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1.INTRODUCTION

Air bearing are bearings that use a thin film of pressurized air for providing exceedingly low friction load
bearing interface between surfaces.

The two surfaces do not touch. As they are contact free, they provide tradition bearing problems of wear,
friction, particulates and lubrication handling, and offer a distinct advantage in precision positioning, such as
lacking backlash and static friction, as well as in high speed applications.

The fluid film of the bearing is air that flows through the bearing itself to the bearing surface. The design of
the air bearing is such that, although the air constantly escapes from the bearing gap, the pressure between the
faces of the bearing is enough to support the working loads. Thus, there is a differentiation that has to be made
between hydro-dynamical bearings, which establish the air cushion through their movement, and hydrostatical
bearings, in which the pressure is being externally inserted.

Air bearings are being mainly used in precision machinery tools (measuring and processing machines) and
fast running machines (high speed spindle).

FIGURE 1.1: CROSS-SECTION THROUGH BEARING, FITTED WITH ORIFICE

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FIGURE 1.2: SECTION THROUGH ORIFICE LINE

The basic principle of operation of air bearings has been established for more than fifty years. An air bearing
may comprise of a sleeve separated from a plain shaft by gap, typically 5–50 μm. High pressure air is fed
through small orifices in the sleeve through the bearing gap where it flows along the gap and out of the ends of
the bearing. Orifice size is matched to the bearing size so that under no load the pressure in the gap, just
downstream of the orifice, is approximately half the supply pressure. When a radial load is applied, the gap on
one side of the shaft closes down increasing its resistance to and causing pressure to rise. On the opposite side of
the shaft, the larger gap has reduced resistance to airflow and allows pressure to fall. The pressure difference
across the bearing gives it the capacity to support the applied load without incurring any metal–metal contact
even if there is no shaft rotation.

2. TYPES OF AIR BEARINGS

2.1. AEROSTATIC:
Externally pressurised: A separate external supply of air is fed under pressure between the two surfaces
being kept apart. It is a continuous flow system where pressurised gas from the source flows through restrictors
into the clearance between the bearing surfaces escaping to the atmosphere at the outside edges of the bearing.

Types: Simple orifice fed, Pocketed orifice, Slot fed and Porous.

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2.1.1. PRINCIPLE
Because aerostatic bearings have a pressurized air source they can maintain an air gap in the absence of
relative motion between the bearing surfaces. Air bearings offer a solution for many high-tech applications
where high-performance and high accuracy is required. Aerostatic bearings require an external Pressurized air
source due to which aerostatic bearings are also known as passive air bearings. High stiffness can be achieved.
The aerostatic bearing is able to support higher load than the aerodynamic bearing, but it requires continuous
power supply for supplying pressurized air. Overall, aerostatic bearings perform well in most aspects such as
having long life, noise-free operations and are free from contamination Since air has a very low viscosity, the
bearing gaps need to be small, of the order of 1- 10 μm. As the object floats on a thin layer of air, the friction is
extremely small and even zero when stationary.

FIGURE 2.1. AIR SUPPLY

Figure.2.1 shows that, how gas at a supply pressure, Ps is admitted into the clearance through a restricting
device, which reduces the supply pressure. The pressure drop is due to the acceleration of the gas as it expands.
The air will flow through the bearing and back to the atmosphere where the pressure further reduces to
atmospheric pressure, Pa. A smaller clearance will reduce the pressure drop that gives a higher load capacity. It
is desirable to achieve an optimum condition at which a maximum stiffness occurs where the rate of change of
load when divided by the rate of change of clearance is a maximum.

2.2. AERODYNAMIC:
Self-generating: The supporting film is generated by the relative motion of the two surfaces being kept apart.
An aerodynamic bearing can be of several types. The design characteristics differ greatly between journal and
axial bearings and they can suffer problems of instability.

