hindrance between fibres). Dispersion aids may be grouped as follows:
1. Additives increasing the dispersion medium viscosity (Soszynski, Kerekes 1988;

Zhao, Kerekes 1993).
2. Formation aids (Class I): Additives (e.g. gums, mucilages, xyloglucan and
carboxymethylated cellulose) which are believed to decrease the coefficient of friction
between fibres (Woolwage 1939; Erspamer 1940; De Roos 1958; Beghello, Lindström
1998; Yan et al. 2006; Stiernstedt et al. 2006; Horvath, Lindström 2007).
3. Formation aids (Class II): High molecular weight additives affecting the rheological
properties of the suspending medium (Wasser 1978; Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Lee,
Lindström 1989; Yan et al. 2006).
Besides the additives, the temperature of the suspending medium also influences the state of fibre
flocculation by influencing the medium viscosity (Yan et al. 2006). Reducing the medium
temperature decreases the fibre suspension flocculation due to a decreased inertia/drag ratio of
the fibres, resulting in decreased fibre-fibre collision efficiency factor.
Formation aids include both natural (e.g. root extracts, gums, mucilages) and synthetic polymers
(high molecular weight anionic or non-ionic polymers). Class I and Class II formation aids are
two classes separated with respect to their anticipated functional mechanism.
Class I formation aids are known to decrease the friction between fibres by changing the
surface chemistry of the fibres. Beghello and Lindström (1998) reported that carboxymethylation
of cellulosic fibres had a profound dispersing effect by decreasing the fibre-fibre frictional forces
provided by the electrostatic repulsion between fibres. This report was supported by the work of
Yan et al. (2006) and Horvath and Lindström (2007), demonstrating that fibre surface
modifications (carboxymethyl cellulose adsorption and xyloglucan adsorption) can reduce the
fibre flocculation in suspension by decreasing the fibre-fibre friction and hence weakening the
network strength.
The probable mechanism of dispersing fibre suspensions by friction-reduced aids has been
discussed by Beghello and Lindström (1998), who claim that decreased fibre friction decreases
the internal stress in the flocs. When the internal stress, which keeps the flocs together, is
released, the stability of the flocs is reduced and dispersion is favoured. There has also been some
extensive work on xyloglucan in cellulose modification (Stiernstedt et al. 2000; Stiernstedt et al.
2006; Zhou et al. 2007). These studies reveal that xyloglucan adsorbs strongly to cellulose, which
gives a reduced coefficient of friction between cellulosic surfaces.
Class II formation aids, including high molecular weight polymers such as anionic
polyacrylamide, are known to decrease flocculation of fibres in suspension as single-component
additives, a mechanism favourable to paper formation (Wasser 1978; Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Lee,
Lindström 1989; Yan et al. 2006). In this specific case, adsorption is not required for dispersion.
14
There are also a few publications claiming that high molecular weight anionic polymers can be
used in conjunction with retention aid systems to improve the retention-formation relationship
(Jokinen, Palonen 1986; Lindström et al. 1986). The most beneficial effect on formation was
reported when the addition of the high molecular weight anionic polymer was raised above the
polymer dosage for maximum retention. It has been hypothesized that Class II formation aids
suppress the intensity of turbulence in turbulent flows (drag reduction), which, in turn, favours
paper formation (Lee, Lindström 1989).
It has been reported (e.g. by Lee, Lindström 1989) that the use of high molecular weight
polymers as dispersion aids has a strong negative impact on the drainage of the wet web, and that
this type of system therefore has limited practical utility. However, in recent years there has been
renewed interest in applications including dispersion aids.
In the mid 80’s, Bown (1985) and Hayes (1985) reviewed the field of preflocculation of fillers, a
field often referred to when discussing the production of highly filled papers. Preflocculation of
fillers as a strategy to improve the retention-formation relationship has been widely discussed
among papermakers, although the literature reveals only a few publications on this issue.
However, there are investigations showing that the retention-formation relationship could be
improved by using preflocculation of fillers as an alternative dosage strategy in papermaking
(Mabee 2001; Silenius 2003).
2.7 Drag reduction of turbulent flows by additives
Drag reduction is manifested by decreased friction in turbulent flows. Drag reduction of

turbulent flows can be obtained by using additives or by passive means (e.g. by adding special
roughness elements to the wall), where the efficiency for additives is higher than that produced
by passive means. The effect of drag reduction is used in many applications for energy savings
and increasing the flow rate (e.g. the use of polymers in crude-oil pipelines).
The three main classes of drag reducing additives are polymers (e.g. polyacrylamide and
polyethylene oxide), surfactants (e.g. soaps) and fibres (e.g. cellulosic and asbestos). Equivalently,
these drag reducing additives reduce the pressure drop (ΔP) over a considered pipe length by
reducing the wall shear stress. The phenomenon of drag reduction by additives has been
described in earlier reviews (e.g. Gyr, Bewersdorff 1995; Radin et al. 1975; Ptasinski et al. 2001).
One way to report on drag reduction is by giving the percent drag reduction (DR %), calculated
from:
DR (%)=(1-(ΔPsolution/ΔPNewtonian solvent))*100 [2]
where ΔPsolution and ΔPNewtonian solvent are the recorded pressure drops in the solution and Newtonian
solvent, respectively.
As described in a previous chapter, reflocculation of fibres in decaying turbulence impairs the

paper formation. The reflocculation tends to be more pronounced with a higher degree of
turbulence. In this work, drag reduction is referred to in the discussion of turbulence damping by
formation aids.
Drag reduction by fibres was discovered 75 years ago, and by polymers and surfactants, 65 years
ago. Toms (1948) was the first to discover that additions of minute amounts of high molecular
15
weight polymers could reduce the pressure drops in a turbulent pipe flow. At that time it was
already known that cellulosic fibre suspensions showed the same effect. Further, the use of
fibrous suspensions in combination with polymers can generate synergistic effects when
compared to their individual effects on drag reduction under turbulent flow conditions (Lee et al.
1974; McComb, Chan 1981).
The mechanism of drag reduction by additives is very complex and cannot be reduced to one
effect; hence a broad description is needed. One hypothesis explains drag reduction through
stretching and alignment of the additives in solution, which is mainly manifested in changed
energy balances (energy dissipation) and changed structures of turbulence (large-scale versus
small-scale turbulence). Turbulent flows are characterized by velocity fluctuations. It is thought
that the drag reducing additives reduce the internal stress of the fibre flocs and also enhance the
anisotropy of the dispersed fibres. The velocity fluctuations in the flow direction are normally
enhanced, whereas the ones perpendicular to this direction are reduced.
Relevant parameters for drag reduction by additives are the geometry and flexibility of the
additive, the concentration of the additive, the degree of turbulence (present Reynolds number)
and the wall condition (roughness). Drag reducing additives are characterized by high molecular
weight (usually of the order of 106 to 107g/mol), an extreme aspect ratio and rather high
extensibility. The additive needs to become oriented and elongated in a shear flow for drag
reduction to occur.
The drag reduction effect is concentration dependent, meaning that for any type of drag reducing
additive, the effect is largest at a specific concentration (the particle-to-flow interaction is
dominant). In concentrations higher than the specific concentration the effect is decreased, and,
finally, at even higher concentrations, disappears since the interactions will be dominated by the
particle-to-particle interactions.
The drag reduction effect starts at a certain Reynolds number of the flow, larger than some
threshold which depends on the concentration and the nature of the additive. The strain field of
the flow needs to be strong enough to stretch and align the additives. After a maximum effect at
a certain Reynolds number, the effect is decreased and finally terminated when the Reynolds
number is increased even more. Two possible reasons for a terminated effect at a certain
Reynolds number are degradation of the additive due to high shear and misalignment of the
additives.
16
3 Materials
3.1 Pulp
All investigations in this work were performed with wet refined bleached kraft pulp, consisting of
90% hardwood (mainly birch 90-96%) and 10% softwood (about 50% spruce, 50% pine). The
bleaching sequence was O2/ClO2/H2O2/ClO2/H2O2 for both the hardwood and softwood pulp.
Unless stated elsewhere, the pulp was collected from M-real Husum Paper Mill in Sweden, at a
consistency of 4.5-5.0% (by weight). All concentrations given in the text are defined by weight.
The hardwood and softwood pulps were collected from separate lines in the mill, at positions
before the blending chest (long circulation). The pulps were subsequently mixed to the ratio
90:10 (hardwood : softwood). The average size of the hardwood fibres was approximately 0.85-
0.95 mm in length and 26 µm in width, and for the softwood fibres the average size was
approximately 1.9-2.0 mm and 31 µm, respectively (PulpEye measurements, Eurocon Analyzer,
Sweden). The drainability of the pulp was about 18.0-19.2 SR (determined according to ISO
5267-1). Henceforth, the reference characteristics of the pulp described in this paragraph are
referred to when using the denomination pulp* later in the text.
In all trials with the R-F-machine (chapter 5.1, 5.2), the pulp* was diluted with tap water in the
pulp chest to a target consistency of 3.0% (down from 4.5-5.0%) and to a volume of 18 m3. The
pH and the conductivity of the 3.0% furnish were adjusted to specific intervals by adding salts.
NaHCO3 was used to adjust the pH to 8.0-8.4 and CaCl2 was used to adjust the conductivity to
600-800 µS/cm. There were also routines for other furnish characteristics, such as drainability
(water retention value), temperature, cationic demand and storage time of pulp. In all cases, the
pulp was stored for five days in the pulp chest before experiments, and no experiments were
performed with pulp that had been stored for more than seven days. By following this routine,
the dissolution of dissolved substances from the pulps and the temperature was controlled. The
standard furnish characteristics in R-F-machine experiments are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Standard furnish characteristics in R-F-machine experiments.

