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Theoretical and experimental studies on the steady-state performance of

low-speed high-torque hydrostatic drives. Part 1: Modelling

Article  in  ARCHIVE Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 1989-1996 (vols 203-210) · November 2009
DOI: 10.1243/09544062JMES1202

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 2663

Theoretical and experimental studies on the

steady-state performance of low-speed high-torque
hydrostatic drives. Part 1: modelling
S K Mandal1∗ , K Dasgupta1 , S Pan2 , and A Chattopadhyay1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mining Machinery Engineering, Indian School of Mines University,
Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India

The manuscript was received on 4 June 2008 and was accepted after revision for publication on 12 May 2009.
DOI: 10.1243/09544062JMES1202

Abstract: In this article the steady-state models of an open-circuit and a closed-circuit hydro-
static transmission (HST) drive have been developed to study their performances. A low-speed
high-torque multi-stroke cam plate type radial piston motor is considered for both HST drives.
Bondgraph simulation technique has been used to model the drives. The multi-bondgraph rep-
resentation of the HST drives is presented; it takes into account the compression and expansion
phases, which occur sequentially in the hydraulic motor. A reduced bondgraph model of the
drives has been proposed, where various losses are lumped into suitable resistive elements. The
relationships of the loss coefficients with other state variables, obtained from the reduced model,
are identified through experimental investigation. The loss coefficients are found to have a non-
linear relationship with the load torque and the supply flowrate. Using the characteristics of these
loss coefficients, the steady-state performances of the hydrostatic drives are studied in Part 2 of
this article (pg. 2675 of this issue).

Keywords: hydrostatic transmission drives, low-speed high-torque motor, bondgraph mod-

elling, steady state, resistive element, loss coefficients, displacement ratio, pump speed ratio,
efficiency

1 INTRODUCTION compared to conventional electric drive. An analyt-

Mathematical modelling is one of the fundamental
activities for the analysis of engineering systems. It
may be used to predict the steady-state and dynamic
behaviours of the components and systems over a
wide range of operating conditions. The model may be
used as a design tool in synthesis of complex systems.
A low-speed high-torque (LSHT) hydrostatic trans-
mission (HST) drive that mainly consists of a vari-
able or a fixed displacement pump and an LSHT
hydraulic motor is widely used in heavy earth mov-
ing and construction equipment. It has better con-
trol, smaller weight-to-power ratio and compactness
∗ Corresponding author: Mechanical Engineering and Mining,
Machinery Engineering, Indian School of Mines University, Dhan-
bad 826004, Jharkhand, India.
email: mandalsantosh2000@yahoo.com; mandalsantosh@hotmail.
com
ical model of a radial piston LSHT hydraulic motor
has been developed by Chapple [1] for the evaluation
of the factors affecting the motor performance and
the estimation of its internal geometric parameters.
The steady-state and the dynamic performances of
an LSHT output orbital rotary piston hydraulic motor
have been investigated by Dasgupta [2] and Dasgupta
et al. [3]. The present study deals with the steady-
state performance investigation of an open-circuit
and a closed-circuit hydrostatic drive that consist of
a cam plate type multi-stroke radial piston hydraulic
motor. In the open-circuit configuration, the hydro-
static drive consists of a pressure compensated pump
[4] with an LSHT cam plate radial piston motor. In
the closed-circuit configuration, a swash plate con-
trolled variable displacement pump [5] drives the
same motor. The steady-state performance study of
the HST drives, based on the operating parameters,
is required to develop design guidelines of the drives
and the components. From the predicted performance