Types: Simple cylinders, Tri-lobe, Grooved (axial / herringbone / spiral) and Stepped

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2.2.1. PRINCIPLE
Aerodynamic bearings depend on relative motion between the bearing surfaces and usually some type of
spiral grooves to draw the air between the bearing lands. This bearing action is very similar to hydroplaning in
our automobile on a puddle of water at high speed. At a lower speed our tire would cut through the water to the
road. In just this way, aerodynamic bearings require relative motion between the surfaces, when there is no
motion or when the motion is not fast enough to generate the air film the bearing surfaces will come into
contact. Aerodynamic bearings are often referred to as foil bearings or self-acting bearings. Examples of this
type of bearing include the read-write head flying over a spinning disk, crankshaft journals, camshaft journals,
and thrust bearings for electrical generator turbines.

3. USE OF AIR BEARINGS IN ULTRA-PRECISION SPINDLE

Aerostatic bearings have been adapted to develop spindles called ultra-precision aerostatic spindles. Since
most of the ultra-precision machines require precision class spindle with higher running accuracy, stiffness and
good thermal stability. Aerostatic bearings are in greater demand. Aerostatic bearing gives high rotational
accuracy, thermal stability, stiffness and high operating speeds, compared to other types of bearings. Ultra-
precision machines require spindles with nanometre accuracy in rotation, moderate axial and radial stiffness,
and moderate load carrying capacity.

FIGURE 3.1. AIR BEARING SPINDLE

Later various concepts like active air bearings and passive air bearings and others were developed.
Accompanying this, further high precision is demanded for spindles and spindle supporting bearings that are
elements of machine tools. In the present work an attempt has been made to develop an aerostatic spindle for
ultra-precision machine tool which overcomes the drawbacks present in anti-friction bearing spindle which were
used in precision machine tools. As problems like wear, thermal errors, lubrication problems, bearing failure etc,
were encountered in anti-friction bearings there was a serious research in the field of precision engineering.
Different types of aerostatic bearings are analysed and the best one is selected for design and further
development. Detailed design of axial grooved journal bearings is done and groove parameters are studied and
optimized. Then the concept of using aerostatic bearings was developed and it received a huge response from all
organizations and research centres.

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Ultra-precision machines require spindles with nanometre accuracy in rotation, moderate axial, radial
stiffness, and moderate load carrying capacity. Aerostatic bearings have been adapted to develop this type of
spindles called ultra-precision aerostatic spindles. Since most of the ultra-precision machines require precision
class spindle with higher running accuracy, stiffness and good thermal stability, aerostatic bearings are in greater
demand. Aerostatic bearing gives high rotational accuracy, thermal stability, stiffness and high operating speeds,
compared to other types of bearings.

3.1. THE BASIC PRINCIPLE

Air spindles employ two or more cylindrical journal bearings to support radial loads and an opposed pair of
flat, annular thrust bearings to support axial loads. A practical design of air spindle also has an integral drive
motor and means of work holding. In a typical spindle compressed air enters through a port on the rear face and
is fed through drillings to reservoirs surrounding each journal bearing and reservoirs positioned either side of the
thrust bearings. From the reservoirs, air is fed through rows of orifices into the bearing gaps. Exhaust air from
the ends of the journal bearings, inner and outer edges of the thrust bearings is vented to atmosphere .Cooling
water enters the spindle through a port on the rear face. From here it is typically ducted along the spindle where
it flows through a reservoir surrounding the front bearing. The cooling water is then fed back along the spindle
where it passes through a reservoir surrounding the rear journal bearing before exiting through a port on the
spindle’s rear face.

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF AEROSTATIC BEARING

There are five basic types of aerostatic bearing geometries as follows: single pad, opposed pad journal,
rotary thrust and conical journal or thrust bearings. It can be classified again as follow:

1. Journals basically cylindrical surfaces.

2. Thrust bearings circular or annular flat surfaces which are designed for rotation
3. Slider bearings flat surfaces of any boundary shape which are designed for obtaining a sliding motion.
4. Spherical bearings

3.3. MATERIAL SELECTION

In aerostatic spindle it is important to select carefully the materials used for the shaft, bearing and restrictors.
The following considerations should always be considered for the material selection.

