1.

Stepper motor:
A stepper motor or step motor or stepping motor is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a
number of equal steps. The motor's position can then be commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without
any position sensor for feedback (an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application
in respect to torque and speed.

Frame 1: The top electromagnet (1) is turned on, attracting the nearest teeth of the gear-shaped iron rotor. With the
teeth aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset from right electromagnet(2).
Frame 2: The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the right electromagnet (2) is energized, pulling the teeth into
alignment with it. This results in a rotation of 3.6° in this example.
Frame 3: The bottom electromagnet (3) is energized; another 3.6° rotation occurs.
Frame 4: The left electromagnet (4) is energized, rotating again by 3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is again
enabled, the rotor will have rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a
full rotation in this example.
Types
There are three main types of stepper motors:
Permanent magnet stepper
Variable reluctance stepper
Hybrid synchronous stepper
Applications
Computer controlled stepper motors are a type of motion-control positioning system. They are typically digitally
controlled as part of an open loop system for use in holding or positioning applications.
In the field of lasers and optics they are frequently used in precision positioning equipment such as linear actuators,
linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and
positioning of valve pilot stages for fluid control systems.
Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, computer printers, plotters, slot
machines, image scanners, compact disc drives, intelligent lighting, camera lenses, CNC machines and, more
recently, in 3D printers.

2.Microcontroller Based Temperature Monitoring and Controlling System:

The temperature monitoring and controlling system is an integrated device that allow users to input
specific requirement of temperature for any environment say any industrial process. Monitoring and
control of process parameters by embedded systems using microcontrollers are very much effective in
industrial and research oriented requirements. The purpose of this project is to explore the possibility to
continuously monitor and control temperature. LM35DZ temperature sensor is used to sense the
temperature. Microcontroller ATMega328 is used as the heart of this system which holds the monitoring
and controlling program and the temperature is displayed on an LCD screen. The system is also equipped
with necessary hardware to initiate control action for temperature as soon as it reaches a value higher than
the particular setpoint or a value lower than the particular setpoint. For controlling the temperature, relays
are used which are connected to a heater and a cooler.
 Block diagram of temprature monitering and control system

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The circuit is based on LM35 analog temperature sensor and ATMega 328 microcontroller. For example,
if the temperature is 38°C, the output voltage will be 38 x 10mV = 380mV. ATMega 328 has an inbuilt
ADC that is used to is used to convert the analog output voltage of the LM35 to a proportional 10 bit
digital value suitable for the microcontroller. The microcontroller accepts the output of ADC, performs
necessary manipulations on it and displays it numerically on an LCD display. Output of the LM35 is
connected to the analog input pin (pin 23) of the microcontroller. Data lines are Pins 4, 5, 6, 11, 17 and 18
of the microcontroller which are the digital inputs D2, D3, D4, D5, D11 and D12 respectively. These Pins
are interfaced with the LCD as- LCD RS pin to digital pin 12, LCD Enable pin to digital pin 11, LCD D4
pin to digital pin 5, LCD D5 pin to digital pin 4, LCD D6 pin to digital pin 3, LCD D7 pin to digital pin 2,
LCD R/W pin to ground and 10K resistor:
3.Architecture Of 8086 Microprocessor- Internal Architecture:

The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor intended to be used as the CPU in a microcomputer. The term “16-bit”
means that its arithmetic logic unit, internal registers, and most of its instructions are designed to work 16-bit binary
words. It has 16-bit data bus and 20-bit address bus.
Words will be stored in two consecutive memory locations. If the first byte of a word is at an even address, the 8086
can read the entire word in one operation. If the first byte of the word is at an odd address, the 8086 will read the
first byte in one operation, and the second byte in another operation.

Following figure shows the internal block diagram of 8086 microprocessor.

The 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts, the bus interface unit or BIU, and the execution unit
or EU.

The Bus Interface Unit

The BIU handles all data and addresses on the buses for the execution unit such as it sends out addresses, fetches
instructions from memory, reads data from ports and memory as well as writes data to ports and memory.
The Execution Unit
The execution unit (EU) tells the BIU where to fetch instructions or data from, decodes instructions, and executes
instructions.
The functional parts of the execution unit are control circuitry or system, instruction decoder, and Arithmetic logic
unit (ALU).
Control circuitry to perform various internal operations. A decoder in the EU translates instructions fetched from
memory to generate different internal or external control signals that required performing the operation. The EU has
a 16-bit ALU, which can perform arithmetic operations such as add, subtract etc. and logical operations such as
AND, OR, XOR, increment, decrement etc.
4.Open loop control systems:

An open-loop control system takes input under the consideration and doesn’t react on the feedback to
obtain the output. This is why it is also called a non-feedback control system.
There are no disturbances or variations in this system and works on fix conditions.

