149

Chapter 6

VAPOR RECOVERY

VAREC ',G.V. CHILINGARIAN and S . KUMAR

INTRODUCTION

The first step towards energy conservation is probably taken in the oil and gas
producing field itself in the form of vapor loss prevention. A properly designed and
installed vapor recovery system is very effective in preventing all kinds of vapor loss.
In addition, it reduces fire and corrosion hazards, pollution, and. associated prob-
lems.
At the very outset, it is important to establish some clear-cut concepts about
vapor recovery. Some operators consider a vapor recovery system to be a storage
tank with a gas-tight roof; equipped with pressure apd vacuum relief valves. This
kind of system is not a recovery system, but merely a primitive means of preventing
some vapor loss under certain conditions, such as when no pumping operations are
taking place and when no temperature change in the vapor space is occurring. A
true vapor recovery system collects the vapors from the storage tanks at all times
under all conditions.

EVAPORATION LOSS

Evaporation loss is common when a volatile product is stored in any conven-

tional oil tank (cone or dome-shaped roof structure). There are essentially three
types of evaporation losses: breathing loss, filling loss, and boiling loss.

Breathing loss

Breathing loss refers to the daily evaporation loss due to the normal cycle of
atmospheric temperature change. During the daytime, the vapor space absorbs heat
from the sun causing the air-vapor mixture to expand, and the temperature of the
liquid surface gradually rises, increasing evaporation of the liquid. This causes some
air and vapor to be vented to the atmosphere. During the late afternoon, the venting
gradually decreases.
At night, heat is radiated from the vapor space through the tank shell and roof.
This results in condensation, creating a partial vacuum which draws in air through

Permission was granted to reproduce portions of Varec, Inc. Handbook and Catalog.
150

the vent. Warm air rising in the center of the tank creates convection currents until
air and vapor become stabilized.
In the early morning, when the vapor space becomes uniform in temperature and
hydrocarbon content, conditions are nearly static. In late morning, the heating and
venting cycle begins anew.

Filling loss

As liquid is withdrawn from a tank, the vapor space is filled by vapors

evaporating from the surface of the remaining liquid. When the tank is refilled, a
volume of air-vapor mixture is displaced, equal to that of the incoming liquid. The
excess vented to the atmosphere is the filling loss.

Boiling loss

Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point and the process of
vaporization takes place. This may occur along the shell on the sunny side of the
tank. Boiling causes excessive evaporation losses, but fortunately is not commonly
encountered in lease tank batteries.

EVAPORATION CONTROL

Conservation by evaporation control may be defined as any control of product

evaporation, which results in the reduction or complete elimination of stored
product loss to the atmosphere (Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1970).
It is quite difficult to quantitatively estimate evaporation losses and vent valve
requirements, because of the numerous variables that govern these relationships, i.e.,
vapor space volume, vapor pressure of product, vapor pressure change with temper-
ature change, rate of temperature change, etc. Data has been gathered, however, by
various researchers, which enables an engineer to make close estimates.
According to Varec (1976), methods of conservation vary in accordance with the
degree of evaporation loss control desired as determined by consideration of
economics which may be affected, plant safety, and the requirements of law. On
low-pressure fixed roof tanks, conservation vent valves reduce evaporation losses by
limiting the amount of air admitted to, or vapors released from, the vapor space. If
vent valve settings and the tank are capable of maintaining pressures equal to or in
excess of vapor pressure, vaporization will take place until the partial pressure of
product vapors in the vapor space is equal to product vapor pressure at the
prevailing liquid surface temperature. Any change of conditions, such as an increase
or decrease of vapor space volume, and a corresponding increase or decrease of
pressure in the vapor space, change of temperature in the vapor space, or change of
product vapor pressure due to temperature change may result in loss of equilibrium.
Thus, unless the tank is capable of withstanding the resulting increase or decrease in
pressure, vapors must be released or air admitted to prevent structural damage.
 151

Fig. 6-1.System of manifolded tanks. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)

A system of manifolded tanks, such as shown in Fig. 6-1, is commonly referred to

as a vapor balancing system. This is a somewhat more efficient method of conserva-
tion, especially where operations can be arranged so that when one tank in the
system is being filled, at the same time and at the same rate another one is being
emptied. Theoretically, assuming no temperature change in the product or its
vapors, vapors are transferred from one tank to another without loss. Actually,
appreciable vapor losses through the vents will occur due to: (1) unequal pumping
rates; (2) vapor space temperature changes; and (3) the probable increased rate of
product vaporization in the tank being filled, due to agitation and product tempera-
ture increase from heat added by line friction and other outside sources.
Any one of the aforementioned methods of conservation is effective in reducing
evaporation losses. A third method, which completely eliminates the loss of vapors,
is known as a.vapor recovery system. A typical tank installation is shown in Fig.
6-2.Basically, this is a closed system, wherein the vapor space pressure of individual
tanks (or a group of manifolded tanks) is very closely regulated at some pressure
well within the range of vent valve pressure and vacuum settings. In addition to the
necessary control equipment, a complete system requires a means of pumping off
excess vapors (which may be processed or stored as a supply for repressuring) and a
source of makeup gas for repressuring. Excellent results have been reported from all
installations where large volumes of high vapor-pressure product are handled
(Varec, 1976).
152

PRESSURE IEXROS

BREATKR W V E
WITH F M ARXSTER

__ TNUtnGE
ITYFiCbL EbCH TANK 1

OF C W R E S S O R WRY GAS \
i l M E UP
IUTOMATIC DRIP TRAP

Fig. 6-2. Typical vapor recovery system. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)

Several tank manufacturers produce conservation type storage tanks, which

effectively reduce evaporation losses. Although there is an increasing trend toward
this type of tank, particularly in new installations of large-capacity, fixed-roof tanks
operating at pressures below 15 psig are the most common type of storage tanks. In
this category, the cone-roof tank, operating at essentially atmospheric pressure, is
the minimum accepted standard in present day practice (Varec, 1976).