Characteristics Reference interval
Consistency 2.5-3.0%
Hardwood:softwood ratio 90:10
Temperature 23-30 ºC
Drainability 18.0-20.0 SR
Conductivity 600-800 µS/cm
pH 8.0-8.4
Cationic demand 25-46 µeq/l (PCD-03 Mütek™ measurements)
For the flocculation studies performed with the aid of the flow loop system, fibre suspensions
were prepared from pulp* and tap water, to a consistency of 0.5%. The pulp (unbeaten) was
obtained at the last filter in the bleach plant, at a concentration of 17% (exception from pulp*).
For all flow loop studies, the stock temperature was 20 °C, the pH was adjusted to 7.0 (with
NaHCO3) and the conductivity was adjusted to 700 µS/cm (with CaCl2).
Cellulose fibre suspensions were prepared for the MRI experiments (chapter 5.4) from pulp*
and deionized water. For all MRI experiments, the fibre concentration was 0.5%, the pH was
8.2±0.2, the conductivity was 540±10 µS/cm and the temperature varied between 21 °C and 24
17
°C. The pulp (unbeaten) used in the MRI experiments was obtained at the last filter in the bleach
plant, at a concentration of 17% (exception from pulp*).
3.2 Filler
Two different fillers were used in this work: a ground calcium carbonate (GCC) and a
precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC). Both fillers were delivered from Imerys Minerals Ltd.,
Sweden. The GCC was used for the experiments reported in chapter 5.1 (The effect of the jet-to-
wire speed ratio on paper formation), 5.2.1 (Single-component polyacrylamide retention aids) and
5.2.2 (Polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems). The PCC was used in the experiments
reported in chapter 5.2.3 (Three-component retention aid systems). The characteristics of the
fillers were given by the supplier (note the differences in characterization of the two fillers).
The GCC slurry was delivered with an anionic dispersant at a dry solids content of 67.0±1%. The
cationic demand of the GCC was 8.7 µeqv/g and the Z-potential was -56.2 mV (MütekTM System
Zeta Potential 06). The density of the GCC was 1.73±0.02 g/cm3, and 60±3% of all filler
particles had a particle size less than 2 micrometers in diameter.
The PCC slurry was delivered undispersed at a dry solids content of 19.0%. The charge of the
PCC was slightly anionic; the cationic demand was approximately 0.3-0.4 µeqv/g. The charge was
measured by titrating 5 ml of slurry in deionized water (total weight 10 g) with Polydiallyl-
dimethylammonium chloride (Mütek™ Particle Charge Detector). The density of the filler was
1.14±0.01 g/cm3 and the D50 was 2.50-2.60 µm.
3.3 Retention aid systems
The effect of different retention aids on retention and formation has been evaluated in this work,
including single-component, microparticulate and multi-component retention aid systems. The
effects of single-component retention aids are presented in chapter 5.2.1, where three linear
cationic polyacrylamides (C-PAM) of different molecular weight were investigated (Table 3).
These cationic polyacrylamides, all supplied by Eka Chemicals, were co-polymers of acrylamide
and N,N,N-trimethylamino-ethylacrylate.
In chapter 5.2.2 the investigation of two different microparticulate retention aids systems is
presented. These systems were based on a linear cationic polyacrylamide in combination with one
of two different microparticles: anionic montmorillonite clay and anionic colloidal silica sol (Table
4). The montmorillonite clay (Hydrocol SH) was supplied by BASF and the silica sol (Silica NP)
was supplied by Eka Chemicals. Silica NP is an alumina modified, to maintain charge at lower
pH, silica sol designed for interactions with synthetic polymers.
Three-component retention aid systems have also been evaluated with respect to retention,
formation and drainage (chapter 5.2.3). These three-component systems combine formation aids
with a polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid system (Table 5). As formation aids,
three high molecular weight anionic polymers were used, of different degree of cross-linking,
here defined as linear (Percol 156), partly structured (M305) and structured (M200). The
microparticulate retention aid system was based on cationic polyacrylamide (Percol 3035) and
montmorillonite clay (Hydrocol SH). The addition order was cationic polyacrylamide, anionic
high molecular weight polymer and, last, the microparticles. All components in these three-
18
component retention aid systems were supplied by BASF. The cationic polyacrylamide (Percol
3035) was a co-polymer of acrylamide and N,N,N-trimethylamino-ethylacrylate.
Table 3. Characteristics of the single-component retention aids, all given by the supplier.
Component Molecular weight Charge density
(million Dalton) (meq/g)
C-PAM (A) 2.9-4.4 0.82A
C-PAM (B) 6.0-7.9 1.02A
C-PAM (C) >10.8 1.06A
Table 4. Characteristics of the polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems, all

given by the suppliers.
Components Charge density Surface area Particle size
1st comp./2nd comp. (meq/g) (when hydrated), (nm)
(m2/g)
C-PAM (B)/Montmorillonite 1.02A/-0.12B -/800 -/1*600*300 (flakes)
clay
C-PAM (B)/Silica sol 1.02A/-0.071B -/850 -/3 (colloids)
Table 5. Characteristics of the three-component retention aid systems, all given by the supplier.
Components Charge density Intrinsic
1st comp./2nd comp./3rd comp. (meq/g) viscosity
C-PAM (D)/Linear polymer/Montmorillonite clay 1.15A/-1.76C/-0.34B 11D/14D/30E

C-PAM (D)/Partly structured polymer/Montmorillonite 1.15A/-2.16 C/-0.34B 11D/10D/30E
clay
C-PAM (D)/Structured polymer/Montmorillonite clay 1.15A/-2.50 C-0.34B 11D/2E/30E
A The charge density of the cationic polyacrylamides was measured by polyelectrolyte titration, with polyvinylsulfate
of potassium (0.001N) as titrating reagent.
B The charge density of the microparticles was measured with MütekTM Particle Charge Detector (PCD), according
to the PAP-SOP 01-19 method.

C The charge density of the anionic polymers was measured by polyelectrolyte titration, with
polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (0.001N) as titrating reagent.

D Intrinsic viscosity values given in dl/g: A suspended-level viscometer was used to determine the specific viscosity
of the test component at various concentrations in buffered 1M sodium chloride solution. A plot was made of
reduced specific viscosity against concentration, and the intrinsic viscosity was obtained by extrapolation to infinite
dilution. The longer the polymer chains, the higher the intrinsic viscosity (dl/g). The test method is referred to as
ACSMOT No: 7.
E Standard viscosity values given in mPas. The value given for the montmorillonite clay is the direct bulk viscosity of
a 5% solution. A Brookfield LVT viscometer was used to characterize the standard viscosity of the anionic polymer
(0.1% solution). This method is referred to as L.A. Test Method 20.
3.4 Formation aids
High molecular weight anionic polymers of different structures (cross-linking levels) were used in
this work as formation aids (Class II formation aids). The cross-linking level was altered to
different degrees, defined as linear (Percol 156), partly structured (M305) and structured
M200. The formation aids used are listed in Table 6. All formation aids were supplied by BASF.
The formation aids were studied with the R-F machine as one part in the three-component
retention aids systems (Table 5). Besides these studies, the formation aids were investigated as
single additives in flocculation studies (flow loop system) and in MRI investigations studying the
effect on flow properties.
19
During the MRI experiments, the formation aids were used as aqueous solutions with a
concentration of 0.2% that were prepared the same day as the experiment (stirred for two hours
with a bar magnet in a 1000 ml beaker). During the flow loop experiments, aqueous solutions
(0.02-0.06%) of the formation aids were prepared on the same day as the experiments (stirring
time: two hours).
Table 6. Characteristics of the formation aids, all given by the supplier.

Component Structure Charge density Intrinsic Gyration
(meq/g) viscosity radius
(dl/g) (nm)
Linear anionic polymer -1.76A 14B n/a
Partly structured anionic -2.16A 10B >500C

polymer
Structured anionic polymer -2.50A n/a Approx. 300C
A Measurements were made with Mütek™ Particle Charge Detector (PCD) with Polydiallyldimethylammonium
chloride (0.001N) as titrating reagent.
B A suspended-level viscometer was used to determine the specific viscosity of the test component at various
concentrations in buffered 1M sodium chloride solution. A plot was made of reduced specific viscosity against
concentration, and the intrinsic viscosity was obtained by extrapolation to infinite dilution. The longer the polymer
chains, the higher the intrinsic viscosity (dl/g). The test method is referred to as ACSMOT No: 7.
C The determination of the gyration radius was based on fractionation of polydisperse samples followed by elution-
time-resolved mass measurements of each fraction by light scattering.
20
4 Methods
4.1 The retention and formation machine
The R-F (retention and formation) machine used in this thesis work was a pilot-scale fourdrinier
former which was designed to study retention, paper formation and drainage rates on the wire
part. This pilot former mimics the short circulation of full-scale paper machines and produces,
without press and drying parts, a wet paper web at speeds of up to 400 m/min (grammages
between 40-80 g/m2). The R-F machine is photographically and schematically illustrated in Fig 4
and Fig 5 (including surrounding equipment and dosage system), respectively. The R-F machine is
owned by MoRe Research AB, Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. A general description of the R-F machine
is given here, whereas details are thoroughly described in Paper 1 (Svedberg, Lindström 2010a).
With a construction of static mixers, the shear forces applied in the R-F machine are similar to
those in earlier full-scale paper machines, albeit not today’s state-of-the-art paper machines. The
R-F machine provides a short circulation of the white-water system, and the volume of the white-
water system was designed to give a short residence time to chemical equilibrium. Sampling
(retention, formation, etc.) was performed five minutes after a change in machine settings, which
corresponds to the residence time to chemical equilibrium in the white-water system (Svedberg,
Lindström 2010a).
The dosage system of the R-F machine includes eight possible chemical injections; five of the
injection points are found in the stock flow. All injection points are characterized by a certain
degree of shear and residence time for the additive (Fig 5). The residence times of the additives in
the pulp and stock flow, given in seconds, are calculated from the addition point to the headbox
when running at standard machine operating conditions (Table 7).
As well as evaluations of machine settings, the R-F machine allows for studies of different
retention aid systems, fillers, furnishes and dosage strategies (e.g. different degrees of shear and
dwell times) and other chemical adjuvants (starch, dispersion aids, etc.), with high reproducibility.
The R-F machine was shown to be useful for predicting a ranking order that corresponds to full-
scale machine observations (Svedberg, Lindström 2010a).
Unless stated elsewhere, the R-F machine trials were performed with the standard operating
conditions given in Table 7. These standard operating conditions were found to give the best
performance with respect to paper formation and minimized streak formation (Svedberg,
Lindström 2010a). The produced paper contained, unless stated elsewhere, approximately 20%
filler (equivalent to an addition of filler of 25% based on total solids content).
Table 7. R-F machine standard operating conditions.