1. Corrosion resistance
2. Machinability
3. Material stability
4 .Thermal conductivity
5. Thermal expansion
For the bearing bush material, lead bronze is best suited. Lead bronze is corrosion resistant, can be easily
machined and easily soldered or brazed so that the pressure tight fixing of the numerous feed jets is a relatively
simple procedure. They are readily suited for use in combination with austenitic stainless steel body material.
The coefficients of thermal expansion are well matched theory avoiding thermal stress problems and the

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electrochemical potentials are identical so that no electro-chemical corrosion can occur. In the process of
analytical calculations three assumptions are made:

1. The film thickness h0 is uniform over the bearing element

2. A one dimensional axial flow is assumed
3. The pressure drops in axial direction.

3.4. MATERIALS OF THE AIR BEARING SPINDLE

The blank for a machine tools spindle may be:
1. Rolled stock in the case of spindles having diameter < 150 mm.
2. Casting in the case of spindles having diameter > 150 mm

It should be kept in mind that if the spindle blank is cut from rolled stock, the cutting must be done by
cutting tools to avoid additional distortion of the material microstructure. In machine tools spindle design the
critical design parameter is not strength but stiffness. If we compare the mechanical properties of various steels,
then their modulus of elasticity should be more or less equal, although the strength of the alloyed steels can be
considerably greater than of mild steel.

Since stiffness is primarily determined by the modulus of elasticity of the material, it may be concluded that
no particular benefit accrues from using costly alloyed steels are required to make spindles.

3.5. LOAD CAPACITY

The load capacity can be defined as the total load supported by the bearing surfaces. It can be obtained by
integrating the pressure over the whole of the bearing surface.

3.6. STIFFNESS
Stiffness can be defined as the rate of change of load capacity with respect to change in air gap. Higher
stiffness means less compliance. This means there will be small change in air gap corresponding to large
variation in load.

3.7. EFFECT OF ORIFICE DIAMETER

Load and stiffness plots are taken for different size of orifice diameter. The orifice diameter is varied from
0.1 to 1.0 mm. The other parameters, such as bearing radius, pocket radius, and supply pressure, were kept
constant. Figures. 3.2 and 3.3 show the plot of load capacity and stiffness with respect to the air gap for different
values of the orifice diameter

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FIGURE.3.2 PLOT OF LOAD CAPACITY WITH AIR GAP

FIGURE 3.3 PLOT OF STIFFNESS WITH AIR GAP

The maximum load capacity is same for all values of orifice diameter. However, as the orifice diameter
decreases, the peak value of stiffness increases. At the same time, the corresponding value of air gap is also
decreasing.

3.8. EFFECT OF SUPPLY PRESSURE

All bearing parameters were kept constant except the supply pressure. The orifice diameter was kept at 1.0
mm. The supply pressure was varied from 6 to 10 bars. Figure. 3.4 and 3.5 show the plot of load capacity and
stiffness versus air-gap for different values of the supply pressure, respectively

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FIGURE.3.4. LOAD VERSUS AIR GAP PLOT FOR DIFFERENT P0.

FIGURE 3.5 STIFFNESS VERSUS AIR GAP PLOT FOR DIFFERENT P0

As the supply pressure increases, the maximum load capacity increases. The peak value of stiffness also
increases with the supply pressure.

3.9. EFFECT OF BEARING DIAMETER

The bearing diameter was varied from 30 to 80mm. The other parameters were kept constant. Figures. 3.6
and 3.7 show the plot for load and stiffness for different values of the bearing diameter, respectively.

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FIGURE 3.6. LOAD PLOT FOR DIFFERENT BEARING DIAMETER

FIGURE 3.7 STIFFNESS PLOT FOR DIFFERENT BEARING DIAMETER

From the load plot, it was observed that the load capacity increases with the bearing diameter. The peak
value of stiffness also increases with the bearing diameter.

From the analysis, it has been observed that the maximum load capacity is mainly decided by the bearing
dimensions and supply pressure conditions. It does not depend on the orifice diameter. However, orifice
diameter has greater impact on the stiffness. As the orifice diameter decreases, the stiffness increases. Stiffness

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can be also increased by increasing the supply pressure and the bearing diameter. This shows that smaller orifice
diameter can result into higher stiffness at smaller air-gap.

3.10. DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The basic understanding of air bearing performance was utilised to develop a simple methodology to help
the design and selection process. Design is an iterative process, but the number of iterations can be minimised
by adopting a careful strategy. Based on the load and stiffness requirements, the bearing dimensions, orifice
size, and supply pressure can be suitably selected using this approach. Optimum air-gap and correspondingly the
required pre-loading can be also obtained.