JMES1202 © IMechE 2009 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2664 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay
of the hydrostatic drives, the best combination of
available pumps and motors can be selected for com-
parison, without building several prototypes to obtain
experimental data.
In evaluating the performance of an HST drive, the
accurate mathematical model of the pump and the
motor is needed. Most of the models currently in use
are based on well-established theory of positive dis-
placement pumps and motors [6–8]. However, such
models have fewer terms with constant loss coeffi-
cients that are determined from a limited amount
of test data and they are most suited for a narrow
range of operation. The inadequacy of such models
has been demonstrated by McCandlish and Dorey [9]
and Zarotti and Nervegna [10] by proposing variable
loss coefficients, which are widely accepted.
The variation of the volume of a chamber of the
LSHT radial piston motor [11] with shaft rotation,
along with the various flow and torque losses, demand
a structured approach to arrive at its mathematical
model. Bondgraph [12, 13] provides such an approach
to model engineering systems in a simplified manner
and in the present study it is used in formulating the
mathematical models of the HST drives. A reduced
bondgraph model of the drives has been proposed
where various losses are lumped into suitable resistive
elements. It has fewer adjustable parameters requiring
a comparatively few test runs to estimate them.
The present article deals with the steady-state mod-
elling of an open-circuit and a closed-circuit HST
drive to obtain expressions of their efficiencies in
terms of the speed, torque, supply flowrate, and loss
coefficients of the pumps and the motor. The sys-
tem non-linearities are accounted for by allowing the
loss coefficients to be simple functions of the state-
variables of the models. The dependency of the loss
coefficients of the pumps and the motor on the oper-
ating parameters of the HST drives [6, 7] is identified
through experiments.
The steady-state model presented in this article
guides the design of the experiment and mode of data
Fig. 1 An open-circuit hydrostatic drive
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
handling of the observations in such a way that the
dependency of the parameters on the operating con-
ditions of the pumps and the motor of the HST drives is
obtained. This enhances the re-usability of the model
more significantly and increases its predictive power.
2 HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION DRIVES
DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows the simplified representation of the
open-circuit HST drive considered for analysis. An AC
three-phase induction motor drives a pressure com-
pensated pump. The speed of the electric motor is
controlled by using a variable frequency control drive.
The pump is provided with a positive suction head by
placing the reservoir at a higher level than that of its
suction port. The pump flow is supplied to the LSHT
hydraulic motor through a solenoid operated direc-
tion control valve. The motor drives the loading pump
through a step-up gear unit. The load on the motor
is adjusted by controlling the proportional relief valve
of the loading unit. Figure 2 shows the closed-circuit
HST drive considered for analysis, where the same
hydrostatic motor is driven by the flow supplied from
a variable displacement pump.
Figure 3 shows the multi-piston LSHT hydraulic
motor [11] that consists of eight cylinder–piston
assemblies. The pistons (3) are radially placed with
equal angular space in the rotor (4) and are supported
on the cam plate (5) by roller bearings (8). The rotor is
connected with the output shaft flange (6). The pres-
sure fluid is supplied through port (A) via annular
passages (D) to the displacement chambers sequen-
tially and the pistons move in the radial direction
inside the cylinders. The downward and the upward
movements of the pistons are maintained according
to their position in the cam plate. A valve block (E)
that is an integral part of the motor shaft connects
the pistons to the pressure port (A) and the tank port
(B) in sequence according to the profile of the cam.
JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
 The steady-state performance of LSHT hydrostatic drives. Part 1 2665

Fig. 2 A closed-circuit hydrostatic drive

Fig. 3 A multi-piston LSHT hydraulic motor

The valve supplies pressurized fluid to the chambers
in the expansion mode and also provides a flow path
for the fluid being returned from the chambers in the
compression mode. There are leakages from the valve
ports to the body as well as through the clearances
between the pistons and the cylinders. This case drain
(L) flow is considered as an external leakage resistance
Rem of the motor. The leakage also occurs from the
high-pressure chamber to the low-pressure chamber
of the motor; it is termed as the inter chamber leak-
age resistance Rim of the motor. These leakage losses
are considered mainly because of the pressure gradi-
ent. Due to the support of the pressurized pistons,
a tangential force component of the piston pressure
force generates rotational motion of the cylinder block
connected with the spline shaft.
3 MODELLING OF THE HYDROSTATIC
TRANSMISSION DRIVES
Dynamic analysis of a physical system using the bond-
graph simulation technique [12, 13] is an established
tool. Bondgraph is a representation of power flow and,
as such, it constitutes a useful approach in formulating
the descriptive equations for a physical system. It facil-
itates exchange, storage, and dissipation of energy
among interacting physical elements efficiently. Multi-
bondgraph [12, 13] is used for a concise representation
of a physical system consisting of morphologically
similar subsystems. The displacement chambers of
the multi-piston motor experience similar compres-
sion and expansion phases sequentially. To supply the
variable flowrate to the LSHT motor, in the case of
the open-circuit drive, the pump speed is adjusted;
whereas, in the case of the closed-circuit drive the
pump displacement is adjusted. The multi-bondgraph
representation of both HST drives with multi-piston
LSHT motor is shown conveniently as a common
model in Fig. 4.
The following assumptions have been made in
developing the model:
(a) the leakages other than those from the pump and
the motor are ignored;
(b) the fluid inertia is neglected;
(c) the resistive and the capacitive effects of the
hydraulic path are lumped wherever appropriate;
(d) the hydraulic resistance from the pump to the inlet
port of the motor has been ignored;