Closed loop control systems:

A closed loop system is also referred as a feedback control system. These systems record the output
instead of input and modify it according to the need. It generates preferred condition of the output as
compared to the original one. It doesn’t encounter any external or internal disturbances.

5.difference between 8086 and 8088 microprocessor:

8086
The instruction Queue is 6 byte long.
In 8086, memory divides into two banks
-even or lower bank
-odd or higher bank
The data bus of 8086 is 16-bit wide
It has BHE (bar) signal on pin no. 34 & there is
no SSO (bar) signal.
Control pin in 8086 is M/IO (bar).
It needs one machine cycle to R/W signal if it
is at even location otherwise it needs two.
In 8086, all address & data Buses are
multiplexed.
It needs two IC 74343 for de-multiplexing
AD0-AD19.
Maximum supply current 360mA.
Three clock speed: 5, 8, 10 MHz
8088
The instruction Queue is 4 byte long.
The memory in 8088 does not divide into two
banks.
The data bus of 8088 is 8-bit wide.
It does not have BHE (bar) signal on pin no. 34
& has only SSO (bar) signal. It has no S7 pin.
Control pin in 8088 is IO/M (bar).
It needs one machine cycle to R/W signal if it
is at even location otherwise it needs two.
In 8088, address bus; AD7- AD0 buses are
multiplexed.
It needs one IC 74343 for de-multiplexing
AD0-AD7.
Maximum supply current 340mA.
Two clock speed: 5, 8 MHz
6.Why Microcontroller Prefered for Washing Machine:

1. Adds a digital user interface with push buttons rather then knobs
2. Control and sensing go hand in hand,so tracking of speed of motors,water
temprature,electrical failure etc is possible easily
3. Have easier control over machine operation(timing profiles,intensity,motor speed etc.\

7.Minimum and maximum mode block diagram of 8086 and 8088:

Maximum mode of 8088 block diagram:
Minimum mode of 8088 block diagram:

8.8088and 8086 Read and Write cycle?

9.what is interrupt signal in microprocessor?
In system programming, an interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software
indicating an event that needs immediate attention. An interrupt alerts the processor to a high-priority
condition requiring the interruption of the current code the processor is executing. The processor responds
by suspending its current activities, saving its state, and executing a function called an interrupt handler
(or an interrupt service routine, ISR) to deal with the event. This interruption is temporary, and, after the
interrupt handler finishes, the processor resumes normal activities. There are two types of interrupts:
hardware interrupts and software interrupts.
Hardware interrupts are used by devices to communicate that they require attention from the operating
system.
A software interrupt is caused either by an exceptional condition in the processor itself, or a special
instruction in the instruction set which causes an interrupt when it is executed.

10.what is micro processor and fundamental and application?

A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip.

The microprocessor contains all, or most of, the central processing unit (CPU) functions and is the
"engine" that goes into motion when you turn your computer on. A microprocessor is designed to perform
arithmetic and logic operations that make use of small number-holding areas called registers. Typical
microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers, and fetching numbers
from one area to another. These operations are the result of a set of instructions that are part of the
microprocessor design.
When your computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the basic input/output
system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory. After that, either the BIOS, or the
operating system that BIOS loads into computer memory, or an application progam is "driving" the
microprocessor, giving it instructions to perform.
Application of microprocessor:
The availability of low cost, low power and small weight , computing capability makes it useful in
different applications. Now a days , a microprocessor based systems are used in instructions, automatic
testing product, speed control of motors , traffic light control , light control of furnaces etc.
2. Special purpose application.
i) Instrumentation
The microprocessor based instrument can be made intelligent using feature programmability.
Microprocessors can be used as controllers in various instruments. They are also used in medical
instruments to measure blood pressure and temperature.
ii) Control
Microprocessor controllers are now available in home appliances such as microwave oven, washing machine. In
industry, microprocessors are used in controlling various process parameters such as speed, temperature, moisture
and pressure.
iii) Communication
In the telephone industry, microprocessors are used in digital telephone sets, telephone exchanges and
modems. They are also used in railway reservation system at the national level and air reservation system
at international level. Satellite communication systems, mobile phones and televisions are also using
microprocessors.
iv) Office Automation and Publication
With the availability of inexpensive and user friendly microcomputers along with wide range of software
packages, office works are computerized. Microcomputers are used in office to perform word processing,
spreadsheet operations, storage and retrieval of huge information. In publishing houses microprocessor
based systems are used for making automatic photo copies. Microprocessor based LASER printers are
used to achieve good speed in printing.
11.Washing machine control system
Circuit diagram
12.diesel genrator set controller