Variables Standard operating conditions
Machine speed 260 m/min
Slice opening 16 mm
Jet-to-wire speed ratio 1.2
Stock consistency 5 g/l
Grammage 60 g/m2
Volumetric headbox flow rate 910 l/min
21
Fig 4. Photograph showing the R-F machine.
22
Fig 5. Schematic diagram of the R-F machine with its surrounding equipment and dosage system (not to scale).
Details of the R-F machine have been described by Svedberg and Lindström (2010a). The residence times of the
additives in the pulp and stock flow (in parenthesis), given in seconds, are calculated from the addition point to the
headbox when running at standard operating conditions (Table 7).
23
4.2 Retention and formation
The retention value evaluated in the R-F machine experiments was the first pass retention with
respect to filler (Rf), in percent (%), which is defined by:
C2
Rf 1 *100 [3]
C1
where C1 is the concentration of filler in the headbox and C2 is the concentration of filler in the
wire pit.
The mass formation was determined using a FUJI method at MoRe Research, Sweden. The FUJI
method measures local variations in grammages according to a beta radiographic method
(Norman, Wahren 1974; Norman 2009). The formation results are presented as formation
numbers, calculated for different wavelength intervals (Johansson, Norman 1996).
The main wavelength intervals correspond to the total formation number (0.4-30.0 mm), the
small-scale formation number (0.4-3.0 mm) and the large-scale formation number (3.0-30.0 mm).
Moreover, these formation numbers can be subdivided into narrower intervals with respect to
the following wavelength intervals: 0.4-0.5 mm, 0.5-1.0 mm, 1.0-2.0 mm, 2.0-4.0 mm, 4.0-8.0
mm, 8.0-16.0 mm and 16.0-32.0 mm. It should be pointed out that the wavelength is twice the
floc size and that the formation numbers are normalized to a grammage of 60 g/m2.
Unless stated elsewhere, the formation results are presented as the total formation numbers (0.4-
30.0 mm) in the machine direction (MD). A lower formation number means better paper
formation (lower coefficient of grammage variation). The presented formation number is a mean
value from measurements of two separate paper sheets. Based on reproducibility tests, the
retention and formation data are shown with standard deviations of 2.0 percentage units and 0.36
units, respectively (Svedberg, Lindström 2010a). How the standard deviations were determined is
described in more detail in Paper 1.
4.3 Dewatering analysis
An on-line application has been developed at MoRe Research, Sweden, for the purpose of
characterizing differences in dewatering in terms of vertical displacements of the dry line4 on the
wire section. This application is thoroughly described in a degree project report written by Peter
Nilsson, Umeå University.
The applied method was based on light scattering and used a DSLR camera to image dry line
displacements. The dry line was identified as the boundary between the reflecting and non-
reflecting areas. A series of image-processing steps quantified the change in dewatering
(displacement of dry line) as the area of the adjoining wet surface (Fig 6). The results generated
from the dewatering analysis are given as areas (10^3 pixel) with standard errors, where a high
number correlates to poor dewatering.
4The dry line is the boundary between the reflecting and non-reflecting regions of the upper surface of the fibre mat
on a fourdrinier wire.
24
a)
b)
Fig 6. Example images: (a) Photo image of the dry line on the R-F machine fourdrinier wire, (b) The
corresponding contour of the area of the adjoining wet surface, which was used to quantify the dewatering
performance.
4.4 Flocculation analysis – The flow loop system
A flow loop system, developed at KTH and Innventia AB, Stockholm, Sweden, has been used in
this work for flocculation analysis. The details of the flow loop system and image analysis have
been described by Yan et al. (2006), thus only a short description will be given in this thesis.
The flow loop system (Fig 7) was designed to simulate realistic headbox flows (headbox
contraction) and to mimic flow accelerations during dewatering (second contraction).
Flocculation of fibres was studied in the system by using an optical detection method. In this
work, images were taken through the extended nozzle, with the second contraction part not
included.
The flow loop system includes an 810-liter pulp storage tank (1) equipped with appropriate
agitation, a frequency controlled centrifugal pump (2), a radial flow distributor consisting of eight
output tubes (5), a transparent plastic headbox with a step diffuser pipe package (6) and an
extended nozzle (7) followed by a secondary contraction (8). Moreover, the flow loop system
includes a dosage system (3) with an inline static mixer (4), where an additive can be injected
online.
The maximum flow rate of the flow loop system was 300 l/min. After imaging, the stock exited
to waste (general issue when adding chemicals) or follows the loop. The headbox nozzle
contraction ratio was 16.7, and at the exit of the headbox nozzle contraction the turbulence had
decayed (Yan et al. 2006). The extended nozzle was adopted as a normal slice opening on full-
scale machines. Images were taken through the extended nozzle by a high-resolution camera with
transmitted light pulse illumination (stroboscope). Hence, images of fibre flocculation were
evaluated by power spectrum analysis, and the mean floc size was calculated (Yan, Norman
25
2006). The mean floc size (mm) is interpreted as half the value of the mean wavelength. A higher
mean floc size number correlates to a higher degree of fibre suspension flocculation.
5.
4.
6.
7. 3.
8.
1.
2.
Fig 7. Schematic diagram of the flow loop system (Yan et al. 2006). See text for description of the components.
(Roughly scaled).
4.5 Magnetic resonance flow imaging
The effects of formation aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous suspensions were
investigated using phase flow encoded nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). These
investigations were performed at the Department of Food Science and Technology at the
University of California in Davis, US. The key element of the investigations was to measure
velocity profiles and turbulence intensity distributions in fibre suspensions. Besides flow imaging,
it was possible to characterize the rheology by knowing the pressure drop along the pipe.
Velocity profiles and turbulence intensity profiles were obtained using a velocity encoded spin-
echo pulse sequence in an Aspect Imaging 1 Tesla permanent magnet based imaging
spectrometer (Aspect Imaging Shoham, Israel), with 30 G/cm peak gradient strength. The spin-
echo pulse sequence has been described by Li and McCarthy (1995).
The measured signal derives from the hydrogen nucleus (1H) in the water phase. Due to the short
relaxation time and broad line width, the 1H contribution of cellulose fibres has a negligible effect
on the signal, even at concentrations exceeding 10%. To obtain velocity profiles, magnetic
resonance images were processed using the methods described by Arola et al. (1997; 1998). In
order to study turbulence intensity at high mean bulk flow rates, it was necessary to implement a
signal averaging technique due to signal loss (Li et al. 1994a; Li et al. 1994b). Unless stated
elsewhere, the acquisition time for a typical profile was 1.05 minutes corresponding to 8 averages.
Figure 8 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental set-up including the imaging assembly,
the fibre flow and the means of introducing polymer. Fibres and water were loaded and agitated
(4) in a mixing tank (3) (~80 dm3) connected to a Moyno pump (6) of variable speed drive. The
mean bulk flow rate was determined during the flow imaging experiments by timed collection of
the suspension. Subsequent polymer additions (1) were made through an injection quill (5). A
gear pump (2) with variable speed drive was used to control the flow rate of the polymer
addition. Downstream from the injection point, a static mixer (7) was used to disperse the
polymer into the flow. After leaving the static mixer, the suspension entered a section of tubing
26
(8) whose length was chosen to provide a dwell time of 4.6 seconds for the polymer. The
suspension then entered a 2.08 m long acrylic tube (9) with an internal diameter of 18.6 mm that
passed through the imaging section of a magnet (10). Pressure drops (13) and temperatures (14)
were measured at the ends of the acrylic tube. The radio frequency coil (11) was a solenoid with 3
turns, encasing a cylindrical volume 38 mm in diameter and 36 mm long. After imaging, the
suspension exited into a waste tank (12).
The pressure drop, ∆P, over a tube length, L (2.04 m), was measured to study drag reduction
effects. The ∆P value ((P2-P1)/L) was determined by measuring the inlet pressure (P1) and the
outlet pressure (P2) of the acrylic tube, by using a pressure measuring instrument (manometer).
By knowing the pressure drop along the tube, the local shear stress (σ) can be determined using:
(Arola et al. 1999)
P
σ(r) *r [4]
2L
where r is the radial coordinate in the pipe.
Fig 8. Schematic diagram of the flow imaging system. See text for description of the components. (Not to scale).
27
4.6 Adsorption analysis (QCM and DPI)
A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) E4 from Q-Sense AB (Västra Frölunda, Sweden) was used
to study adsorption with a continuous flow of 100 µl/min (Marx 2003). All studied samples had a
concentration of 100 mg/l. The polymer solutions and the rinsing solution were all pH adjusted
to pH 8, and 10 mM NaCl was added to the solutions. For each sample, adsorption for five
minutes was followed by rinsing for another five minutes. The resonating QCM crystals used
were AT-cut quartz crystals (5 MHz resonant frequency) with an active surface of sputtered silica,
which were plasma treated using an air plasma cleaner (Model PDC 002, Harrick Scientific
Corporation, NY, USA) under reduced air pressure for 120 s at high effect (30 W). The quartz
crystal oscillates due to the piezoelectric effect, at a constant resonance frequency. Adsorption
onto the crystal is sensed as a decrease in the resonance frequency, indicating mass uptake. To
convert a change in frequency into an adsorbed mass per area unit, including immobilized
solvent, the Sauerbrey model was used (Sauerbrey 1959):
f
m C* [5]
n
where
m=adsorbed mass per area [mg/m2]
C=sensitivity constant, -0.177 [mg/(m2*Hz)]
Δ=change in resonance frequency of the AT-cut quartz crystal [Hz]
n=overtone number
The change in energy dissipation during adsorption can also be examined, yielding information
about the visco-elastic properties of the adsorbed substances. To determine these properties, the
electric current to the crystal is turned off and the decay of the oscillating amplitude is registered.
By studying changes in dissipation we can get hints about changes in the stiffness of the adsorbed
layers and how water-rich the layers are. A rigidly attached substrate is characterized by no
change in dissipation during adsorption. A more loosely attached and water-rich (visco-elastic)
layer is characterized by an increase in dissipation during adsorption. The dissipation factor, D, is
defined by:
Edissipated
D [6]
2 Estored
where Estored is the energy stored in the oscillating system and Edissipated is the energy
dissipated during one oscillating period.
A dual polarization interferometer (DPI) Analight Bio200 from Farfield Sensors Ltd
(Manchester, UK) was used to study adsorption with a continuous flow of 50 µl/min (Swann et
al. 2004). The same samples were used as in the QCM experiments and Nitrogen-doped silica
chips were used as deposition substrates. DPI analyses do not include associated water in the
mass uptake determination, whereas the QCM analysis does.
28
5 Results and Discussion
5.1 The effect of the jet-to-wire speed ratio on paper formation
The standard machine operating conditions given in Table 7 were determined during the
trimming of the R-F machine. During the trimming, a number of mechanical properties were
evaluated, such as the jet-to-wire speed ratio, and the best configurations were chosen as
standards.
The effect of the jet-to-wire speed ratio (i.e. the speed of the jet compared to the speed of the
wire) on paper formation was investigated on the R-F machine in one series of trials. These trials
were performed without chemical additions (filler, retention aids, etc.), with standard furnish
characteristics (Table 2) and with standard operating conditions according to Table 7 (except the
slice opening).
The jet-to-wire speed ratio was varied by varying the slice opening. In this way, a constant
machine speed, volumetric headbox flow rate (910 l/min), headbox consistency (0.5%) and hence
grammage were maintained. The flow rate was controlled by the frequency steering electric
motor connected to the mixing pump. The jet speed was not measured in this work. By
maintaining the machine speed and flow rate at constant levels, it was possible to change the jet-
to-wire speed ratio by knowing its proportion to the slice opening.
The jet-to-wire speed ratio was varied in four steps (1.0, 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) which corresponded to
slice openings between 19.2 mm and 14.8 mm. A reduced slice opening correlates to a higher jet
speed, and hence to a higher jet-to-wire speed ratio. Studying ratios lower than 1.0 was not
practically possible at the standard R-F machine speed due to the low discharge rate.
The strong impact of the jet-to-wire speed ratio on paper formation is shown in Fig 9, showing
the total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the jet-to-wire speed ratio.
A higher jet-to-wire speed ratio results in significantly better formation. Poorest formation was
observed for the lowest jet-to-wire speed ratio investigated (1.0), which included no speed
difference between the jet and the wire.
With jet-to-wire speed ratios of 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, a small speed difference arises by decelerating the
jet from a higher velocity to the speed of the wire and this results in a certain shear of the flocs,
which is favourable for paper formation. At zero speed difference, the paper formation was
poorer because no extra shear forces were applied in the forming zone and the flocs froze in the
formed paper web. The paper formation was improved with increased jet-to-wire speed ratios up
to a certain level of speed difference. When the speed difference was too large (jet-to-wire speed
ratios >1.4), the shear of the flocs was so intense that the fibre network broke up, resulting in a
pronounced deterioration of the formation.
Since the jet-to-wire speed ratio was varied by varying the slice opening (19.2 mm to 14.8 mm),
the headbox contraction ratio was also varied. The headbox contraction ratio was varied between
7.3 to 9.5 (calculated), with the lowest contraction ratio referring to the highest slice opening
(lowest jet-to-wire speed ratio). Interpreting the results in Fig 9 in terms of the contraction ratio,
the results indicate that a higher contraction ratio should be set in order to achieve good
formation. Contrary to this interpretation, Nordström (2003) reported that for chemical pulps
29
without any additives, including 100% hardwood, the headbox nozzle contraction had no
significant effect on the resulting paper formation.
The standard operating jet-to-wire speed ratio was determined to 1.2, based on both the paper
formation and the streakiness in the produced sheet. A tendency of increased streakiness was
observed with jet-to-wire speed ratios higher than 1.2.
26
Total formation number (MD)
22
18
14
10
0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4
Jet-to-wire speed ratio
Fig 9. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the jet-to-wire speed ratio. The jet-to-
wire speed ratio was varied by changing the slice opening. The study was performed on the R-F machine with
standard pulp characteristics (Table 2) and standard operating conditions (Table 7) and without chemical
additions.
5.2 The effect of different retention aids on retention and formation
Several different retention aids have been investigated with the R-F machine with respect to the
retention-formation relationship. These retention aids include both single-component (Paper 2)
and dual-component microparticulate retention aid systems (Paper 2) and, finally, three-
component retention aid systems (Paper 3). The influence of the different retention aid
combinations on retention and formation are shown in the following three chapters. All R-F
machine investigations accounted for here were performed with standard furnish characteristics
(Table 2) and standard operating conditions (Table 7).
5.2.1 Single-component polyacrylamide retention aids
Three linear cationic polyacrylamides (C-PAM A-C) with different molecular weights were
investigated on the R-F machine, as single-component retention aids (Svedberg, Lindström
2010b). Characteristics of the cationic polyacrylamides are given in Table 3. In order to reduce the
shear stress on the polymers, the polyacrylamides were added at a position after the static mixers,
30
at the last dosage point (no. 8), which corresponds to a residence time of 2.0 s. Different
retention levels were obtained by varying the polyacrylamide addition level between 500 g/t to
1500 g/t. The filler (GCC) was added in the R-F machine pulp flow, at dosage point no. 3
(residence time 8.8 s) with an addition of 25% based on the total stock consistency.
Figure 10 shows the filler retention (%) as a function of the added amount of cationic
polyacrylamide (g/t). C-PAM (A) corresponds to the polyacrylamide with the lowest molecular
weight, which gave, at a certain dosage level, a lower level of filler retention in comparison with
the other two polyacrylamides. This is explained in terms of the extension of the protruding
polymer bridges, which is less for a polymer of lower molecular weight (Wågberg et al. 1988;
Solberg, Wågberg 2003). The retention level was changed from approximately 30% to 80% with
the present polyacrylamide addition intervals (500 g/t to 1500 g/t). With respect to the retention
performance, the same polyacrylamides were also investigated in Britt dynamic drainage jar
(BDDJ) experiments. These results are presented in Paper 2 (Svedberg, Lindström 2010b).
100
80
Filler retention, %
60
C-PAM (A)
40
C-PAM (B)
20
C-PAM (C)
0
200 600 1000 1400 1800
Added amount of cationic polyacrylamide (C-PAM), g/t
Fig 10. The filler retention (%) as a function of the added amount of cationic polyacrylamide (g/t), for three
cationic polyacrylamides of different molecular weight (C-PAM A-C). Symbols: ● C-PAM (A) 2.9-4.4 million
Daltons; ○ C-PAM (B) 6.0-7.9 million Daltons; ▲ C-PAM (C) >10.8 million Daltons (according to the
supplier). The study was performed on the R-F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% GCC
based on the total solids content).
The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the retention level (%) is
shown in Fig 11 for C-PAM (A-C). The same linear relationship was shown for all three cationic
polyacrylamides. Independent of the molecular weight of the C-PAM, an increased addition level,
and hence an increased retention level, resulted in increased formation numbers, which means
poorer formation. These results hence indicate that the flocculation and retention mechanism is
the same for these types of polymers.
31
20
18
16
14
12
C-PAM (A) C-PAM (B) C-PAM (C) C-PAM (C) repeated trial
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Filler retention, %
Fig 11. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%), for three
cationic polyacrylamides of different molecular weights (C-PAM A-C). Symbols: ● C-PAM (A) 2.9-4.4 million
Daltons; ○ C-PAM (B) 6.0-7.9 million Daltons; ▲ C-PAM (C) >10.8 million Daltons (according to the
supplier). The study was performed on the R-F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% GCC
based on the total solids content).
The cationic polyacrylamides (C-PAM A-C) have also been evaluated with respect to other
formation wavelength intervals (Svedberg, Lindström 2010b). No differences between the
polyacrylamides were observed in those evaluations, neither in the small-scale (0.4-3.0 mm) and
large-scale (3.0-30.0 mm) formation numbers nor in any other wavelength interval. For all three
polyacrylamides, the large-scale formation number was the principal contribution to the increase
in the total formation number. All formation data are given in Paper 2 (Svedberg, Lindström
2010b).
5.2.2 Polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems
In this chapter, two polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems based on