JMES1202 © IMechE 2009 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2666 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay
Fig. 4 The multi-bondgraph model of the HST drives
(e) the mineral-based hydraulic oil used is a Newton-
ian fluid;
(f) the effect of pressure on the properties of the fluid
is neglected;
(g) since the temperature is kept almost constant
(50 ± 2 ◦ C) during experiment, its effect on the
properties of fluid is also neglected.
In Fig. 4, the SF element represents the rotational
frequency of the pump. The R element on the 1ωp
junction takes into account the drag efficiency of the
pump. Essentially, a hydrostatic unit, pump or motor,
transforms hydraulic power to mechanical power or
vice-versa. This basic fact is represented by a trans-
former ((TF) junction). The TF modulus Dp is the
volume displacement rate of the pump with respect
to its shaft rotation. The TF element converts the rota-
tional speed ωp of the pump into its supply flowrate
(i.e. V̇s = ωp Dp ).
The performance of the open-circuit HST drive has
been tested at various input speed ωp of the pump.
Similarly, by varying the displacement rate Dpc of the
pump and keeping its speed constant, the perfor-
mance of the closed-circuit HST drive is investigated.
The arrows shown over the SF and the TF elements
indicate the modulated rotational frequency of the
electric motor and the displacement rate of the pump,
respectively.
A part of the ideal flow of the pump escapes through
its clearance as leakage. The R element on the 0Pp junc-
tion represents the leakage resistance Rip of the pump.
The C element on the same junction is the bulk stiff-
ness Kp of the fluid at the pump plenum. The radial
piston motor in the HST drive considered for the anal-
ysis has eight chambers. The moduli of the TFs shown
Fig. 5 The equivalent bondgraph model of the HST drives
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
in the model as [V  ] represent the volume displace-
ment rates of various piston–cylinder assemblies of the
motor with respect to its shaft rotation ωma . Being bilat-
eral in nature, the TFs also relate the chamber pressure
to the shaft torque.
The inlet flow to the motor is given by

n
V̇im = ωma Vi U (Vi ) (1)
i=1
where U (x) = 0 for x < 0 and U (x) = 1 for x  1.
Referring to Fig. 3, the valve is an integral part of the
motor shaft, through which the supply flow passes to
the displacement chambers of the LSHT hydrostatic
motor. The flow through the valve port causes a pres-
sure drop that leads to torque loss of the HST drive.
In the model, the inlet and the outlet valve port resis-
tances of the motor appear as [R IV ] and [R EV ] on the
1vm and 0m junctions, respectively, take into account
such losses.
Similarly, the internal and the external leakage resis-
tances of the motor are represented by [R im ] and [R em ],
respectively. The C element on the 0m junction repre-
sents the effective bulk stiffness of the chamber fluid
[Kcm ]. The I and the R elements connected with 1ωm
junction in the model are the load inertia and the resis-
tive load applied on the motor shaft, respectively. The
activated C element on the same junction records the
rotational speed ωma of the motor shaft.
The equivalent reduced model of the HST drives is
shown in Fig. 5. In the reduced model Rvm represents
an equivalent valve port resistance for all the inlet
valve port resistances [R IV ] of the motor. The resis-
tances [R EV ] and [R im ] of the multi-bondgraph model
are combined together since they are in the same junc-
tion, and they are represented by a single equivalent
JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
 The steady-state performance of LSHT hydrostatic drives. Part 1 2667

resistance Req . The external leakage resistance [R em ] In evaluating the steady-state performance of the
appears as Rem in the reduced model. It is determined drives, the compressibility flow losses (i.e. volume
from the case drain flow of the motor. change rates of the fluid in pump and motor plenum)
In the above model, the resistances Rls and Rip deter- are ignored.
mine drag and volumetric efficiencies of the pump, Therefore, equation (5) may be expressed as
respectively. Similarly, Req and Rem determine slip
of the motor, whereas Rvm accounts for the torque Pp Pp − Pl
ω p Dp = + (10)
loss of the motor. These resistances may be linear or Rip Rvm
non-linear functions of the state-variables and their
characteristics are determined from test data. Substituting equation (9) into equation (10), Rvm may
The TF modulus Dm in Fig. 5 represents the total be expressed as
volume displacement rate of the multi-piston LSHT  
motor and is given by Pp − (Tl /Dm )
Rvm = (11)
ωp Dp − V̇plkg
nβmi
Dm = (2)
2π where
where βmi is the volume displacement of each chamber Pp
of the motor over a revolution and n is the number of V̇plkg = (12)
Rip
pistons of the motor. βmi is expressed as
 2π The valve port resistance Rvm may be expressed in
βmi = Vi U (Vi ) dθ (3) terms of the pump speed ratio (αps = ωp /ωp max ) for the
0 open-circuit drive and in terms of pump displacement
ratio (αpd = Dpc /Dc max ) for the closed-circuit drive as
The system equations derived from the model are as
follows.  
Pp − (Tl /Dm )
The torque due to load inertia Rvmo = (13)
αps ωp max Dpo − V̇plkg
ṗl = Pl Dm − ωma Rl (4)
and
The volume change rate of fluid at pump plenum  
Pp − (Tl /Dm )
Rvmc = (14)
Pp Pp − Pl ωp αpd Dpc max − V̇plkg
V̇p = ωp Dp − − (5)
Rip Rvm
Now, equation (6), with V̇m = 0, gives the following
The volume change rate of fluid at motor plenum
Tl
Pp − P l Pl Pl ωma Dm = ωp Dp − V̇plkg − − V̇mlkg
V̇m = − − − ωma Dm (6) Req Dm
Rvm Req Rem
Tl
⇒ Req = (15)
In equations (5) and (6), the pump plenum pres- Dm (ωp Dp − V̇plkg − V̇mlkg − ωm Dm )
sure Pp = Kp Vp and the motor plenum pressure Pm =
Km Vm , where Kp and Km are the effective bulk stiffness The steady-state pump input torque is given by
of the fluid in pump and motor plenum, respectively.
Tp = Pp Dp + ωp Rls (16)
The speed of the motor is given by the following
relationship
Hence, the equivalent leakage resistance Req may be
pl expressed in terms of αps and αpd as
ωma = (7)
Jl
Tl
From equation (4), the steady-state load torque may Reqo =
Dm (αps ωp max Dpo − V̇plkg − V̇mlkg − ωma Dm )
be written as
(17)
ωma Rl = Pl Dm (8)
and
⇒ Tl = Pl Dm
Tl Tl
⇒ Pl = (9) Reqc =
Dm Dm (αpd ωp Dpc max − V̇plkg − V̇mlkg − ωma Dm )
where Tl is the load torque. (18)