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM

Vapor recovery equipment is installed on field production and storage tanks and
on storage tanks containing crude oil and refined products at the refinery. In
general, a vapor recovery system serves five purposes:
(1) Economy-conserves valuable light components and, therefore, there is more
income from sales.
(2) Conserves oil (or product) gravity by reducing evaporation losses.
(3) Reduces fire and explosion hazards by preventing air from entering and
mixing with the vapor during out-pumping operations.
(4) Reduces internal tank corrosion by preventing the addition of oxygen to
vapor from humid air, which otherwise would be drawn into the tank.
 153

( 5 ) Controls air pollution by preventing loss of vapor to the atmosphere. This is

an important function in view of the E.P.A. regulations relating to smog and
pollution control in oil field operations. The level of exposure of oil field personnel
to toxic vapors, which are invariably associated with oil and gas production, is also
reduced.
When vapor recovery equipment is installed on field production tanks, the
amount of gas which can be recovered per barrel of produced crude varies widely,
depending upon several factors. Most important are gravity, temperature of the
crude oil, and the drop in pressure which takes place following low-stage separation.
Where a pressure drop of about 20 psi or higher occurs between the low-stage
separator and the flow tanks, the volume of vapors recovered in California (U.S.A.)
fields, for example, range from less than 20 to more than 60 cu ft/bbl of produced
crude oil. In case of appreciable pressure drop, there is a high content of entrained
liquids in the vapors, making them even more valuable (Varec, 1976).
If elevated separators are operated at near atmospheric pressure, the great bulk of
recoverable vapors will be removed from the crude oil before it enters the tanks.
Because of agitation and especially if heat is used to achieve an oil-water sep-
aration, it may be worthwhile to recover the vapors even in this case.
The air content in vapors is reduced by “repressuring” the tanks with dry gas
from the absorption plant, for example, whenever required. For example, when a
tank is being pumped out and the release of vapors from the oil within is not
sufficient‘to fill the vapor space at the rate of pumping, instead of taking in air to
fill the vapor space, dry gas from the absorption plant is used. Reduction of the air
content in the tank reduces the fire hazard. The gravity of the oil is preserved as
oxidation is reduced, thus lowering the temperature of the vapors and the oil
surface. The presence of inert, dry gas slows down corrosion.
The above discussion was directed towards economics of a vapor recovery
system. The cost of the system is balanced against the profits accrued through
conservation of the light fractions and the increased value of the product due to the
preservation of product gravity. Indirect savings include reduced corrosion and fire
hazards.
It is assumed that an engineer would recommend installation of a recovery
system only after carrying out a detailed financial analysis. Generally speaking,
vapor recovery systems are viable in all cases where gas production is significant.
The factors that affect the amount of vapor that can be recovered are:
(1) Drop in pressure that occurs between the last stage of the separators and the
tank.
(2) Crude oil gravity, which is a function of various chemical and physical
properties such as vapor pressure and content of light fractions.
(3) Temperature of the crude oil. Heating for the purposes of demulsification is
included here.
154

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

The main functions of a vapor recovery system are: (1) removing pure vapor
from the tanks during product inpumping operations and during thermal expansion
of the vapors inside the tanks, as a result of atmospheric temperature increase or
heat from the sun, etc; and (2) adding pure vapor to the tanks during product
outpumping operations and during thermal contraction of vapors inside the tanks
due to temperature reduction. This can be accomplished by various means from the
standpoint of controlling the vapors to and from the tank portion of the system.
A vapor recovery system should be automatic in operation, self-protective, and
should function without maintenance for long periods of time, even in highly
corrosive service.
The equipment required can be briefly summarized as follows:
(1) Devices to make the tanks gas-tight and spark-proof. May need self-closing,
spark-proof gauges and thief hatches.
(2) Pressure and vacuum relief vents, either in conjunction with the balance-line
header or as an integral part of the hatches. (Refer to the API Guide for Tank
Venting presented in the Appendix of this chapter.)
(3) Vacuum and pressure regulators.
(a) Regulator on vacuum line, to remove vapors.
(b) Regulator to control automatic repressuring of tank with field gas, usually
from the gas-oil separators. This will prevent air from entering tanks when vacuum
develops.
(4) Compressor to compress vapors from collecting system battery and send
them into the field low-pressure gathering system. If there are vacuum gathering
lines near the tank, compressors are not required.
Figure 6-2 shows a manifolded tank system. A pipe manifold interconnects the
tanks vapor-wise. The manifold is fitted with breather valves which serve to relieve
excessive pressure or vacuum, which may be created as a result of abnormal system
operation or malfunction of pressure-control equipment. Each breather valve in-
cludes a flame arrester for fire protection when and if the breather valve functions.
An emergency relief manhole cover is used on each tank for relieving very excessive
pressure buildup. Vapor-control regulators are provided: one to control the release
of vapor from the system when the normal operating pressure within the system
reaches a predetermined level; the other to control the addition of vapor to the
system when the normal operating vacuum within the system reaches a pre-
determined level. A manometer can be used to visually determine whether or not the
system is operating within predetermined pressure and vacuum limitations.
Control of product inpumping and outpumping operations has great effect upon
the proficiency of the vapor control system. It is desirable to limit the withdrawal of
vapors from the tank system to a minimum. The ideal operation, although impracti-
cal to expect from the operator, is to predetermine and schedule product pumping
so that vapors will be transferred between tanks within the tank system by means of
the manifold. This would involve continuous and equal rates of product inpumping
 155

and outpumping. Inasmuch as this is impractical, the basic vapor system at the
tanks must be pressure balanced. The various relief valves, relief manhole covers,
and regulators must be set so that when the normal product inpumping rate causes
the vapor space pressure within the tank system to exceed a predetermined limit, the
vapors will be released through the pressure (wet gas) regulator (Fig. 6-3). Con-
versely, when the normal product outpumping rate causes a vapor space vacuum

Fig. 6-3. Typical installation of pressure (wet gas) and vacuum (dry gas) regulators. (Courtesy of Varec
Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976).
156

within the tank system to exceed a predetermined limit, vapors will be added
through the vacuum (dry gas) regulator.
Settings of the regulators must be closer to atmospheric pressure than settings of
the breather valves and the emergency relief manhole covers.
Under normal operating conditions, the regulators must control only the flow of
vapor to and from the tank system. In the event that a slightly abnormal pressure or
vacuum increase occurs, which exceeds the capability of the regulators to control,
then the breather valves relieve the excess. In the case of a greatly abnormal increase

Fig. 6-4.Typical installation of fittings on a low-pressure, cone-roof tank. (Courtesy of Varec Division,
Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
 157

Fig. 6-5. Float-actuated gauge, powered by negator motor (controlled power). (Courtesy of Varec
Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
158

in pressure or vacuum, which the regulator and breather valves cannot handle, the
emergency manhole covers relieve the excess. Figures 6-2 and 6-3 show typical
settings for the various equipment involved in the vapor control system at the tanks.
In Fig. 6-4, a typical installation of fittings on a low-pressure, cone-roof tank is
presented. A gas-tight, float-actuated gauge, powered by a motor, is presented in
Fig. 6-5. It measures changes in liquid level as a function of float travel. The float
acts upon a counterbalanced, nongraduated, perforated tape which moves a dial
counter. Dial-counter reading minimizes the possibility of error, which was inherent
in reading devices using a graduated tape.