different microparticles (montmorillonite clay and silica sol) are compared. These two systems
were investigated with the R-F machine with respect to retention and formation (Svedberg,
Lindström 2010b). The microparticles were investigated in conjunction with a cationic
polyacrylamide (denoted here as C-PAM B). Characteristics of the polyacrylamide-based
microparticulate systems are given in Table 4.
The cationic polyacrylamide (C-PAM B) was added before the microparticles, at dosage point
no. 5, which corresponds to a residence time of 5.6 s (position before the mixers). The
microparticles were added at the last dosage point (no. 8), which corresponds to a residence time
of 2.0 s (position after the mixers). The addition of C-PAM was changed in order to vary the
retention level, whereas the additions of microparticles were constant (2 kg/t of montmorillonite
32
clay and 3 kg/t of silica sol). As in the previous chapter (5.2.1), the filler (GCC) was added in the
R-F machine pulp flow, at dosage point no. 3 (residence time 8.8 s) with an addition of 25%
based on the total stock consistency.
The two polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems were compared with
respect to the retention performance (Fig 12) and the retention-formation relationship (Fig 13).
The filler retention (%) vs. the added amount of cationic polyacrylamide (g/t) is shown in Fig 12.
It is shown in this figure that the two microparticulate systems diverge in their retention
performance. The system including montmorillonite clay gave a higher retention level, at the
same C-PAM addition, in comparison with the silica-based system.
The retention-formation relationships are demonstrated in Fig 13, showing the total formation
number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%). Both systems, based on
different microparticles, showed the same relationship between retention and formation. Both
systems suggested a linear relationship, where an increased filler retention level corresponds to a
deteriorated formation. Both microparticulate systems were investigated twice, indicating a good
reproducibility in the experiments (Fig 13).
Figure 14 combines the previous results (single-component polyacrylamide retention aids) with
the present study of microparticulate retention aid systems. Also, when comparing all five
systems together, no difference in the retention-formation relationship was obtained (Fig 14). For
all systems, a high retention level was accompanied by an impaired formation, indicating an
overall difficulty in changing the interdependency between retention and formation.
80
60
Filler retention, %
40
20
C-PAM (B)+Silica sol
C-PAM (B)+Montmorillonite clay
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Added amount of cationic polyacrylamide (C-PAM), g/t
Fig 12. The filler retention (%) as a function of the added amount of cationic polyacrylamide (g/t), for two
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems with different microparticles (montmorillonite clay and silica sol).
Symbols: □ C-PAM (B)+montmorillonite clay; ■ C-PAM (B)+silica sol. The study was performed with the R-
F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% GCC based on the total solids content).
33
20
C-PAM (B)+Silica sol repeated trial
18 C-PAM (B)+Montmorillonite clay