JMES1202 © IMechE 2009 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2668 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay

where αpd , the predicted efficiency of the closed-circuit HST

drive is given by
Pl Tl
V̇mlkg = = (19)
Rem Dm Rem ωmpc Tl
ηpc = (26)
ωp Tppc
Substituting the recorded values of Pp , Tl , ωp , ωma ,
V̇mlkg , and V̇plkg in equations (11), (12), (15), and Tl αpd Dpc max C5 − Tl2 C6
= (27)
(19), the characteristics of Rvm , Rip , Req , and Rem are (αpd Dpc max )2 C7 + αpd Dpc max Tl C8 + C9
determined experimentally.
The expressions of predicted torque and speed of In the above equation, the expression of the coeffi-
the pumps and the motor as well as their losses in cients C5 , C6 , C7 , C8 , C9 , and αpd are given in Appendix 3.
both HST drives are obtained from equations (30) to Predicted slip of the motor in the closed-circuit HST
(37) and they are given in Appendix 2. drive is given by
Actual efficiency and slip of both HST drives are
ωmi − ωmpc
given by (spc ) = (28)
ωmi

ωma Tl Rvm Tl
ηa = (20) = +
ωp T p Rip2 + Rvm ωp αpd Dpc max Dm

ωmi − ωma 1 1 1
Sa = (21) × + + (29)
ωmi Rip2 + Rvm Req Rem
The performance of the open-circuit HST drive is
determined in terms of pump speed ratio αps , the vari-
ous resistances (Rls , Rip1 , Rvm , Req , and Rem ) of the pump 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
and the motor, maximum pump speed ωp max , and load ON ESTIMATION OF THE LOSS COEFFICIENTS
torque Tl . The predicted efficiency of the HST drive is OF THE PUMPS AND THE MOTOR
expressed by
The characteristics of loss coefficients of the commer-
ωmpo Tl
ηpo = (22) cially available pumps and the motor [4, 5, 11] used in
ωp Tppo both HST drives (Figs 1 and 2) were determined experi-
Tl αps ωp max C1 − Tl2 C2 mentally. For this, the following six variables were
= (23) measured: system pressure Pp , supply flowrate V̇s , load
(αps ωp max )2 C3 + αps ωp max Tl C4
torque Tl , pump speed ωp , leakage flow of the pump,
In the above equation, the expressions for the coeffi- and the motor (Vplkg and V̇mlkg , respectively). Follow-
cients C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , and αps are given in Appendix 3. ing a standard test procedure [14], the experiments
Predicted slip of the motor in the open-circuit HST were conducted over a wide range of speed and torque
drive is given by levels. The load on the motor shaft was controlled by
suitable adjustment of the proportional pressure relief
ωmi − ωmpo valve. The test speed of the LSHT motor was limited to
(spo ) = (24)
ωmi 30 to 140 r/min to cover its maximum efficiency zone.
  The experiment was conducted in a well ventilated
1
= laboratory and the test rig was equipped with suitable
[(1/Rip1 ) + (1/Rvm )]Rip1 αps ωp max
 
water oil cooler. The oil temperature was maintained
Tl 1 1 1 at 50 ± 2 ◦ C to keep constant viscosity with reasonable
+ + +
αps ωp max Dpo Dm Rip1 + Rvm Req Rem accuracy. A brief description along with the schematic
(25) representation of the test set-up is given in Part 2 of
the article.
where the ideal (loss free) speed of the motor is The values of Rvm , Rip1 , Rip2 , Req , and Rem were
given by determined from equations (11), (12), (15), and (19)
for different torque Tl values. The characteristics are
ωp Dpo plotted using best-fit lines of the experimental data.
ωmi = For the open-circuit drive, the experimental data
Dm
were obtained at various pump speed ratio (αps =
Similarly, the performance of the closed-circuit HST ωp /ωp max ), keeping the pump displacement rate Dpo
drive is determined in terms of pump displacement fixed; whereas in case of the closed-circuit drive, keep-
ratio αpd , load torque Tl , and various resistances of the ing the pump speed ωp fixed, the data were obtained at
pump and the motor (Rls , Rip2 , Rvm , Req , Rem ). For a various pump displacement ratio (αpd = Dpc /Dpc max ).
given load torque Tl and a pump displacement ratio The empirical relationships that express the variation