DESIGN OF VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS

In planning the installation of a vapor recovery system, one has to consider

several factors: (1) volume of gas; ( 2 ) specific gravity of gas; ( 3 ) allowable tank
pressures (allowable pressure drop and pressure drop actually required are both
considered); (4) available vacuum for removing vapors; (5) available market or
facilities for processing surplus gas; ( 6 ) availability of gas for repressuring for a fully
closed system; and (7) type of tank installation (individual or manifold system).
In arriving at the volume and'content of the vapors, one can use recording orifice
meters to determine flow rates and the gas chromatograph test to establish their
average gasoline content. It is believed advisable to make these surveys over a
period of several days in order to offset variations in volume and composition
caused by temperature changes.
Where field vacuum lines do not exist, small compressors driven by electric
motor or gas engine, usually ranging in horsepower input from 5 to 25 hp, may be
used to supply vacuum for removing the vapors. These compressors are either air- or
liquid-cooled, with single or double cylinder, and are single-stage. Where discharge
pressures are required, two-stage equipment is employed. These small, fairly cheap
compressors, operating continuously day after day, have permitted the installation
of many systems which otherwise would not have been possible because of the
necessity for running large lines considerable distances to a field vacuum line.
To prevent any liquid, which may condense in the intake line, from being pulled
into the compressor cylinder, scrubbers are placed just ahead of the unit. Whereas
they are equipped with a bleed at the bottom so that any accumulated liquids can be
drained as often as needed, mercury high-level switches are provided as a safety
precaution. Likewise, to prevent overheating of the compressor, mercury switches
are used to shut down the motor when temperatures become too high (Varec, 1970).
To collect vent gas satisfactorily and safely, regulators (Fig. 6-5) must operate
dependably at predetermined, supersensitive pressures, frequently as low as one- or
two-tenths of an inch of water above and below atmospheric. At maximum flow,
pressure drop through the vapor line (between the tank and regulators) plus dead
weight of the vapor in the regulator control line must not exceed vent valve opening
pressure.
 159

Regulators should be capable of handling the pressure and vacuum requirements

of the tanks as determined by calculations. Venting formulas [see American Petro-
leum Institute (API), 19681 or actual oil/gas ratios are guides to be used. Regulator
sizes are obviously smaller than the vent unit sizes because of the required
differences in valve design and pressure drop. As an example: the vent units may be
required to handle normal venting of 30,000 cu ft/hr of gas at 0.35-02differential
pressure drop and 20,000 cu ft/hr of inhaled air at 0.50-02differential drop. The
wet-gas regulator would be required to handle the same 30,000 cu ft/hr at from 1 to
20 in. of mercury pressure drop, and the dry-gas regulator, 20,000 cu ft/hr of
makeup gas at from 1 to 30 psi pressure drop. Thus, whatever capacities are

2.0 '-EMERGENCY RELIEF MANHOLE

A FULL FLOW OPEN
b
1.8-

1.6-
BREATHER
U 1.4 - VALVE
W
a 1.2-
3
.r' 1 1
1.0
W

3
v)
0.8-
W
v)
FULL FLOW OPEN
a 0.6- t
PRESSURE (WET
GAS) REGULATOR
0.4 - I
0.2-
+ I
ATMOSPHERIC o

I 0.21- FULL FLOW OPEN

U
l-
W
a 0.865 in. WATER :0.5 ounces/%q in.
3
.-c I.o

5 1.2 EMERGENCY RELIEF MANHOLE

U
a IBREATHER
VALVE

1.73 in. WATER = 1.00ounces Irq in.

+
FULL FLOW OPEN
\' 1.8

' PRESSURE OR VACUUM SETTING

Fig. 6-6. Pressure balance for a typical vapor recovery system. (After Hein et a].. 1969. fig. 5, p. 76.)
160

required of the regulator, are also required of the vent valve for any emergency
eventualities. After regulator requirements have been determined, capacity charts
for regulators must be consulted to select the correct size.
Size of pressure- and vacuum-relief vents must be sufficient to insure against
damage to tanks. They should have sufficient capacity to exhaust incoming dry gas
in case the repressuring regulator sticks open, and to admit air to vent the suction
line in case the wet-gas regulator sticks open. With the pressure-vacuum relief
manhole covers set to pop open in the event that a trap valve sticks and throws the
entire gas load on the battery, there is little danger of tank rupture.
Certain auxiliary equipment for additional safety to the system is recommended.
A sediment trap is required in order to protect the dry-gas regulator against foreign
matter such as sand, millscale, etc. Foreign matter passing through the valve at high
velocities can seriously damage the valve seats, thus requiring their repair. A
back-pressure check valve should be installed downstream of the wet-gas regulator
for the purpose of protecting the valve and system against downstream flame
ignition, which might spread back up through the wet-gas regulator. A manometer
should be installed in the common control line and not in any portion of the vertical
riser, because the pressure at the "sensing point" is the true critical value. A
manometer installed on the vertical riser would be subject to varying flows and
would tend to give erroneous readings. The manometer serves both in initially
setting the regulators and also in observing the condition of the system. An
automatic drip trap, which is installed at the low point of the common control line,
serves the purpose of draining condensate. An explosion- or pressure-relief valve