C-PAM (B)+Montmorillonite clay repeated trial
16
14
12
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Filler retention, %
Fig 13. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%), for two
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems with different microparticles (montmorillonite clay and silica sol).
Symbols: □◊ C-PAM (B)+montmorillonite clay; ■♦ C-PAM (B)+silica sol. The study was performed with the
R-F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% GCC based on the total solids content).
34
20
C-PAM (B)+Montmorillonite clay
18
C-PAM (A)
C-PAM (B)
16 C-PAM (C)
14
12
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Filler retention, %
Fig 14. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%), for five
different retention aids. Three cationic polyacrylamides of different molecular weights (C-PAM A-C) and two
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems with different microparticles (montmorillonite clay or silica sol in
conjunction with C-PAM (B)) were investigated. Symbols: ■ C-PAM (B)+silica sol; □ C-PAM
(B)+montmorillonite clay; ● C-PAM (A) 2.9-4.4 million Daltons; ○ C-PAM (B) 6.0-7.9 million Daltons;
▲ C-PAM (C) >10.8 million Daltons. The study was performed with the R-F machine for a fine paper stock
with addition of filler (25% GCC based on the total solids content).
5.2.3 Three-component retention aid systems
Finally, three-component retention aid systems were investigated with the R-F machine with
respect to retention, formation and drainage (Svedberg, Lindström 2012). The three-component
systems were based on cationic polyacrylamide (C-PAM), high molecular weight anionic polymer
and montmorillonite clay, added in sequence according to the earlier described procedure. That is
to say, a microparticulate retention aid system was added in combination with a dispersion aid
(Class II formation aids). As formation aids, three high molecular weight polymers of different
structure (degree of cross-linking) were investigated, denoted as: linear, partly structured and
structured polymers. Characteristics of the three-component retention aid systems are given in
Table 5.
The high molecular weight polymers were added from a small amount up to an addition level
where papermaking fibres in suspension become dispersed (200 g/t-1200 g/t). The cationic
polyacrylamide was added at dosage point no. 5 (before the mixers), the anionic polymer at
dosage point no. 7 (between the mixers) and the montmorillonite clay at dosage point no. 8 (after
the mixers). The additions of cationic polyacrylamide and montmorillonite clay were constant,
400 g/t and 2.0 kg/t, respectively. PCC was added as filler in these experiments, added in the R-F
machine pulp flow, at dosage point no. 3 (residence time 8.8 s) with an addition of 25% based on
the total stock consistency.
35
The combination of the overall results illustrated in Fig 14 with the performance of a three-
component retention aid system based on the partly structured polymer is shown in Fig 15. The
results in Fig 15 demonstrate a way to change the retention-formation relationship, that is, by
improving the formation at a given level of retention, or at even higher retention levels.
Figure 16 shows the total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the added
amount of the high molecular weight anionic polymer (g/t) for all three polymers of different
structure. The results in Fig 16 demonstrate different trends depending on the polymer structure.
The formation was significantly improved when the linear or the partly structured polymer was
used, and as the added amount was increased. The lowest formation number, which means best
formation, was attained at the highest polymer addition level. However, the formation was not
influenced by an addition of the structured polymer, at any dosage level. The improvement in
formation by using the linear polymer in excess is illustrated in Fig 17, showing two comparative
radiograph images which correspond to the zero addition and the highest addition of polymer
(1200 g/t).
20 C-PAM (B)+Silica
sol
18
C-PAM
(B)+Montmorillonite
clay
16
C-PAM (A)
14
C-PAM (B)
12
10 C-PAM (C)
8
C-PAM (B)+Partly
0 20 40 60 80 100 structured
polymer+Montmorill
Filler retention, % onite clay
Fig 15. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%), for six
different retention aids. Symbols: ■ C-PAM (B)+silica sol; □ C-PAM (B)+montmorillonite clay; ● C-PAM
(A) 2.9-4.4 million Daltons; ○ C-PAM (B) 6.0-7.9 million Daltons; ▲ C-PAM (C) >10.8 million Daltons;
Blue circle: C-PAM (B)+partly structured polymer+montmorillonite clay. The study was performed with the R-F
machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% based on the total solids content).
36
Total formation number (MD) 18
15
12
Structured polymer
9 Partly structured polymer
Partly structured polymer repeated trial
Linear polymer
6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Added amount of anionic polymer, g/t
Fig 16. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the added of anionic polymer (g/t).
Data are shown for three anionic polymers of different structure (linear, partly structured and structured), which
were investigated in conjunction with C-PAM and montmorillonite clay. The study was performed with the R-F
machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% PCC based on the total solids content). The partly
structured polymer was also investigated in a repeated trial.
Fig 17. Beta radiogram images (real size 10*10 cm). Left: 0 g/t of anionic polymer (total formation number was
13.48 in MD). Right: 1200 g/t addition of the linear polymer (total formation number was 10.78 in MD).
37
The added amount of anionic polymer had a slight or insignificant effect on the retention level,
which remained around 50% irrespective of the addition level. These retention results, together
with the trends reported in Fig 16, give rise to the relationships shown in Fig 18. In Fig 18, the
retention-formation relationships for all three-component retention aid systems are shown and
compared to the corresponding microparticulate system (C-PAM (B)+mont-morillonite clay).
As discussed earlier, an addition of the microparticulate retention aid system resulted a linear
relationship between retention and formation, where the formation deteriorated at increased
retention levels. The results in Fig 18 demonstrate that the interdependency between retention
and formation can be broken. A key for changing the retention-formation relationship is, hence,
to add a high molecular weight polymer in excess, in conjunction with a microparticulate system.
These pioneering results were valid for the systems including the linear and the partly structured
anionic polymer, that is, polymers that have high extension in solution and that have the ability to
elongate. When the structured polymer was used, no effects were observed. The trend lines in
Fig 18 indicate shifts in addition levels, from low to high addition levels. The higher the added
amount of the linear and the partly structured polymers, the better was the formation.
The trends shown in Fig 16 and Fig 18 were repeated in a separate series of trials, not shown in
detail in this summary. However, the high degree of reproducibility is also indicated in Fig 16 by
comparing the two trials performed with the partly structured polymer.
18
0 g/t
15
12
9
1200 g/t
Structured polymer Partly structured polymer Reference system Linear polymer

6
0 20 40 60 80 100
Filler retention, %
Fig 18. The total formation number in the machine direction as a function of the filler retention (%). Data are
shown for a dual reference microparticle system (C-PAM (400 g/t) and montmorillonite clay (2 kg/t)) and three-
component systems (reference system plus an anionic polymer of varied structure). The anionic polymer was changed
in three structures, defined as linear, partly structured and structured. The study was performed with the R-F
machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% based on the total solids content).
38
The addition of high molecular weight anionic polymers (dispersion aids) at high addition levels
had an effect not only on the retention-formation relationship, but also on the dewatering
performance on the wire (Fig 19). Fig 19 shows the dewatering, in terms of dewatering area (see
figure 6 for definition) (10^3 pixel) versus the added amount of anionic polymer (g/t), for all
three polymers of different structure. It can be seen in Fig 19 that the dewatering number was
significantly increased as the added amount of the linear and the partly structured polymer was
increased, which means reduced drainage rates. No effect on dewatering was observed when the
structured polymer was used, which is in line with the trends reported in Fig 16. Hence, these
investigations, combining a formation aid with a microparticulate retention aid system indicate an
interdependency between paper formation and drainage rate of the fibre suspension.
1200
Dewatering area, 10^3 pixel
900
600
300
Structured polymer Partly structured polymer Linear polymer

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Added amount of anionic polymer, g/t
Fig 19. The dewatering in terms of dewatering area (10^3 pixel) (defined in figure 6) as a function of the added
amount of anionic polymer (g/t). Data are shown for three anionic polymers of different structure (linear, partly
structured and structured), which were investigated in conjunction with C-PAM and montmorillonite clay. The
study was performed with the R-F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% PCC based on the
total solids content).
Since the dewatering performance was also affected by high additions of anionic polymer, it was
questioned whether the formation improvements were caused by changed chemistry or by the
effect of changed dewatering. An answer to this question can be found in the results in Fig 20.
The underlying trials to the results presented in Fig 20 were designed to vary the dry line position
on the wire, both mechanically and chemically, from a reference position. The reference position
was obtained for a dual reference system (C-PAM (B) (400 g/t) and montmorillonite clay (2
kg/t)) and with standard operating conditions. The dry line position was changed to the same
upper register, both mechanically by reducing the number of foils and vacuum, and chemically by
adding anionic polymer in excess (1200 g/t). The partly structured anionic polymer was used in
these trials, added together with C-PAM (B) (400 g/t) and montmorillonite clay (2 kg/t). The C-
PAM was added at dosage point no. 5, the anionic polymer at dosage point no. 7 and the
39
montmorillonite clay at dosage point no. 8. The dry line was also moved down by increasing the
vacuum.
The dewatering in terms of area (10^3 pixel) and the total formation number in the machine
direction are shown as functions of the dry line position, in Fig 20. A higher dewatering number
corresponds to a higher position of the dry line (reduced drainage rate). From Fig 20 it can be
concluded that the formation improvements were caused by a chemical mechanism which was
introduced when adding high amounts of anionic polymer, and not by the effect of changed
dewatering. The formation was not affected when the dry line position was mechanically changed
up and down in relation to the reference position.
1500 18