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
 The steady-state performance of LSHT hydrostatic drives. Part 1
of loss coefficients with the pump speed ratio αps
and displacement ratio αpd for the open-circuit and
closed-circuit HST drives, respectively, are given in
Appendix 4.
The actual volumetric displacement rates of the
pumps, Dpo and Dpc , and of the motor Dm of both HST
drives were also determined experimentally and these
are given in Appendix 5.
4.1 Determination of the leakage resistances
(R ip1 and R ip2 ) of the pumps
Figures 6 and 7 show the characteristics of leakage
resistances Rip1 and Rip2 of the pumps used in the open-
circuit and the closed-circuit HST drives, respectively.
From the characteristics shown in Figs 6 and 7, the
following observations are made.
1. At a given value of load torque Tl , increasing the
pump speed ratio αps or pump displacement ratio
αpd slightly decreases the leakage resistances Rip1 or
Rip2 of the pumps.
2. At a given value of pump speed ratio αps or pump
displacement ratio αpd , increasing the load torque
Tl decreases Rip1 or Rip2 of the pumps.
Fig. 6 Variation of leakage resistance Rip1 of the pres-
sure compensated pump with pump speed ratio
αps
Fig. 7 Variation of leakage resistance Rip2 of the vari-
able displacement pump with displacement
ratio αpd
JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
2669
4.2 Determination of the viscous resistance R ls
of the pumps
Figures 8 and 9 show the characteristics of viscous
resistances Rls of the pumps used in the open-circuit
and the closed-circuit drives, respectively. These are
estimated from the manufacturer’s product litera-
ture [4, 5]. The following observations are made from
the characteristics shown in Figs 8 and 9.
1. At a given value of load torque Tl , increasing the
pump speed ratio αps or pump displacement ratio
αpd decreases the viscous resistance Rls .
2. At a given value of αps or αpd , increasing the load
torque Tl increases Rls .
4.3 Determination of the external leakage
resistance R em of the motor
Using the experimental data in equation (19), the char-
acteristics of the external leakage resistance Rem of the
motor are obtained. These are plotted with respect to
the pump speed ratio αps and the pump displacement
ratio αpd at different torque Tl levels. From the Figs 10
and 11, the following observations are made.
1. At a given value of load torque Tl , increasing αps or
αpd increases Rem .
2. At a given value of αps or αpd , increasing the load
torque Tl decreases Rem .
Fig. 8 Variation of viscous resistance Rls of the pressure
compensated pump with pump speed ratio αps
Fig. 9 Variation of viscous resistance Rls of the variable
displacement pump with displacement ratio αpd
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2670 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay
4.4 Determination of the equivalent resistance R eq
of the motor
Using the experiential data in equation (15), the char-
acteristics of equivalent resistance Req of the motor
are plotted with respect to the pump speed ratio αps
and the displacement ratio αpd , shown in Figs 12
and 13, respectively. The following observations are
made from the characteristics of Req .
1. At a given value of load torque Tl , increasing αps
or αpd increases Req .
2. At a given value of αps or αpd , increasing the load
torque Tl decreases Req .
Fig. 10 Variation of external leakage resistance Rem with
pump speed ratio αps
Fig. 11 Variation of external leakage resistance Rem with
pump displacement ratio αpd
Fig. 12 Variation of equivalent resistance Req with pump
speed ratio αps
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
4.5 Determination of the valve port resistance R vm
of the motor
Using experimental data in equation (11), the valve
port resistance Rvm is calculated. Figures 14 and 15
show the variation of Rvm with pump speed ratio
αps and displacement ratio αpd , respectively, at var-
ious torque Tl levels and the following observations
are made.
1. At a given value of Tl , increasing αps or αpd increases
Rvm .
2. At a given value of αps or αpd , increasing Tl
increases Rvm .
The increase in the value of Rvm translates into
an increase in torque loss that implies decrease in
hydraulic efficiency of the HST drive.
Using the expressions given by equations (38)
through (47), the predicted characteristics of the loss
coefficients are obtained for other torque levels. These
are compared with the experimental results. One rep-
resentation is shown in Fig. 16 that compares the
predicted and the experimental data of the valve port
resistance Rvm . It is found that there is a close agree-
ment (deviation ± 3 per cent) between the predicted
and the experimental data. Therefore, the estimation
of loss coefficients given by equations (38) through (47)
seems to be reasonable.
Fig. 13 Variation of equivalent resistance Req with pump
displacement ratio αpd
Fig. 14 Variation of valve port resistance Rvm with pump
speed ratio αps
JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
 The steady-state performance of LSHT hydrostatic drives. Part 1
Fig. 15 Variation of valve port resistance Rvm with pump
displacement ratio αpd
Fig. 16 Comparison of predicted and experimental
characteristics of valve port resistance Rvm
The reasons for these deviations, which are not con-
sidered in the present analysis, may be because of
minor losses such as variation of the resistances due
to the thermal effect, effect of load pressure and speed
on the pump displacement rate, hydrodynamic losses,
compressibility losses of the fluid, and so on. Besides
these, there may be minor instrumental error.
The variations of resistances described by equations
(38) through (47) were also recognized by McCandlish
and Dorey [9] and Dasgupta and Mandal [15] in their
studies on piston type hydrostatic machines.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In the present work, a common model for an open-
circuit and a closed-circuit hydrostatic drive has been
developed with the help of the bondgraph simulation
technique. From the multi-bondgraph representation
of the HST drives, a reduced model has been pro-
posed to study the steady-state performance where
various flow and torque losses are accounted for by
the resistive elements. Such a model has fewer param-
eters and requires a reduced number of test runs to
establish them.
The characteristics of the leakage resistances of the
pumps and the motor indicate that they vary with load
torque and speed, a behaviour that has been also rec-
ognized by Blackburn et al. [6] and Merritt [7]. In the
model, the resistances are found to have non-linear
relationships with the load torque, pump and motor
JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
2671
speed, and pump displacement rate. In general, valve
port resistance Rvm represents the torque loss of the
HST drive that increases with increase in the torque
level, whereas it decreases with decrease in the pump
speed or displacement ratio, at the same torque level.
The leakage resistances of the pumps and motor
essentially determine slip of the hydrostatic drives.
Direct estimation of the resistances, especially Req and
Rvm , is difficult because of the complex construction
of the machine itself. The resistance Req is a combined
resistance of the inter-chamber leakage [R im ] and the
outlet valve port resistance [R EV ] of the motor. It is diffi-
cult to measure them in running conditions. With the
help of the reduced model, the characteristics of the
loss coefficients of the hydrostatic drives are identified
with reasonable accuracy. Further refinement of the
model is possible by considering the effects ignored in
the study such as the inertia of the fluid, compressi-
bility flow losses of the fluid, flow forces acting on
the valve during its opening and closing operations
and the more complex flow, and torque models of the
pump and the motor.
Using the expressions given in equations (38)
through (47), describing the characteristics of the
loss coefficients, the performances of the hydrostatic
drives are determined in Part 2 of this article.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Research and Development Project Grant for
1999–2004 from University Grants Commission, Gov-
ernment of India, under Special Assistance Pro-
gramme for carrying out the research work on this
topic is acknowledged. The authors are thankful to
Dr M Rahman, Indian School of Mines University for
checking the language of the manuscript. The authors
wish to offer special thanks to the learned reviewers
for their valuable suggestions during preparation of
the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1 Chapple, P. J. Modelling of a radial piston hydraulic
motor. Proc. IMechE, Part I: J. Systems and Con-
trol Engineering, 1992, 206(I3), 171–180. DOI: 10.1243/
PIME_PROC_1992_206_328_02.
2 Dasgupta, K. Analysis of hydrostatic transmission sys-
tem using low-speed-high-torque motor. Mech. Mach.
Theory, 2000, 35, 1481–1499.
3 Dasgupta, K., Mukherjee, A., and Maiti, R. Theoreti-
cal and experimental studies of the steady-state per-
formance of an orbital rotor low-speed high-torque
hydraulic motor. Proc. IMechE, Part A: J. Power and
Energy, 1996, 210(A6), 423–429. DOI: 10.1243/PIME_
PROC_1996_210_70_02.
4 Bosch Rexroth India Ltd. Product catalogue: RE
92711/03.93, hydraulic pump (pressure compensated
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2672 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay

fixed displacement type) A10 VS 028 DR/3X RPP ṗl torque due to load inertia
A 12 N00. Pl recorded load pressure of the motor
5 Bosch Rexroth India Ltd. Product catalogue: RE Pp recorded system pressure
92003/11.95, hydraulic pump (variable displacement R single port energy dissipative element (a
type) A4 VG 28 EP2 DMI/3X-RPZ C10 F02 D.
basic element of bondgraph)
6 Blackburn, J. F., Reethof, J. L., and Shearer, J. L.
Rem external leakage resistance of the motor
Fluid power control, 1960 (Technology Press of MIT and
John Wiley, New York). Req equivalent leakage resistance of the
7 Merritt, H. E. Hydraulic control systems, 1967 (John motor
Wiley, New York). [R E ] outlet valve port resistances (diagonal
8 Wilson, W. E. Mathematical models in fluid power engi- matrix) of the motor
neering. Hydraul. Pneum. Power, 1967, 1, 136–147. REV outlet valve port resistance
9 McCandlish, D. and Dorey, R. E. The mathematical mod- Rim inter chamber leakage resistance of the
elling of hydrostatic pumps and motors. Proc. IMechE, motor
Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture, 1984, 198(B3), 165– Rip leakage resistance of the pump
174. DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1984_198_062_02. Rip1 leakage resistance of the fixed
10 Zarotti, G. L. and Nervegna, N. Pump efficiencies and
displacement pump
approximations and modelling. In Proceedings of the
Rip2 leakage resistance of the variable
Sixth International Symposium on Fluid power, Cam-
bridge, 1981, pp. 145–164, paper C3. displacement pump
11 Bosch Rexroth India Ltd. Product catalogue: RE 15 [R I ] inlet valve port resistances (diagonal
205/05.93, hydraulic motor MCR 3F 280F 180 Z 32 B2M. matrix) of the motor
12 Thoma, J. U. Simulation by bondgraph, 1990 (Springer, RIV inlet valve port resistance
Berlin). Rl resistive load connected with the
13 Mukherjee, A. and Karmakar, R. Modelling and simu- motor end
lation of engineering systems through bondgraph, 2000 Rls viscous resistance
(Narora Publishing House, New Delhi, India). Rvm valve port resistance of the motor
14 BS 4617. Methods of testing hydraulic pumps and motors sa actual slip of the drives
for hydrostatic power transmission. British Standards
spc predicted slip of the motor
Institution, London, 1983.
(closed-circuit)
15 Dasgupta, K. and Mandal, S. K. Analysis of the steady-
state performance of a multi-plunger hydraulic pump. spo predicted slip of the motor (open-circuit)
Proc. IMechE, Part A: J. Power and Energy, 2002, 216(A6), SF single port element that indicates the
471–479. DOI: 10.1243/095765002761034249. source of flow in bondgraph model
Tl recorded load torque of the motor shaft
Tp pump input torque
APPENDIX 1 Tpl predicted load torque of the motor shaft
Tplc predicted torque loss of the motor
Notation (closed-circuit)
Tplo predicted torque loss of the motor
C single port energy storage capacitive (open-circuit)
element (a basic element of bondgraph) Tppc predicted pump torque (closed-circuit)
Dm motor displacement rate Tppo predicted pump torque (open-circuit)
Dpc pump displacement rate in closed-circuit TF two-port element, which converts
HST drive rotational speed to volume displacement
Dpc max maximum pump displacement rate in rate and vice versa
closed-circuit U (x) Heaviside function, where U (x) = 0 for
Dpo pump displacement rate in open-circuit x < 0, and U (x) = 1 for x  1
HST drive Vi rate of volume displacement of the ith
I single port energy storage inertial element chamber of the motor with respect to the
(a basic element of bondgraph) output shaft rotation
Jl generalized inertia of the driving shaft V̇m volume change rate of fluid at motor
and connected load plenum
Kcm effective bulk stiffness of chamber fluid V̇mlkg leakage flowrate of the motor
Km bulk stiffness of the fluid column of the V̇p volume change rate of fluid at pump
motor plenum plenum
Kp bulk stiffness of the fluid column of the V̇plkg leakage flowrate of the pump
pump plenum V̇s supply flowrate
n number of pistons of the motor
pl generalized angular momentum due to 0 common effort junctions in bondgraph
load inertia model