-
ROOF CONNECTIONS BALANCE LINE BRANCHES

JL
ANGLE BRANCHES R O U N D E D CORNER

A b
BRANCHIS
4 k
Pressure drop Pressure drop P r e ssu r e d r o p
equals 40diameters. equals 20diameters. n e g l i g i b l e . -=qqjG$ %if
Ratio 2 pressure drop
equals 5 diameters.
VAPOR LINE CONNECTIONS 90' angle pressure drop Ratio 1.3 persure drop
WELDED
9 0 "ELBOW WELDED
9 0 ' ELBOW 9 0 ' FORGED OR equals 40 diameters. equals 6 diameters.
SWEDGED ELBOW

662
60' m g k pressure drop Ratio 1.25 pressuredrop
equals 17.5 diameters. equals 9 diameters.
4 5 O angle pessure drop Ratio 1.0 pressure drop
RATIO.! equds 8.8 diame8ers. equals 10 diameters.
Pressure drop Pressure drop Pressure drop 30' angle pressure drop Ratio .75 pressure drop
equals 40 diameters. equals 20 diameters. equals 10 diameters. equals 6.8 diameters. equals 16 diameters.
FULL PIPE AREA ELBOWS 13' angle pressure drop Ratio .50 pressure drop
Ratio 2 pressure drop equals 5 diameters. equals 3.9 diameters. equals 30 diameters.
Ratio 1.1 pressure drop equals 6 diameters.
Ratio 1 .25 pressure drop equals 9 diameters.
Ratio 1 .O pressure drop equals I0 diameters. M A I N VAPOR LINES
Ratio .75 pressure drop equals 16 diameters.
Ratio S O pressure drop equals 30 diameters.
-
WHEN CONNECTING LAPGB A N D SMALL LINES.

<
S Q U A R E WELDED TEES ROUNDED CORNER TEES
4 'p' T A P E R 7 D' TAPER-, .
7
q-
5
D - 1'42 0
i t r > I f -I. \
Pressure drop eqsuls Pressure drop equals Pressure drop Pressure drop Pressure drop
40 diameters. 6 diameters. equds 40 diameters. equals 20 diameters. equds 9 diameters.
Fig. 6-7. Gas pressure drop in tank roof fittings and pipe bends. Equivalent length of straight pipe
expressed in pipe diameters. (Courtesy of Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1976.)
 161

should be installed at the top of the vertical riser for the purpose of relieving
excessively high pressures caused by an ignition emanating downstream of the
wet-gas regulator. When hydrocarbon vapor ignites, it expands approximately 15
volumes (sometimes almost instantaneously), depending upon the composition. The
size of the explosion-relief valve, therefore, must handle 15 times the volume of the
vacuum pipe, calculated at atmospheric pressure. An expansion of 15 volumes
increases the pressure 15 atm.
This increased pressure will travel down the line in two directions from the point
of origin, ahead of any flame, and will be relieved at the explosion-relief valves.
A pressure balance chart for a typical vapor recovery system is presented in Fig.
6-6.
In the design and installation of vapor recovery systems, it is important to keep
in mind that the pressure drops involved are small. Vacuum- and pressure-relief
valves are set to function somewhere between 0.5 and 2.0 oz/in.2 (about 1-4 in. of
water).
The total pressure drop through a vapor recovery system must be kept well
within the limits of pressure- and vacuum-relief valve settings. For this reason, it is
necessary that the header, laterals, and all other piping be properly sized and
streamlined. If maximum benefit of the recovery system is to be gained, the piping
must be of sufficient diameter to permit the vapors to be readily withdrawn. Also,
angles, bends, and other resistances to flow should be kept at a minimum (Fig. 6-7).
Although most engineers, experienced in flow calculations, have preference
regarding flow formulas, the following formula may be used for estimating pipe
sizes:

q = 3550
/ Apd’
+
GI [l + ( 3 . 6 / d ) 0.03d]

where: q = quantity of gas, cu ft/hr; A p = drop in pressure, in. of water; G = specific

gravity of gas at flowing conditions, air having sp. gr. = 1; d = internal diameter of
pipe, in.; 1 = length of pipe, ft.
The above formula applies only for straight pipes, with fairly smooth interior
surface, and should only be used for flow of gas where pressures do not exceed 1
psig.
Having determined the line sizes and pressure drops, allowances should be made
for possible further expansion. In order to handle sudden overloads, it is usually
advisable to slightly oversize the piping. Ordinarily, to hold the weight of the header
and laterals to the minimum, the lightest-weight pipe obtainable is used. In some
cases, sheet metal duct piping is satisfactory. The use of this light-weight pipe in
flanged, shop-fabricated sections will materially reduce installation costs.

STORAGE PRESSURES
When low vapor pressure products are being stored, the construction of most
tanks is such that vent valves should not open at pressures and vacuum higher than
162

TABLE 6-1
Table of weight conversions for steel tank roofs (After Varec. 1976, p. 3) a

Gauge and thickness, Weight Weight Weight

steel deck materials (Ib/sq ft) (oz/in.2) (in. H20/in.2)
16-gauge (0.0625”) 2.553 0.284 0.490
14-gauge (0.0781”) 3.187 0.354 0.613
12-gauge (0.1094”) 4.473 0.497 0.860
11-gauge (0.1250”) 5.107 0.568 0.982
10-gauge (0.1406”) 5.740 0.638 1.103
9-gauge (0.1562”) 6.374 0.708 1.225
8-gauge (0.1719”) 7.00 0.778 1.346
7-gauge (0.1875”) 7.65 0.850 1.471
6-gauge (0.2500”) 10.20 1.133 1.961
~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~

a Based on US. Standards.

0.5 oz/in.2. The internal pressure at which a tank may be maintained, however, is
dependent upon design and condition of the tank. Generally speaking, cone-roof or
low-pressure fixed-roof tanks should not be operated at pressures beyond dead
weight loading of the deck. Vent valves for such tanks, therefore, should be sized
and pressure settings so fixed that maximum normal relief requirements are attaina-
ble within this limitation (Table 6-1).
It is equally important that the required flow capacity be obtained when the tank
is breathing-in without developing a vacuum, which will cause damage. This
requires consideration of tank size, design, the possibility of external loading, and
other considerations, which make a general rule-of-thumb method for determining
maximum safe working vacuum and maximum allowable vacuum impossible.
According to Factory Mutual Engineering Division, Loss Prevention Bulletin No.
13.23, 1-f in. H,O negative pressure is the maximum allowable for vertical
cone-roof tanks having 3/16-in. roof plates. No recommendation, however, is made
for tanks of heavier construction and it is, therefore, suggested that established
company policy or the recommendation of the tank manufacturer be followed.
For high vapor pressure products, entirely different vent valve designs are used.
These valves are equipped with dead weight vacuum pellets for settings of 0.5
oz/in.2 to 0.5 psig, depending upon tank construction. Higher pressure settings are
obtained by weight-and-lever arm, spring loading, or even diaphragm-operated relief
valves. It is important to note that increasing storage pressures reduces storage
losses. This, however, is complicated by the changes in temperature and the
consequent changes in vapor pressure, which may lead to vapor release during the
day and air admittance at night.