Dewatering area, 10^3 pixel
1200
15
900
12
600
9
300
0 6
Dry line moved Reference Dry line moved up Dry line moved up
down by vacuum by anionic polymer by foils and
vacuum
Fig 20. The dewatering in terms of area (10^3 pixel) and the total formation number in the machine direction as
functions of the dry line position. The dry line was moved from a reference position in three ways: down by increased
vacuum, up by overdosage of anionic polymer, and up by reduced vacuum and number of foils. The study was
performed with the R-F machine for a fine paper stock with addition of filler (25% PCC based on the total solids
content).
40
5.3 The effect of formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation
The effect of formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation under simulated forming conditions
was investigated with the aid of a flow loop system. Three high molecular weight anionic
polymers of different structure were investigated as single-component additives, defined as linear,
partly structured and structured polymers. Characteristics of the formation aids used are given in
Table 6. The objective of this study was a correlation between the deflocculation of a furnish as
determined with the flow loop system and the change in formation as determined with the R-F
machine for the three-component retention aid systems.
One batch of fibre suspension (400 l) was used for each trial point. Details of the fibre
suspensions are given in chapter 3.1. The standard fibre concentration in the suspension was
5 g/l. The flow rate was 252 l/min in the trials and the dwell time of the anionic polymers was
3.4 s (corresponds to the time from polymer injection to imaging through the extended nozzle).
First, a reference curve was established with respect to the fibre concentration, with no polymers
added. The fibre concentration was varied from almost 6 g/l down to 1 g/l. The mean floc size
in the machine direction (mm) versus the fibre concentration (g/l) is shown in Fig 21.
Second, the three polymers were added in separate trials. All the three polymers were investigated
at a dosage of 2.5 mg/g. The partly structured polymer was also investigated at a lower dosage
amount (0.8 mg/g) in order to study the effect of the dosage amount. Each trial point that
included a polymer occurred after the corresponding reference trial point (only the fibre
suspension). Hence, one and the same batch of fibre suspension was used for the polymer trial
point and the corresponding reference trial point. The effect of high molecular weight anionic
polymers as formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation is shown in Fig 21. By comparing the
mean floc size number for a certain polymer trial point with the corresponding reference trial
point, the dispersion effect of the respective polymer can be deduced. All data in Fig 21 are
shown with standard errors of each trial point.
Figure 21 reveals that the mean floc size decreased significantly when the linear and the partly
structured polymer were added to the fibre suspension, at a dosage level of 2.5 mg/g. At the
lower addition of the partly structured polymer (0.8 mg/g), no dispersion effect was observed.
Hence, the results indicate that the addition of polymer needs to be high in order to gain a
dispersing effect. If the standard deviations for all trial points are taken into consideration, the
effect of the structured polymer is viewed as low or even negligible. The results indicate that the
structure of the polymer is highly important for the dispersion effect. These results are consistent
with those found for the R-F machine trials when evaluating the same three polymers in
conjunction with a microparticulate retention aid system (see chapter 5.2.3).
The flow loop experiments indicate that fibre dispersion is possible by adding formation aids to a
fibrous suspension. The highest obtained reduction of fibre suspension flocculation was
observed for the linear polymer at a dosage level of 2.5 mg/g. A translation of this maximum
reduction by additives into a reduction in fibre consistency (synonymous with a consistency of
approximately 2.2 g/l) gives a hint of the deflocculation capability of formation aids.
In one trial, the linear polymer was added directly to the stock (one injection of 2.5 mg/g). The
stock was then recirculated for ten minutes and images were recorded during that time. The
objective was to study the influence of shear/residence time on fibre dispersion by formation
aids. It was shown that a direct addition of polymer to the stock had no effect in terms of
41
reduced mean floc size. The shear introduced to the polymer by pumping the fibre suspension
probably results in polymer deformations (see e.g. Tanaka et al. 1993), and the dispersion effect
fails. These results indicate that the dispersion effect of formation aids cannot be explained by
electrostatic mechanisms only. The extension of the polymer in solution seems to be highly
relevant for the deflocculation mechanism.
In another series of experiments in the flow loop system, several linear anionic polymers of
different molecular weights and different charge densities were investigated with respect to fibre
suspension flocculation. The objective was to find an optimal anionic polymer for fibre
dispersion. These experiments are not described in detail in the thesis. However, a manuscript is
planned that will present the overall results. Briefly, it was shown that a high molecular weight of
the polymer was preferable considering the reduction of fibre suspension flocculation. The
charge density of the polymer, on the other hand, had little effect on the flocculation
performance.
The polyelectrolyte effect on fibre dispersion was also investigated by varying the suspension
conductivity from 800 µS/cm to 4000 µS/cm by adding salt (CaCl2). It was shown in these
studies, using a linear anionic polymer of high molecular weight, that high expansion of the
anionic polymer structure was a prerequisite for fibre dispersion. In the presence of high ionic
strength, the polymer structure became more coiled due to electrostatic interactions, and the
dispersion effect disappeared.
3
Mean floc size in MD, mm
2,5
Reference curve
2
Partly structured polymer 0 mg/g (ref. to 2.5 mg/g)
Partly structured polymer 2.5 mg/g
Partly structured polymer 0 mg/g (ref. to 0.8 mg/g)
Partly structured polymer 0.8 mg/g
1,5 Structured polymer 0 mg/g (ref. to 2.5 mg/g)
Structured polymer 2.5 mg/g
Linear polymer 0 mg/g (ref. to 2.5 mg/g)
Linear polymer 2,5 mg/g
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fiber concentration in suspension, g/l
Fig 21. The mean floc size in the machine direction (mm) as a function of the fibre concentration in suspension
(g/l). Data are shown for a reference curve (no additives) and for dosages of high molecular weight anionic polymers
to the fibre suspension (5 g/l). The structure of the anionic polymers was varied in three levels, defined as linear,
partly structured and structured.
42
5.4 The effects of formation aids on flow properties of cellulosic fibrous
suspensions
In chapter 5.2.3 and chapter 5.3 it was shown that formation aids can be used to improve the
retention-formation relationship and reduce fibre suspension flocculation, respectively. High
molecular weight anionic polymers were used as formation aids (Class II) in these studies. It was
hypothesized that these high molecular weight anionic polymers were basically presented free in
solution and hence, affected the rheological properties of the suspending medium by suppressing
the intensity of turbulence.
The present investigation aimed to study the effect of formation aids on flow properties of
cellulosic fibrous suspensions and to examine whether or not turbulence damping is a mechanism
correlated to fibre dispersion and, hence, to improved paper formation. The effects were studied
using phase flow encoded magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The intensity of the MRI signal is
influenced by the presence of velocity fluctuations (Li, McCarthy 1995). Velocity profiles and
turbulence intensity distributions derived from the flow imaging measurements were evaluated
together with pressure drop analysis (∆P).
Experiments were performed for water and fibre suspensions (0.5%), with and without
formation aids added, at different mean bulk flow rates. The same three high molecular weight
anionic polymers as used in the previous studies were investigated in the MRI experiments as
single-component additives (characteristics are given in Table 6). The dwell time of the anionic
polymers in the system was 4.6 seconds, and the dosage order was varied up to 1200 g/t.
The overall results in this study demonstrated that high molecular weight polymers act as drag
reducing additives in turbulent flows. The results show how both fibres and formation aids
dampen the turbulence, in terms of reducing turbulence fluctuations (as determined by signal
intensities) and reduced pressure drops. Good synergy effects were observed when fibres and
polymers were used together. Regarding the polymer structure, the same trends were observed as
in the previous R-F machine trials and flow loop experiments. Turbulence damping effects were
observed for the linear polymer and the partly structured polymer, but not for the structured
polymer. It was revealed that turbulence damping by additives correlates positively to improved
formation. Hence, drag reduction by additives can be described as a mechanism for changing
retention-formation relationships.
Figure 22 shows velocity images (upper row) and signal intensity profiles (lower row) at a velocity
of 1.2 m/s, for water, fibrous suspension and fibrous suspension with polymer. The polymer
used in Fig 22 was the linear polymer, added at an amount of 1000 g/t (equivalent to an addition
of polymer of 5 ppm based on the aqueous phase).
In the velocity images, the signal intensity is a function of the radial position (mm) in the tube
(horizontal coordinate) and velocity in arbitrary units (vertical coordinate). The direction of the
flow in the velocity images is from bottom to top (the pipe was horizontal in the physical
apparatus). In the lower row, the horizontal axis represents the radial coordinate (mm) in the tube
and the vertical axis represents I(r); the signal intensity (maximum) at each radial coordinate. Imax
is the maximum value of I(r) in a given profile, usually occurring in the middle of the profiles. A
comparison between two signal intensity profiles measured at the same flow rates provides an
indication of the differences in velocity fluctuations between the two profiles.
43
The results in Fig 22 indicate that the signal intensity increases if fibres are added, and more so if
fibres and polymer are present, as shown both in the velocity profiles and the corresponding
signal intensity profiles. The addition of polymer to the fibre suspension increased the value of
Imax approximately three times and generated a less blunt velocity profile. The increase in signal
intensity is explained by damping of the turbulent fluctuations. The trends in Fig 22 were also
observed for mean bulk flow rates corresponding to 1.0 m/s and 1.4 m/s.
High turbulence intensity correlates to a high pressure drop along the tube. Hence, effects of
drag reduction are shown in pressure drop analyses as reduced pressure drops, due to reduced
flow resistance. The corresponding pressure drop analyses were consistent with the flow imaging
results shown in Fig 22. The pressure drop was reduced if fibres were added, and even more so if
fibres and polymer were present.
Water Fibrous suspension Fibrous suspension with polymer
Fig 22. Velocity images (upper row) and signal intensity profiles (lower row) for water, fibrous suspension and
fibrous suspension with polymer added, at a mean bulk flow rate of 1.2 m/s. The fibre concentration was 0.5%
and the polymer was linear, added at 1000 g/t.
The benefit of the linear polymer as a drag reducing additive was also observed in water. Table 8
summarizes the maximum signal intensities, and pressure drop values for all experiments ran at
the flow rate 1.4 m/s. Good synergy effects were observed when fibres and polymers were used
together, as shown in Table 8. This synergy effect was greater than the sum of the two
independent effects of fibre and polymer in water. The results in Table 8 also indicate that the
polymer addition is mainly responsible for the loss in pressure drop.
Table 8. Maximum signal intensities (Imax) and pressure drop values ∆P for different experiments, all
performed at a mean bulk flow rate of 1.4 m/s.
Sample Imax (Arb. units) ∆P (Pa/m)
Water 4.4 10.6
Water+Linear polymer (1000 g/t) 11.2 5.4
Fibrous suspension 10.1 9.2
Fibrous suspension+Linear polymer (1000 g/t) 35.4 5.9
44
A comparison of the results in Table 8 shows more pronounced effects for the Imax values,
compared to the ∆P values. This could be explained by a limitation in the pressure measurement
technique. Even though the present effect of drag reduction was higher, the pressure measurements could
not serve this information. A ∆P value of about 5 seemed to be the limit for these measurements. The
evaluation window was larger in the imaging measurements and hence larger drag reduction effects could
be seen in these results.
Figure 23 shows the maximum signal intensity (Imax) as a function of the added amount of each
polymer in fibrous suspensions at 0.5% consistency. The results in Fig 23 demonstrate that the
rheological properties of the suspending medium are influenced by the structure of the added
polymer. The corresponding pressure drop analysis was consistent with the results given in
Fig 23. No effect on the flow behaviour was observed for the structured polymer, presumably
due to the reduced capability to stretch and align in shear flows. Neither the signal intensity nor
the pressure drop was influenced by an addition of the structured polymer at any dosage level
studied. However, turbulence damping effects in terms of increased signal intensity and reduced
pressure drop were observed for the linear polymer and the partly structured polymer. These
polymers possess high extension in solution and can elongate in shear flows. An increased
addition level of the two drag reducing polymers indicated an increased turbulence damping
effect (valid until a state of equilibrium was reached).
80
Maximum signal intensity, Arb.units
Structured Partly structured Linear
60
40
20
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500
Added amount of polymer in fibrous suspension, g/t
Fig 23. The maximum signal intensity (Imax) as a function of the added amount of polymer (g/t) in fibrous
suspension (0.5% consistency). Data are shown for three high molecular weight anionic polymers of different
structure (linear, partly structured and structured).
The correlation between turbulence damping and formation improvement by formation aids is
illustrated in Fig 24. Figure 24 shows the total formation number in the machine direction and the
pressure drop as functions of the added amount of polymer in fibrous suspension, for the linear
and the structured polymer. The formation data were obtained in R-F machine trials and as can
be seen the data for the partly structured polymer followed the same trends as for the linear
45
polymer regarding both the formation number and the pressure drop. The flow imaging results
(maximum signal intensity, etc.) were also consistent with the pressure drop results. The results in
Fig 24 show that the pressure drop measurements support the findings of the R-F machine
experiments. The linear and partly structured polymer can dampen the turbulence and hence
improve paper formation, whereas the structured polymer cannot.
17 15
Linear polymer (Formation) Structured polymer (Formation)
Linear polymer (Pressure drop) Structured polymer (Pressure drop)
14 12
Pressure drop, Pa/m