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science JMES1202 © IMechE 2009
 The steady-state performance of LSHT hydrostatic drives. Part 1 2673

1 common flow junctions in bondgraph The overall predicted speed loss of the closed-circuit
model drive
αmcr critical output speed ratio (motor) 
pump displacement ratio, Dpc /Dpc max 1 αpd Dpc max Tl
αpd ωmlc = ωp + Rvm + 2
αpdcr critical displacement ratio of pump Rip2 + Rvm Dm Dm

αps pump speed ratio, ωp /ωpmax Tl 1 1
βmi swept volume of each chamber of the + 2 + (33)
Dm Req Rem
motor
η generalized efficiency of the drive The predicted speed of the open-circuit drive
ηa actual efficiency of the drive
ηpc predicted efficiency of the closed-circuit  

ωp Dpo Pp Tl 1 1
HST drive ωmpo = − − 2 +
Dm Rip1 Dm Dm Req Rem
ηpo predicted efficiency of the open-circuit
HST drive (34)
θ angle of rotation of the motor shaft
ωma actual speed of the hydraulic motor The predicted speed of the closed-circuit drive
ωmi ideal rotational speed of the hydraulic  

motor ωp Dpc Pp Tl 1 1
ωmpc = − − 2 +
ωmlc predicted speed loss of the closed-circuit Dm Rip2 Dm Dm Req Rem
HST drive (35)
ωmlo predicted speed loss of the open-circuit
HST drive The predicted pump torque of the open-circuit drive
ωmpc predicted speed of the closed-circuit HST

drive Dpo Rip1 Tl
ωmpo predicted speed of the open-circuit HST Tppo = αps ωp max Dpo Rvm +
(Rip1 + Rvm ) Dm
drive
ωp actual speed of the pump + αps ωp max Rls (36)
ωp max maximum rotational speed of the pump
The predicted pump torque of the closed-circuit drive
(• ) indicates the time derivative of a variable