VENT VALVE PRESSURE SETTINGS

Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a mixture of
gases equals the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if present alone at
 163

the same temperature in the volume occupied by the mixture (provided, of course,
that there is no chemical reaction or that there is no tendency for one gas to dissolve
in the other). Partial pressure of an individual component in a gaseous mixture is
equal to the product of the total pressure and the mole fraction of that individual
component:

where: p,Y = partial pressure of a component in the vapor phase; 'TT = total pressure
of the system; and y,, = mole fraction of the component in the vapor phase.
For example, if a tank contains a volatile product and equilibrium exists between
the liquid and vapor at an absolute temperature T, and at atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psia), the vapor space will contain a mixture of gas having a pressure of ( pmin)
and air at a pressure of (14.7 -pmin). If the temperature in the vapor space is
increased to some other absolute value ( T 2 ) ,the partial pressure of the air will
increase to (14.7 - pmin)T2/Tl, At this increased vapor space temperature, the
product-surface temperature will also increase, resulting in an increased vapor
pressure ( p , , ) . This makes a total pressure (absolute) in the vapor space equal to
[(14.7 - pmi,)T,/T1 + p,,]. Thus, the theoretical storage pressure ( p s ) , at which
equilibrium is re-established and at which no breathing losses occur, is equal to:

Obviously, this equation applies to standing storage only and its use is restricted
to tanks which' are constructed to withstand pressures so calculated (Varec, 1976).
In order to make use of this equation, it is necessary to obtain data on vapor
space and liquid-surface temperature. According to Rogers (in Varec, 1976), maxi-
mum liquid-surface temperatures in the United States vary from 85 to 115°F. The
maximum vapor space temperature is approximately 40°F higher than the maxi-
mum liquid-surface temperature, whereas the minimum vapor space temperature is
15°F lower than the maximum liquid-surface temperature. According to informa-
tion published by the A.P.I. (1965), the maximum liquid-surface temperature on the
Gulf Coast, Atlantic seaboard, and northern Middlewest in U.S.A. is about 100°F.
In the Mid-Continent area and the arid Southwest of the U.S.A., temperatures as
high as 115°F are encountered. On the West Coast of the U.S.A., at locations
directly tempered by the Pacific Ocean, the maximum liquid-surface temperature
may be as low as 80'F.
The size and shape of a tank, product outage, color and condition of exterior
surface paint, length of daily exposure to direct solar heat, and heat input from the
introduction of warm product, all have a definite effect on inside temperature. The
maximum liquid-surface temperature, resulting from atmospheric conditions only, is
equal to or is slightly above the maximum atmospheric temperatures. If more
accurate information is not available, therefore, it is suggested that the maximum
TABLE 6-11
Daily average temperature relationships between atmospheric temperature and those in the tank (All other sources of heat disregarded) (After Varec, 1976,
P. 5 )

Tank Maximum atmospheric temperature ( O F )

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Max.liquidsurfacetemp. 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
Min. liquidsurface temp. 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
Max.vaporspacetemp. 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170
Min. vapor space temp. 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
 165

atmospheric temperature be used as the maximum liquid-surface temperature and

that the preceding data be accepted as a basis for estimating probable vapor space
and liquid-surface temperatures. These temperature relationships are presented in
Table 6-11.

Example 6-1

Gasoline having Reid vapor pressure of 9 Ib/in2 is stored in a tank. Determine

storage pressure (p,) required to eliminate standing storage losses from a tank
operating at sea level and in a climate where maximum and minimum liquid-surface
temperatures, as the result of atmospheric conditions, are estimated at 100°F and
90°F, respectively. Under such conditions, according to Table 6-11, maximum vapor
space temperature will be 140'F and minimum temperature will be 85°F. Product
has a vapor pressure of 8.1 psia at 90°F ( pmin)and 9.6 psia at 100°F (p,,). Thus:
+
Tl = 460" 85' = 545"R
+
T2= 460" 140" = 600"R
By substituting in eq. 6-3:

T2 600
p, = (14.7 -phn)-
Tl
+ p , , - 14.7 = (14.7 - 8.1)-
545
+ 9.6 - 14.7 = 2.2 psig
Altitude should be taken into consideration if storage tanks are located at
altitudes where barometric pressures vary appreciably from the sea level pressure of
approximately 14.7 psia. For example, atmospheric pressure at 4000-ft elevation is
approximately 12.7 psia and, thus, required storage pressure to prevent standing
losses from the same product subject to identical temperature variations at this
altitude is equal to:

600
p , = (12.7 - 8.1)-
545
+ 9.6 - 12.7 = 2.0 psig

VALVE FLOW CAPACITY

The free gas capacity of a valve varies inversely with the square root of the gas
gravity (with respect to air = l.O), Gg. In addition, qg varies directly as the square
root of the ratio of the absolute standard temperature (520"R) to the absolute valve
inlet temperature. Thus:
166

where: qg = free gas capacity of the valve; qa = free air capacity of the valve;
Gg = specific gravity of gas (air = 1); and Ti = absolute valve inlet temperature, OR.
The qg and qa must be expressed in the same units, e.g., ft3/min or m3/hr.