11 9
8 6
5 3
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Added amount of polymer in fibrous suspension, g/t
Fig 24. The total formation number in the machine direction and the pressure drop (Pa/m) as a function of the
added amount of polymer (g/t) in a fibrous suspension at 0.5% consistency. Data are shown for a linear and a
structured high molecular weight polymer. Filled symbols refer to formation number and unfilled symbols to pressure
drop. The study on formation was performed with the R-F-machine for a fine paper stock with addition of 25%
filler (PCC) (based on solids content), with the anionic polymers added in conjunction with a microparticulate
retention aid system (Svedberg, Lindström 2012).
5.5 Adsorption studies – The interactions of cationic polyacrylamide, high

molecular weight anionic polymer and anionic montmorillonite clay on
model surfaces
The mechanism of improved retention-formation relationship has previously been discussed in

terms of drag reduction, that is, turbulence damping in turbulent flows by additives, in this case
by high molecular weight anionic polymers. It has been assumed that the adsorption of these
anionic polymers to the fibre surfaces was negligible and that all polymers were present free in
solution. In order to clarify if adsorbed layers could influence the hydrodynamic properties of the
fibres, adsorption studies have been performed using the DPI and QCM techniques. The
objective of these adsorption studies was to investigate whether the mechanism is explained only
by a solution effect or also by an effect of adsorption of the anionic polymers to the fibre surface.
If there was a significant adsorption of the anionic polymer to the fibre surface there could be an
interaction between the high molecular weight anionic polymer and the montmorillonite clay that
46
in turn could contribute to the improved retention-formation relationship, by, for example,
reducing the fibre-fibre friction.
These experiments were planned as a comparison between the two three-component retention
aid systems, including the linear and the structured anionic polymer. The linear anionic polymer
has shown effects throughout this thesis work, which the structured anionic polymer, on the
other hand, has not. If these two three-component retention aid systems indicate the same results
regarding adsorption, it would be possible to conclude that the mechanism is linked only to
solution effects and not to surface effects. The three-component retention aid systems were also
compared with a polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid based on the same cationic
polyacrylamide and montmorillonite clay. All characteristics of the components used are
summerized in Table 5.
The results from the adsorption study are shown in Fig 25. The left column shows the DPI
results (no associated water) in terms of mass (g/m2) and thickness (nm). The right column
shows the QCM results (with associated water) in terms of mass (g/m2) and dissipation. The first
row in Fig 25 corresponds to the dual system, the second row to the three-component system
with the linear anionic polymer and the third row to the three-component system with the
structured polymer.
For the dual system, both the C-PAM and the montmorillonite clay are adsorbed to the model
surface, indicated by the mass uptakes (g/m2). The thickness of the layer was reduced by the
adsorption of the montmorillonite clay, indicating that the layer was compacted by this second
adsorbent. The dissipation normalized with frequency indicates a rigid attachment of the C-PAM,
whereas the same number for the montmorillonite clay indicates a change in the visco-elastic
properties, that is, a more water-rich layer.
The results for both three-component systems with the DPI and QCM show the same trends for
both systems regarding the mass uptake for all three constituents. Only a slight increase in mass
was observed when the anionic polymer was added, whereas the subsequent adsorption of
montmorillonite clay was more significant. As for the dual component system, the thickness of
the layers was reduced when the montmorillonite clay was adsorbed, indicating denser layer
structures after this addition. If we, also for the three-component systems, consider the
dissipation normalized with frequency, we obtain different appearances of the two systems. The
dissipation normalized with frequency was higher after montmorillonite clay adsorption for the
system based on the linear polymer. This indicates a higher degree of swelling, that is, more
associated water in a gel-like layer structure. For the system including the structured polymer, the
results indicate a more rigid adsorption of the montmorillonite clay.
Since the same trends for both three-component retention aid systems was obtained, these results
support the suggested mechanism that the dispersion effect of the added anionic polyelectrolyte
is linked to solution effects (turbulence damping) and not to surface effects. There is a small
difference of the properties of the adsorbed layers between the linear and the structured polymers
but this is not considered to be large enough to explain the detected dispersion effects. These
results are planned to be a part of a future manuscript together with adsorption studies on fibre
surfaces (polyelectrolyte titration). These adsorption results are planned to be a part in a future
manuscript together with similar adsorption studies with fibres.
47
Left column: DPI results Right column: QCM results
10 30
Thickness, nm Mass, g/m2 Dissipation Mass, g/m2
Thickness (nm) / Mass (g/m2)
25
8
Mass (g/m2) / Dissipation

20
6
15
4
10
2
5
0 0
C-PAM Montmorillonite clay C-PAM Montmorillonite clay
Added component Added component
DPI: Dual system QCM: Dual system

10 30
25
8 Mass (g/m2) / Dissipation
20
6
15
4
10
2
5
0
0
C-PAM Linear anionic polymer Montmorillonite clay
C-PAM Linear anionic polymer Montmorillonite clay
DPI: Three-component system QCM: Three-component system

(linear anionic polymer) (linear anionic polymer)
10 30
25
8
Mass (g/m2) / Dissipation
20
6
15
4
10
2
5
0 0
C-PAM Structured anionic Montmorillonite clay C-PAM Structured anionic Montmorillonite clay
polymer polymer
DPI: Three-component system QCM: Three-component system