αpd Dpc max Rip2 Tl
Tppc = ωp αpd Dpc max Rvm +
APPENDIX 2 (Rip2 + Rvm ) Dm
+ ωp Rls (37)
The overall predicted torque loss of the open-circuit
drive
APPENDIX 3
Rvm  
Tplo = αps ωp max Dpo Dm Rip1 − Tl 

(Rip1 + Rvm ) Dpo 1

C1 = 1−
Dm Dm 1 + (Rip1 /Rvm )
+ αps ωp max Rls (30) 
Dpo 1 1 1 1
C2 = 2 + +
Dm Rvm + Rip1 Req Rem
The overall predicted speed loss of the open-circuit  
drive Dp2
C3 = + Rls
 (1/Rip1 ) + (1/Rvm )
1 Dpo Tl 
ωmlo = αps ωp max + Rvm + 2 Dpo Rip1 ωp
Rip1 + Rvm Dm Dm C4 = , αps =
 Dm Rvm + Rip1 ωp max
Tl 1 1 

+ 2 + (31) ωp 1
Dm Req Rem C5 = 1−
Dm 1 + (Rip2 /Rvm )

The overall predicted torque loss of the closed-circuit 1 1 1 1
C6 = 2 +
drive Dm Rvm + Rip2 Req Rem

ωp Rip2
Rvm   C7 = ωp (Rip2 + Rvm ), C8 =
2
Tplc = ωp αpd Dpc max Dm Rip2 − Tl Dm Rvm + Rip2
(Rip2 + Rvm )
C9 = ωp2 Rls
ωp Rls Dm
+ (32)
αpd Dpc max and αpd = Dpc /Dpc max

JMES1202 © IMechE 2009 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
2674 S K Mandal, K Dasgupta, S Pan, and A Chattopadhyay

APPENDIX 4 The following empirical relations express the nature

of Req with αps , Tl , and αpd for
The following empirical relations express the nature of
Rip1 and Rip2 with αps , Tl , and αpd for αps  0 : 10−12 Req = aαps7 + c7 (44)

αps  0 : 10−11 Rip1 = a1 αps + c1 (38) where a7 = −10−6 Tl2 + 0.0012 Tl − 0.08 and c7 = 8 ×
10−6 Tl2 − 0.0106 Tl + 10.08.
where a1 = 0.0001 Tl2 − 0.047 Tl + 4.911 and c1 = For
0.0312 Tl2 − 8.997 Tl + 671.69.
For αpd  0 : 10−12 Req = −a8 αpd + c8 (45)

αpd  0 : 10−11 Rip2 = a2 αpd + c2 (39) where a8 = −10−7 Tl2 + 9 × 10−5 Tl + 0.055 and c8 =
5 × 10−6 Tl2 − 0.007 Tl + 9.886.
where a2 = −0.0007 Tl2 + 0.246 Tl − 2.95 and c2 = The following empirical relations express the nature
0.0017 Tl2 − 0.656 Tl + 81.32.    of Rvm with αps , Tl , and αpd for
Tl is in Nm, αps= ωp /ωp max = V̇s /ωp max Dpo and
αpd = Dpc /Dpc max . αps  0 : 10−9 Rvm = a9 αps + c9 (46)
The following empirical relations express the nature
of Rls with αps , Tl , and αpd for where a9 = 7 × 10−5 Tl + 0.0577 and c9 = 0.0024 Tl +
4.7706.
αps  0 : 102 R1s = a3 αps − b3 αps + c3 (40) For

where a3 = 0.0249 Tl + 0.3241, b3 = 0.2731 Tl + 3.25, αpd  0 : 10−9 Rvm = −a10 αpd + c10 (47)
and c3 = 0.8139 Tl + 3.15.
For where a10 = −0.0005 Tl + 2.1887 and C10 = 0.0018 Tl +
6.3547.
αpd  0 : 102 R1s = a4 αpd
2
− b4 αpd + c4 (41)
APPENDIX 5
where a4 = 0.0363 Tl − 0.1626, b4 = 0.5825 Tl − 17.10,
and c4 = 2.29 Tl − 103.92.
(a) The maximum volumetric displacement rate of
The following empirical relations express the char-
the pump used in the open-circuit HST drive
acteristics of Rem with αps , Tl , and αpd for
Dpo = 27.10 cc/rev (4.31 × 10−6 m3 /rad)
αps  0 : 10−11 Rem = a5 αps + c5 (42)
(b) The maximum volumetric displacement rate of
where a5 = −0.0002 Tl + 0.2438 and c5 = −0.0089 Tl + the pump used in the closed-circuit HST drive
17.161.
For Dpc = 26.76 cc/rev (4.26 × 10−6 m3 /rad)

αpd  0 : 10−11 Rem = −a6 αpd + c6 (43) (c) The maximum volumetric displacement rate of
the radial piston motor used in the HST drives
where a6 = −10−4 Tl + 0.1023 and c6 = −0.0093 Tl +
18.098. Dm = 272.46 cc/rev (4.33 × 10−5 m3 /rad)

Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science JMES1202 © IMechE 2009

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