VENTING

Conservation vent valves mechanically limit the loss of vaporized product to the
atmosphere. The same variables that make evaporation loss calculations difficult,
must also be considered in arriving at vent valve flow rates required to protect tanks
under conditions requiring maximum normal pressure or vacuum relief.
Conservation vents also serve as safety equipment and are, therefore, designed
for the worst conditions anticipated in order to safeguard against tank damage due
to underventing. But in several instances, the conservation role is overemphasized,
leading to a tendency toward size reduction to conform more nearly with capacity
requirements based on normal operating conditions. This is a very poor economic
decision, because damages to a tank may result in repair costs which are several
times the cost of additional venting equipment. Also, installation of equipment,
after a tank has been placed in service, is very often hazardous.
Many formulas, charts, and tables have been developed, based on experience and
available data, for vent valve flow capacity requirements. The American Petroleum
Institute (A.P.J.) has reviewed all of these, and the A.P.I. Venting Guide (A.P.I.,
1968) presented in the Appendix of this chapter, serves as the general guide for the
petroleum industry at the present time.

FAST PAYOUTS FROM VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS

Conservation venting equipment, properly installed and maintained, will often

pay for itself several times a year in evaporation savings alone. Studies have shown
that lease-tank evaporation is often reduced by as much as 50%, solely through the
use of gas-tight tanks equipped with vapor conservation devices. There have been
several reports claiming total return of conservation vent valve and installation costs
on the first shipment of crude oil from gas-tight field production tanks. In addition,
by reducing air content, corrosion of the tank and its equipment is reduced and fire
prevention is enhanced. Another advantage is the fact that properly equipped tanks
result in insurance savings and offer other safety features which cannot be estimated
on a strictly monetary basis (Varec, 1976).
In 1951, a survey conducted by Oil and Gas Journal (Stormont, 1951a, b)
covering vapor recovery systems in California showed that very rapid payouts can
be obtained where substantial volumes of vapors are available. They also indicated
that in a number of cases reasonable payouts can be made from rather small
volumes. The following illustrative examples are taken from the survey.
 167

Example (A)-System payout from vapor recovery only

There were 4 tank batteries, each equipped with a conventional vapor system.
Batteries consisted of 1600-bbl steel tanks in groups of 3, 5, 6, and 13. With the
exception of the number of tanks, other system characteristics, such as gas content,
trap pressures, etc., were similar.
Cost of the vapor recovery equipment per battery ranged from $2000 for 3 tanks
to $5500 for 13 tanks.
In this example, $101,007 was realized from the recovered vapors from a total of
27 tanks. Total cost of construction and equipment was less than $14,000 (engineer-
ing time was not included). This was the case of an exceptional payout (Table 6-111).

Example (B)

In this example, the recovered tank vapors amounted to 17,000 Mcf or 32 cu

ft/bbl of crude oil produced (Table 6-IV). Average liquid content of the vapors was
14.4 gal per 1000 cu f t accounting for 244,800 gal or 7.5% of the 3,256,000 gal
contained in all the gas.

TABLE 6-111
Performance of Company A, Fresno County, California (After Stormont, 1951a)

Month Vapor Liquid content Value of Value of Total

recovered (isobutane liquid stripped value of
(Mcf/mo) plus) fractions a gas vapors
(gal) (9 ($1 ($1
1950
March 8518 73,136 4388 886 5274
April 10,554 111,084 6665 1098 7763
May 14,777 133,819 8029 1537 9566
June 11,776 147,008 8820 1537 10,357
July 15,914 191,053 11,463 1655 13,118
August 16,082 210,482 12,629 1673 14,301
September 13,452 168,393 10,104 1399 11,503
October 10,583 108,642 6519 1101 7619
November 11,120 110,538 6632 1156 7789
December 10.896 97.808 5868 1133 7002

1951
January 10,228 94,194 5652 1064 6175
Total 136,900 1,446,157 86,769 14,238 101,007

a Estimated on the basis of 6c/gal for butane and gasoline content. No credit given for propane content.
Calculated on the basis of 16t/1000 cu ft for dry gas, allowing 35% for shrinkage and lease fuel.
For period March 7-31 inclusive.
168

TABLE 6-IV
Vapor recovery operations in Company B during January, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951a) (524,600 bbl of
crude oil and 1,614,000 Mcf of gas produced)

Monthly Average liquid content Total

volume (gal/Mcf) liquid
(Mcf) 21-lb butanes propane total ‘Ontent
gasoline (gal)
Tank vapors 17,000 3.75 4.55 6.10 14.40 244,800
Low-pressure gas, 30 psi 220,000 1.15 1.40 2.50 5.05 1,111,000
High-pressure gas, 480 psi 1,377,000 0.22 0.56 0.60 1.38 1,900,200
Totul 1,614,000 3,256,000

Example (C)

As shown in Table 6-V, tank vapors recovered amounted to 18 cu ft/bbl of

produced crude oil and 2.1% of the total gas gathered. The collected vapors
contained 5.5 % of all recoverable liquid hydrocarbons.

TABLE 6-V
Vapor recovery operations at Company C during January, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951a)

Monthly Average liquid content Total

volume (gal/Mcf) liquid
(Mcf) 21-lb butanes propane total ‘Ontent
gasoline (gal)
Tank vapors 8,500 3.90 3.40 3.50 10.80 91,800
Low-pressure gas, 30 psi 339,000 1.28 1.21 1.75 4.24 1,437,360
High-pressure gas, 450 psi 49,000 0.70 0.78 1.20 2.68 131.320
Torul 396,500 1,660,480

Example (0)

Although the percentages of gasoline fractions are not shown in Table 6-VI, one
can see that 13,149 Mcf of recovered tank vapors amount to 52 cu ft/bbl of
produced crude and 1.2% of the total gas gathered. Tank vapor accounts for
approximately 12% of the butanes plus recovered.
At the time of the survey in 1951, the cost of vapor recovery equipment was in
the range of $400 to $500 per tank. Some installations, however, ran over $1000 per
tank because a relatively larger compressor was required.
 169

TABLE 6-VI
Vapor recovery operation at Company D unit during October, 1951 (After Stormont, 1951b) (254,800 bbl
of crude oil and 1,095,639 Mcf of gas produced)

Monthly Average liquid content Total

volume (gal/Mcf) liquid
content
(Mcf) isobutane-plus
(gal)
Tank vapor 13,149 8 105,000
Low-pressure and
High-pressure gas 1,082,490 - 748,919
Total 1,095,639 853,919