(structured anionic polymer) (structured anionic polymer)
Fig 25. DPI results (left column) and QCM results (right column) for three systems which are described in the
text. The DPI results are not with associated water, presenting the adsorbed mass per area unit (●, g/m2) and the
thickness of the adsorbed layer (○, nm). The QCM results include associated water and present the adsorbed mass
per area unit (●, g/m2) and the dissipation (○, unitless).
48
6 Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from this thesis work:
I. The R-F machine was found to be a significant and important tool for predicting a ranking
order of different retention aid systems, and the overall results demonstrated high
reproducibility. Changed settings in R-F machine trials (e.g. machine settings, addition
levels, furnish characteristics, etc.) gave changes in paper properties and process parameters
which correspond well to that observed in full-scale mill evaluations.
II. In one study evaluating the jet-to-wire speed ratio at four levels (1.0, 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3), it was
found that a higher jet-to-wire speed ratio resulted in better paper formation. Poorest
formation was obtained at the lowest ratio.
III. No change in retention-formation relationship was observed when comparing the single-
component retention aids and the two polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid
systems. All systems suggested a linear relationship, where an increased retention level
corresponded to impaired paper formation.
IV. Considering the single-component retention aids, it was found that a lower molecular
weight of the cationic polyacrylamide gave a lower filler retention level. The polyacrylamide-
based microparticulate system including montmorillonite clay gave a higher retention level,
at the same added amount of cationic flocculant, in comparison with the silica-based
system.
V. By using three-component systems, the retention-formation relationship was changed. It
was found that the formation could be significantly improved at a given level, or even at an
increased level of filler retention. These three-component systems combine a
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid system with a formation aid. The key
for these pioneering results was to add the formation aid of a certain structure in excess.
The higher the addition of formation aid, the better the formation was.
VI. Contrary to the formation improvements, the drainage rate was reduced when using the
three-component systems that included high dosages of formation aids. The improved
retention-formation relationship was, however, correlated to a changed chemical
composition of the furnish and not by the effect of changed dewatering performance on the
wire.
VII. The structure of the high molecular weight anionic polymers as formation aids was decisive
for the obtained effects. Three structuring levels of the polymers were investigated, defined
in this work as linear, partly structured and structured. The linear and the partly structured
polymers showed effects both with respect to formation and dewatering performance. No
effects were demonstrated for the same responses when the structured polymer was used.
VIII. The results obtained in the flow loop experiments were consistent with those results found
in the R-F machine trials, also regarding the influence of the polymer structure. As single-
component additives, both the linear and the partly structured high molecular weight
anionic polymer showed effects on the fibre suspension flocculation in terms of reduced
mean floc size. No effects were observed for the structured polymer. Also, the results
indicated that the addition of polymer needed to be high in order to gain dispersion effects.
IX. The fundamental mechanism of changed retention-formation relationships is related to an
effect of having high molecular weight anionic polymers present in the solution and not to
adsorption effects involving interactions between adsorbed layers on the fibre surfaces. This
was concluded from the adsorption studies and the flow imaging experiments.
X. The flow imaging experiments showed that formation aid acts as drag reducing additive in
turbulent flows. This was shown in terms of reduced signal intensities indicating damped
turbulent fluctuations and reduced pressure drops. Consistent with all other results revealed
49
in this work, the polymer structure was found to be crucial for drag reduction effects. The
overall results indicate that turbulence damping is a favourable mechanism for improving
paper formation, and hence for changing the retention-formation relationship.
50
7 Future work
As mentioned in the thesis text, two additional papers are planned. One will focus on the effect
of formation aids on fibre suspension flocculation, investigated in the flow loop system. The
basis of this paper is described in chapter 4.4. The other paper will focus on adsorption studies of
cationic polyacrylamide, anionic high molecular weight polymers and montmorillonite clay on
model surfaces (DPI and QCM analyses) and on fibre surfaces (polyelectrolyte titrations). The
adsorption studies on fibre surfaces will be performed at the lab during 2012. The aim is to
publish both papers in 2012.
I would find it very interesting to further study the present three-component retention aid
systems in larger-scale formers, such as EUROFEX at Innventia and also industrial state-of-the-
art paper machines. From EUROFEX trials we could acquire additional information about what
levels in formation improvements we can obtain with such systems and how the dewatering
performance is influenced, in more authentically industrial settings. This additional information
can promote full-scale industrial trials as a next step. For these kinds of three-component
systems, where the key is to add a drag reducing additive in surplus together with a
polyacrylamide-based microparticulate system, optimization is needed for each system when we
discuss larger-scale trials. Optimizations in terms of added amounts, type of drag reducing
additive and machine configurations (dewatering capacity etc.) are needed. Nanocellulose as a
drag reducing additive could be one idea to include in a future large-scale investigation aiming to
improve the retention-formation relationship.
I can see two areas of interest regarding product development coming out from this thesis work.
The first is the development of new kinds of retention aid systems or better specification of
existing systems, which can improve paper formation at the same level, or at a higher level, of
retention. The second is the development of better headbox designs regarding generation of
turbulence and reflocculation.
51
Acknowledgements
I have so many to thank in so many ways. I want to thank everybody who took the initiative in
starting this industrial PhD project in 2004 and all the industrial partners that have contributed
time, materials, knowledge and financing during the project. That is to say, thanks to Processum,
KTH, Innventia, MoRe Research, M-real, Eka Chemicals, BASF and Imerys. A great thank-you
particularly to Kempe Stiftelserna for financing this project over all five years.
Continuing the acknowledgements in some chronological order, I want to say thanks to Peter
Blomqvist (CEO at that time) and Jennie Söderström for the warm welcome when I was
employed by Processum. Thanks, Peter, for inspiring me to do a good job and for all the
encouraging conversations in which you always found a new way to see problems - things never
felt impossible. Thanks, Jennie, for the hearty support you have given me, both at work and after
hours. Thanks for your encouragement when I was applying for scholarships before the trip to
the US; you believed in me at a time when I needed it.
Next, I want to thank Pär Odén and Torbjörn Sjölund for all their efforts related to the R-F
machine. Thanks, Pär, for two fantastic frustrating years when we were trimming the machine
together. I will, despite all the breakdowns, remember great patience, fighting spirit and joy.
Thanks, Torbjörn, for running the machine in the best of ways. I have really appreciated your
angelic patience and your flexibility during the trials.
Thanks to all of you who have been involved in the project steering committee, at specific times
or over the course of the entire project, including Sune Wännström, Åsa Möller, Marie-Louise
Wallberg, Tage Konradsson, Gudrun Pauler-Johansson, Per-Ola Eriksson, Sture Noreus, Stefan
Svensson, Jan-Erik Hägglund, Francois Lambert, Petra Kreij and Kjell Andersson. Thank you all
for your engagement, fruitful discussions and for sharing experience, knowledge and new
thinking related to the research. I especially want to thank Per-Ola Eriksson for valuable and
interesting discussions and for so many times showing that you really care.
Many thanks to Lisa Nordin and Peter Nilsson for your collaboration and good degree projects.
Both of the degree projects have contributed a lot to my research.
I also want to thank the present CEO of Processum, Clas Engström, and my dear colleagues Ing-
Mari DeWall and Emma Johansson. Clas, you have just been damn good in your role as a leader.
A lot of what I learned during the time we worked together I will carry with me for the rest of my
life. Ing-Mari, thanks a lot for helping with all paperwork. Emma, thanks for being such a nice
room-mate, and for your support and our “five-minute talks”.
I also want to acknowledge the personnel at M-real in Husum and MoRe Research who have
been involved in pulp collection, analysis, chemical preparation, R-F machine trials and other
tasks.
Next, I want to express my thanks to Mikael Ankerfors for your collaboration in the flow loop
experiments at Innventia. It has been a real pleasure working with you. Thanks also to Åsa
Blademo and Gunborg Glad-Nordmark for your assistance and analysis associated with these
flow loop experiments.
That the Gunnar Sundblad Foundation gave attention to my research and awarded my project
the 2010 competence development prize made me very glad and proud. This scholarship of
52
500 000 SEK was used for a stay at the University of California in Davis, US, to develop
knowledge about flocculation mechanisms in papermaking. The research at UC Davis became
successful and contributed a lot towards arriving at a good fundamental understanding of the
other results obtained within this thesis work. So, a great thanks to the Gunnar Sundblad
Foundation for making all of this possible.
I also want to express my gratitude to Emilio Tozzi, David Lavenson, Mike McCarthy and
Robert Powell, all at UC Davis. Thanks for the warm welcome, good research and enjoyable
collaboration. My stay in Davis will be a memory for life thanks to you.
Simon Utsel, thanks a lot for your contribution to this thesis work, in the form of adsorption
studies at our lab at KTH.
Lars Ödberg, thanks a lot for the preliminary examination of my thesis work.
Two people who have followed me from the beginning of this PhD work and have meant a lot
to me are my supervisors Tom Lindström and Lars Wågberg at KTH. As my main supervisor, I
want to dedicate my largest thanks to you, Tom. All of your experience in research as well as in
life and all your knowledge have meant so much, both for this thesis work and also for me as a
person. We have had an eventful and interesting journey together during these years and I am
very glad to have had the opportunity to get to know you so well. Thanks also for introducing me
to the world of Russian River Pinot Noirs. Lars, thanks for your helpful supervision, fruitful
discussions and splendid comments on results and design of experiments.
Last but certainly not least, I want to thank my family: my mother Eivor, my father Tomas, my
sister Karin, my children Oskar and Selma and my husband-to-be Rolf. Thanks, Mum, for
everything; for being so kind to me in all situations, for always believing in me, always
encouraging me and for all your love. Thanks, Dad, for being the best dad ever. Karin, thanks for
all your support and encouragement during these years. I am looking forward to celebrating with
you in NY. Rolf, this thesis would not have been possible without you. I cannot thank you
enough. Rolf; I love you for being so great during this time, for taking such good care of our
children, for your patience and willingness to assist as best you can in all situations. Oskar and
Selma, this thesis is dedicated to you.
53
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Improvement of the retention-formation

relationship using three-component retention aid

TRITA-CHE REPORT 2012:19

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan i Stockholm

Copyright © Svedberg Anna 2012.

I. A pilot web former designed to study retention-formation relationships

II. The effect of various retention aids on retention and formation

1. Storage of chemical pulp - Inactivation of retention aids

2. Valuation of the retention/formation (R/F) relationship using a laboratory pilot-paper machine

3. Valuation of retention/formation relationships using a laboratory pilot-paper machine

4. On-line applikation för signifikanta studier av avvattning på en pappersmaskin i pilotskala

6. A strategy of improving the retention-formation relationship by using drag reducing additives

7. A strategy of improving the retention-formation relationship by using drag reducing additives

The effect of formation aids on fiber suspension flocculation

1.1 Setting the scene

1.3 Outline of the thesis

2.1 Retention and formation

2.2 The retention-formation relationship

The retention-formation relationship is influenced by several chemical and mechanical factors.

Formation is a concept which describes the grammage distribution of paper on a scale up to 50

2.4 Machine design and operational variables

Development of retention aid systems

Flocculation of negatively charged colloids by anionic polyelectrolytes or non-ionic polymers (e.g.

By using combinations of flocculants, synergistic effects can be achieved resulting in stronger

In contrast to the earlier-mentioned flocculation mechanisms, network flocculation is

2.6 Other chemical adjuvants and dosage strategies - aspects on dispersion

1. Additives increasing the dispersion medium viscosity (Soszynski, Kerekes 1988;

2.7 Drag reduction of turbulent flows by additives

Drag reduction is manifested by decreased friction in turbulent flows. Drag reduction of

DR (%)=(1-(ΔPsolution/ΔPNewtonian solvent))*100 [2]

As described in a previous chapter, reflocculation of fibres in decaying turbulence impairs the

Table 2. Standard furnish characteristics in R-F-machine experiments.

3.3 Retention aid systems

Table 4. Characteristics of the polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems, all

C-PAM (D)/Linear polymer/Montmorillonite clay 1.15A/-1.76C/-0.34B 11D/14D/30E

to the PAP-SOP 01-19 method.

polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (0.001N) as titrating reagent.

3.4 Formation aids

Table 6. Characteristics of the formation aids, all given by the supplier.

Partly structured anionic -2.16A 10B >500C

time-resolved mass measurements of each fraction by light scattering.

4.1 The retention and formation machine

Table 7. R-F machine standard operating conditions.

4.3 Dewatering analysis

4.4 Flocculation analysis – The flow loop system

4.5 Magnetic resonance flow imaging

where r is the radial coordinate in the pipe.

5.1 The effect of the jet-to-wire speed ratio on paper formation

5.2 The effect of different retention aids on retention and formation

5.2.1 Single-component polyacrylamide retention aids

5.2.2 Polyacrylamide-based microparticulate systems

In this chapter, two polyacrylamide-based microparticulate retention aid systems based on

18 C-PAM (B)+Montmorillonite clay

5.2.3 Three-component retention aid systems

Structured polymer Partly structured polymer Reference system Linear polymer

Structured polymer Partly structured polymer Linear polymer

Total formation number (MD)

Water Fibrous suspension Fibrous suspension with polymer

Structured Partly structured Linear

Pressure drop, Pa/m

5.5 Adsorption studies – The interactions of cationic polyacrylamide, high

The mechanism of improved retention-formation relationship has previously been discussed in

Mass (g/m2) / Dissipation