FIGURE 3.8 STRATEGY FOR AIR BEARING DESIGN

Based on the load and stiffness requirements, the bearing dimensions, orifice size, and supply pressure can
be suitably selected using this approach. Optimum air-gap and correspondingly the required pre-loading can be
also obtained.

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4. AIR BEARINGS BASED ON CERAMIC COMPOSITES

Air bearings made of porous materials allow an equal air distribution on the bearing surface. In comparison
with conventional orifice bearings, air bearings have a higher load capacity and stiffness. Their dynamic
behaviour is improved due to many micro pores, which make the bearings less sensitive to internal and external
disturbances.

Pressure injected air bearings can be divided into two classes. Traditional air bearings are designed with one
or more orifices and often combined with grooves to improve the bearing properties. Today, innovative air
bearings used porous materials, so that a large number of micro cannels control the airflow across the entire
bearing surface.

In contrast of orifice bearings, porous air bearings are characterised by an excellent air pressure distribution
across the surface and a high tolerance to bearing surface damage. Therefore, porous bearings have an improved
dynamic and static behaviour. Temperature gradients on machines with guidance based on air bearings can lead
to displacements of the bearing surfaces and the reduction of the machine accuracy due to change of air gap or
preload force. Therefore, apart from the improvement of dynamic and static properties of air bearings, it is also
essential to optimise the thermal behaviour. The aim is to develop new materials that combine the excellent
properties of traditionally porous bearing materials and the thermal properties of ceramics.

The development of porous ceramic composite materials with their excellent thermal and mechanical
properties allow the design of air bearings for the optimisation of high precision and high speed machines.
Motor spindles for precision tool machines required a constant air gap for steady properties even at highest
rotation speeds. Energy dissipation in drives and the air friction in bearings at high relative velocities lead to
thermal displacements. The result is a negative influence of static and dynamic spindle behaviour. Ceramic
bearings reduce the thermal deformations to a minimum. Therefore, a motor spindle with porous ceramic air
bearings was developed at IWF for the investigation and optimisation of spindle behaviour.

Comparison of orifice and porous bearings in orifice bearings the air is supplied to the bearing surface
through a small number of precisely sized holes. Since bearings with single orifice have a high pressure gradient
between the orifice centre and the bearing boundary, a proper number of orifices are strategically placed on the
bearing surface (see Figure 4.1).

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FIGURE.4.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE BEARING SURFACE FOR

ORIFICES (A, B) AND POROUS BEARINGS (C)

Porous air bearings enable the supply of air equally across the whole surface of bearing, so that the air flow
can be restricted and damped at the same time. This can be achieved by diffusing the air through a porous
bearing material, so that a uniform pressure in the air gap is generated (also see Figure 4.1). Compared with
orifice bearings, porous bearings have the highest load capacity and stiffness including high vibration stability.
One of the first porous air bearing materials was carbon graphite [2, 3]. Subsequently, bearings produced design.

Designing with ceramics is more difficult compared with steel, because steel is much more tolerant to local
stress peaks and material flaws. These disadvantages of monolithic ceramic materials could be overcome by the
development of ceramic composites. Such materials are synthesised from the assembly of two or more
components in order to obtain specific material properties.

One of these ceramic composites is CVI-SiC/SiC, which is composed of a silicon carbide (SiC) fibre
reinforcement imbedded in a SiC matrix during the chemical vapour infiltration (CVI). The three dimensional
SiC fibre architecture and the SiC matrix leads to a structure with an open porosity of 10 % to 15%, which
makes it fluid-permeable (see Fig. 12). The porosity can be modified by variation of structure geometry and the
controlled filling of this structure with SiC. The geometrical form of the pores is dependent on fibre direction,
and lies between 100 µm and 300 µm for the test pieces. Semi-finished products like tubes and plate of different
thicknesses were manufactured in a pilot plant.

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FIGURE.4.2 FIBRE STRUCTURE OF POROUS COMPOSITE SIC/SIC

Contrary to conventional monolith ceramics, the reinforcement with continuous fibres from SiC guarantees
an increased tensile strength, fracture toughness and the elastic modulus of ceramic substantially. The SiC fibres
catch the break in case of sub-critical crack growth, so that the main cause of brittle failure would be eliminated.
In contrast to monolith ceramics, pre-stress is not necessary for components made of CVI-SiC/SiC.