SUMMARY

It is estimated that, on the average, rapid payouts occur on installing vapor

recovery systems, many in less than one year.
Although vapors ,represent only a small fraction of the total gas recovered, the
gasoline content may run as'high as 10% or more of the liquid in the total gas from
field.
Vapor recovery offers oil operators important additional revenue by recovery of
light hydrocarbons, dollar value of natural gas saved, and increased value of stored
oil due to preservation of product gravity. Other considerations, not directly
measurable dollarwise, are reduction of fire hazard, oxidation, and corrosion.
Fortunately, a good conservation practice can yield attractive profits to the oil
operator who installs a complete, gas-tight, vapor recovery system.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
"\

(1) List five reasons for installing vaflor recovery systems on lease-flow tanks.
(2) List four factors which affect the amount of gas that can be recovered.
(3) Describe the equipment required for vapor recovery.
(4) In outline form, present steps followed in designing vapor recovery equipment.
( 5 ) Draw a schematic diagram (flow diagram) of all the surface equipment; start
at wellhead.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The help extended by Robert Siler, District Manager of Varec, and B.C. Wride is
indeed greatly appreciated by the writers.
170

REFERENCES

American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.), 1965. Evuporution Loss of Petroleum from Storuge Tunks.
American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.), 1965. Guide for Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storuge
Tunks. API RP 2000. 10 pp.
American Petroleum Institute, 1968. Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storuge Tunks (Nonre-
frigeruted). API Standard 2000, 1st ed., 18 pp.
Hein, W.G.. Johnson, J.L. and Chilingar, G.V., 1969. Vapor recovery. In: G.V. Chilingar and C.M.
Beeson (Editors), Surfuce Operutions in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New York, N.Y., pp.
67-86.
Rogers, W.F., 1976. Method of calculating oil evaporation losses. In: Tunk Venting und Guuging: Tunk
Equipment, Gus Control and Safety Devices. Handbook and Catalog No. P-8. Varec Inc.
Stormont, D.H., 1951a. Conservation of lease-tank vapors. Oil Gus J., 50(2): 93-96.
Stormont, D.H., 1951b. Tank-vapor recovery at Guijarral Hills effects payout in few months. Oil Gas J.,
50(4): 85-87.
Varec Division, Emerson Electric Co., 1910. Pollution und Gus Control Equipment. Bull. CP6003-A, 61 pp.
Varec, Inc., 1976. Tunk Venting und Gauging: Tunk Equipment, Gus Control und Safety Devices.
Handbook and Catalog No. P-8.
Varec, 1979. Pollution und Gus Control Equipment, Vupor Recovery Systems, Gus Piping Systems,
Technical Reference. Bull. 6003-B, Cypress, Calif., 52 pp.

A P P E N D I X 6 . I - V E q T I N G A M O S P H E R I C A N D L O W - P R E S S U R E STORAGE T A N K S ( N O N -
R E F R I G E R A T E D ) * (d N D A R D 2000, 1st ed., M A Y 1968.)
Scope
This standard applics to the normal and emergency
venting requirements for aboveground liquid petroleum
s t o m tanks and aboveground and belowground re-
frigerated storage tanks designed for operation from
46 oe per sq in. vacuum through 15qsig pressure. The
rcqwkements of this standard do not apply to floating-
ocMer-root tanks.
Bn@neeringstudies of a particular tank may indicate
that it is desirable to use a venting capacity other than
thstatimated in accordance with this standard.
Part I of this standard applies only to aboveground
notrefrigerated liquid petroleum storage tanks. It out-
1$4(safe and reasonable practices for the normal tem-
PART I-NONREFRIGERATED
1.0 Determination of Venting Requirements
Venting requirements are set forth for the followin4
conditions:
1. Inbreathing resulting from maximum out5ow of oil
from tank.
2. Inbreathing resulting from contraction of vapors
ca)lsed by maximum decrease in atmospheric tem-
pctatun.
3. Outbreathing resulting from maximum inflow of oil
&to tanks and maximum evaporation caused by such
iO8OW'
4. Outbreathing resulting from expansion and evapora-
tion which result from maximum increase in atmospheric
temperature (thermal breathing).
5. Outbreathing resulting from fire exposure.
2.0 Normal Venting Capacity Requirements
Normal venting capacity shall be obtained without
cxcceding the operating pressurc or vacuum which may
be applied regularly to a tank without causing physical
damage or permanent deformation to the tank.
Total normal venting capacity shall be. at least the
sum of the venting requirements for oil movement and
hmaleffect.*
* Reprinted with permission of American Petroleum Institute, New York, N.Y.
171
perate-zone climate and normal operating conditions.
The many abnormal variables which must be considered
in connection with tank-venting problems make it im-
practicable to set forth definite simple rules which are
applicable to all locations and all coaditions. Larger
vents may be required on tanks in which oil is heated, on
tanks whizh receive oil iron] wells or traps, and on tanks
subjected to pipeline surgcs. Similarly, the use of flame
arresters or other restrictions, which may build up pres-
sure under certain conditions, m y requirc the use of
larger vents on tanks.
Part I1 of this standard applies only to aboveground
and belowground refrigerated liquefied hydrocarbon
storage tanks.
ABOVEGROUND TANKS
However, lhe required capacity may be reduced for those
prcducta whose volatility is such that vapor generation or
condensation, within the permissible vessel pressure operating
range, will provide all or part of the vcnthg requirewnts.
Where noncondcn~blesM pmt, chi3 should be taken into
.ccounL
2.1 Inbreathing Nacuum Relief)
2.1 1 Venting capacity requirement for maximum
oil movement out of a tank should be equivalent to
560 cu ft of free air per hour for each 100 bbl (4,200
gal) per hour of maximum emptying rate, including
gravity flow rate to other tanks, for oils of any flash
point.
2.12 Venting capacity requirement for thermal in-
breofhing for a given tank capacity for oils of any flash
point should be. at least that shown in column 2 of
Table 1.
2.2 Outbreathing (Pressure Relief)
2.21 Venting capacity requirement for maxinium
oil movement into a tank and resulting evaporation:
1. For oil with a flash point of 100 F or above, should
be equivalent to 600 cu ft of free air per hour for each
100 bbl (4,200 gal) per hour of maximum filling rate.
172