4.1. PRESSURE PROFILE IN BEARING GAP

Figure 4.3 shows the pressure profile of planar thrust bearing. The measurement was executed with an air
gap of 10 µm and a supply pressure of 0.6 MPa. There is a difference between the expected profile of pressure
and the measured one. Compared to the curve for an ideal porous bearing material, real materials have no
constant pressure field over the bearing surface. However, the experimental data showed a curve with a similar
trend. An approximate value for the gap pressure can be specified with 0.55 MPa for parameters stated above.
The following criteria were necessary to achieve this. There must be a high flatness of bearing and guide
surface, a high mounting accuracy of the ceramic plate and the bearing housing, and an optimal adjusting
method for the measurement.

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FIGURE 4.3: PRESSURE PROFILE IN GAP OF A PLANAR THRUST BEARING

4.2. LOAD CAPACITY OF PLANAR BEARING

In Figure 4.4, the results of load capacity at several supply pressure are presented. All curves show a
tendentious similar behaviour. With decreasing air gap, an exponential increasing load capacity is demonstrated.
The maximum value lies at 380 N for a supply pressure of 0.6 MPa and an air gap of 5 µm. With increasing
bearing gap, the load capacity trended to zero.

FIGURE 4.4: MEASURED LOAD CAPACITY FOR SEVERAL AIR GAPS

The bearing gap pressure and the load capacity are proportional to each other with the surface as
proportionality factor. Therefore, the load capacity curves have the same trend as the pressure curves. In

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addition, the point of the maximum load capacity change was not reached for small air gaps and it was not
determinable by data extrapolation. Due to different throttle effect with variation of air gap, the pressure
distribution in gap is also changed. During the measurement, it was identified that it is not possible to realise a
constant pressure over the bearing surface (see also Figure 4.3) even at decreasing of air gap. For this reason, the
mathematically maximum value of load capacity was not achieved.

For the further determination of the optimal operating points, the knowledge of the maximum load capacities
alone is not sufficient. The investigation of the static stiffness of aerostatic bearing is of decisive importance,
because frequent load change arises in real operation. Since the measured gap pressures do not consider the real
pressure distribution in the bearing gap, the stiffness was determined directly over the change of the load
capacity curves. The stiffness values give an essential statement about the static and dynamic behaviour. It is
also possible to determine the absorption behaviour of aerostatic bearing for different operating conditions.

Figure 4.5 shows the stiffness of bearing for the supply pressure of 0.2 MPa to 0.6 MPa for an air gap up to
60 µm. With a supply pressure of 0.6 MPa and an air gap of 5 µm, the maximum stiffness lies approximately at
14 N/µm. With increasing supply pressure, the maximum value displaced in direction of smaller air gaps.

FIGURE 4.5. STIFFNESS IN RELATION OF BEARING GAP AND SEVERAL SUPPLY

PRESSURES

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5. ADVANTAGES OF USING AIR BEARING

1) GREATER PRECISION
Air bearings provide extreme radial and axial rotational precision. Since there is no mechanical contact, wear is
minimal, ensuring accuracy remains constant over time.

2) INCREASED TOOL LIFE

The use of air bearings means tool life can be greatly extended.

3) IMPROVED SURFACE FINISH

The accurate, repeatable motion given by air bearing spindles gives a superior surface finish

4) LONG BEARING LIFE

With no mechanical contact and a clean air supply, free from oil and water, bearing life is dramatically
increased.

5) LOW THERMAL GROWTH

Low friction, constant air flow and efficient power transmission result in minimal thermal growth.

6) LARGE LOAD CAPACITY

Air bearings can support heavy loads, allowing them to be applied to many industrial machine tool applications

7) REDUCED VIBRATION
Only minimal levels of vibration and audible noise are produced when running an air bearing spindle.

8) LACK OF MAINTENANCE
Only the very minimum of maintenance is required. A regular check of air supply and coolant systems is all that
is necessary to ensure complete reliability

9) CLEANLINESS
Air is the only lubrication used; therefore air bearing technology is ideal where there must be no contamination
of the work piece or working environment.

10) HIGH SPEED

Low shear forces within the air bearing allow extremely high rotational speeds with minimal loss of power and
very low heat generation. Speeds can exceed 300,000 rpm.

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FIGURE 5.1 HIGH SPEED APPLICATION ADVANTAGE

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6. BEARING SYSTEMS COMPARISION TABLE

FIGURE 6.1 BEARING COMPARISON TABLE

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7. APPLICATIONS
7.1. AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY

7.1.1. AIR-GUIDED HIGH-FREQUENCY KNIFE DRIVE

FIGURE 7.1. AIR BEARING CUTTING ENGINE

Even for movements which cause damage due to disruptive wear with roller bearings, lifetimes of the drive
systems are unlimited.

7.1.2. AIR GUIDED TURBOCHARGER

In order to provide confidence and for the first investigations, an initial conversion from a conventional oil-
guided turbo charger into air-guided was done. For a real future version, the use of results obtained from high-
temperature solutions, mass products and high-frequency spindles will be very helpful.

7.2. MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

Fat- and oil-free drives for respirators, stick-slip-free movements of scanners or a high rotary speed of large
rotors have all been achieved with air bearings.

7.2.1. AIR-GUIDED COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

High rotary speed (> 5.5 Hz / 330 rpm), low operation costs, no noise, large inner rotor diameter (> 1m), small
weight of rotor and frame, tilt possibility of the rotor as well as a high reliability. Besides a direct drive, a belt
drive is also possible.

7.3. PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Primarily, stick-slip-free movements and/or smallest forces are required. The air bearing technology is
predestined for fat/oil-free high-dynamic movements with short strokes.

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7.3.1. AIR BEARING FOR THE ADJUSTMENT OF COMPONENTS

With air-guided units, optical components can be arranged to have the same diameter on a rotary table. The
air bearing with vacuum preload and a constant bearing gap height floats contact-less on top of the rotary table.

7.3.2. ADJUSTMENT SLIDER FOR OPTICS PRODUCTION

The linear slider, which is air-guided and statically determined, guarantees a high-precision positioning of
the optical component before grinding. The self-aligning process is done without friction or force. When
clamped the component retains its position for further manufacturing in the sub-micrometre-range.

7.4. SPACE TECHNOLOGY

7.4.1. AIR-MAGNETIC SLIP SYSTEM

When transporting solar panels for satellites in a launching rocket, these must be folded. After reaching
orbit, they unfold via a spring mechanism, weightlessly and without friction. This process requires prior testing
on Earth due to security reasons. During the testing design, the solar panels are hung on magnetic preloaded air-
bearings that compensate for gravity. In doing so, the unfolding movement process is carried out with a
minimum friction impact which means that the solar panels are tested at close to reality. Moreover, the design
offers absolutely maintenance-free handling with equal sequential movements.

The air-bearing components (diameter 34 mm) with integrated magnets are so small such that they are able
to glide contact-free along conventional rolled sheet plates smoothly and with a bearing gap height of about
25 µm. The holding force of an air bearing for one solar panel averages 600 N. This force is achieved by an
equal distribution of the load on 16 single air bearing elements. The unfolding process of the solar panels has
been developed for an area of 21 m x 2.5 m.

The permanent magnetic preloaded air-bearing guidance system may be used for many types of hanging
transportation movements as well as for many other applications, such as for instance for the stick-slip-free
positioning of components during assembly.

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8. CONCEPTUAL APPLICATION
8.1. HYPERLOOP TRANSPORTATION
The Hyperloop is a conceptual high-speed transportation system, incorporating reduced-pressure tubes in
which pressurized capsules ride on an air cushion driven by linear induction motors and air compressors.

The Hyperloop concept is proposed to operate by sending specially designed "capsules" or "pods" through a
continuous steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. Each capsule floats on a 0.5-to-1.3-millimetre (0.02 to
0.05 in) layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are suspended in an air
hockey table.

FIGURE 8.1 HYPERLOOP CAPSULE: AIR COMPRESSOR ON THE FRONT,

PASSENGER COMPARTMENT IN THE MIDDLE, BATTERY COMPARTMENT AT
THE BACK AND AIR CASTER SKIS AT THE BOTTOM

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