2. For oil with a flash point below I00 F, should be
equivalent to 1,200 cu ft of frce air per hour for each
100 bbl (4,200 gal) per hour of maximum EUing rim.
2.22 Venting capacity requirement for thermal
ouibreathing, including thermal evaporation, for a given
tank capacity:
1. For oil with a dash point of 100 F or above, should
be at least that shown in column 3 of Table 1.
2. For oil with a dash point below 100 F, should be
at least that shown in column 4 of Table 1.
TABLE 1-Thermal Venting Cepadtj Repoirementi
(Expressed in cubic feet of free air per hour-
14.7 psia at 60 F.)
Outbreathing
3.0 Emergency Venting Capacity Requirements
When storage tanks are exposed to fire, the venting
rate may be in excess of that resulting from a combina-
tion of normal thermal effects and oil movement. In
such cases, the construction of the tank will determine
whether additional venting capacity must be provided.
3.1 Tanks With Weak Roof-to-Shell Attachment
On fixed-roof tanks with a roof-to-shell attachment
(maximum %-in. single-fillet weld) as described in
Par. 3.5.2(c) and (e) of API Standard 650: Welded
Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, the roof-to-shell connection
will fail preferentially to any other joint, and excess
pressure will be safely relieved, if the normal venting
capacity should prove inadequate. In tanks built to
these specifications, consideration need not be given
to any additional emergency venting requirements.

Inbreathing
--
(Pressure)
Flash 3.2 tanks Without Weak Roof-to-Shell Attachment
Tank Capacity (Vacuum) Flash Poinr Point
All 100 F or Below Where the tank is not provided with a weak roof-to-
(Barrels) (Gallons) Stocks Above 100 F shell attachment as described in Par. 3.1, the following
1 2 3 4 procedure shall govern in evaluating the required vent-
60 2,500 60 40 60 ing capacity for fire exposure.
100 4,200 100 60 100
500 21,000 500 3 00 500 3.21 For tanks designed for pressures of 1 psig or
1,000 42,000 1,000 600 1,000 below, the total rate of venting shall be determined in
2,000 84,000 2,000 1,200 2,000
3,000 126,000 3,000 1,800 3,000
accordance with Table 2. (No increase id venting is
4.000 168,000 4,000 2,400 4,000 required for tanks with more than 2,800 sq ft of exposed
5,000 210,000 5,000 3,000 s.000 wetted surface. The basis for Table 2 is given in the
10,000 420,000 10,000 6.000 10,000 Appendix.)
15,000 630,000 15,000 9,000 15,000
20,000 840,000 20,000 12,000 20,000 3.22 For tanks and storage vessels designed for
25,000 1,050,000 24,000 15,000 24,000 pressures over 1 psig, the total rate of venting shall be
30,000 28,000 17,000 28,000
35,000 3 1,000 19,000 3 1,000
determined in accordance with Table 2, except that
40,000 34,000 2 1,000 34,000 when the exposed wetted area of the surface is greater
45,000 37,000 23,000 37,000 than 2,800 sq ft, the total rate of venting shall be calcu-
50,000 40,000 24,000 40,000 lated by the following formula:
60,000 44,000 27,000 44,000
70,000 48,000 29,000 48.000 CFH = 1,107
80,000 52,000 3 1,000 52,000
90,000 56,000 34,000 56,000
100,000 60,000 36,000 60,000
120,000 68,000 41,000 68.000
140,000 75,000 45,000 75,000
160,000 82,000 50,000 82,000
180,000 90,000 54,000 90,000
lnterpolile for intermediate sira.
NO=%
I. For tanks with 8 capacity of more than 20,000 bbl (840,000gal).
the reguircmenls for the vscuum condition are very close to the theo-
rcticslly computed YSIYC of 2 EU f l of air per hour per squaw foot of
total shell and roof area.
2. For tanlo with a capacity of lus than 20,OW bbl (840.000 gal). the
thermal inbrcathing requirement for the vacuum condilion haa been based
on 1 CY n of free sit per hour for each banti of lank capaciw. This is
substantially equivalent to P mean rate of YPPDI 8paEbtcmwraturc changc
of 100 F per hr.
3, For slocki with P flash point at 100 F or ~ ~ O V Cthe . outbreathing
requirrmenl has k e n amumcd a8 60 percent of the inbreathing capacity
requirement. I h c tank roof and shell tempemure E B M O ~ iise as rapidly
under MY condition as they c a n drop. rush as during I sudden cold rain.
4. For stacks with P flash mint below IM) F. lhe thermal ~ i e w u r c -
venting requirement has bem ksumed equal to ihc vacuum rcqhiremeat
in Order to ~ l l o wfor ~apoI(2~Uonat the liquid curface and far the higher
specific grwity of the tnnk vapors.
 173

TABLE %-Total Rate of Emergency Venting Required L = latent heat of vaporization of the specific liquid,
for Fire Exposure Vs. Wetted Surface Are. in British thermal units per pound.
(Wetted area versus cubic feet of free air per hour- M = molecular weight of the specific liquid.
14.7 psia at 60 F.)
Wetted Venting Wetted Venting 3.24 Full credit may be taken for the vent capacity
Area Requirement Area Requirement provided for normal venting, since the normal thermal
(Square (Cubic Feet (Square (Cubic Feet effect can be disregarded during a fire, and it can also
Fat) perHour) Feet) per Hour) be assumed that there will be no oil movement into the
20 21,100 350 288,000 tanks.
30 31,600 400 312.000
40 42;lOO 500 354;000 3.25 If normal vents are inadequate, additional
50 52,700 600 392,000
60 63,200 700 428,000 emergency vents of the type described in Par. 4.2 shall
70 73,700 800 462,000 be provided so that the total venting capacity is at least
80 84,200 900 493,000 equivalent to that required by Table 2.
90 94,800 1,000 524.000
100 105.000 1.200 557.000 3.26 T h e vent size may be calculated on the basis
120 126;OOO 1;400 587;OOO of the pressure which the tank can safely withstand.
140 147,000 1,600 614,000
160 168.000 1.800 639.000 3.27 T h e total rate of emergency venting deter-
180 190,000 2,000 662;OOO mined by Par. 3.21 or 3.22 may be multiplied by the
200 211,000 2,400 704,000
ZSO 239,000 2,800 742,000 appropriate one of the following factors when additional
300 265,000 Over 2,800 * protection is provided:
' FW expo(ed wetted aurfrcca with more lhm 2,8W 8q 11. l e e Par. 3.21, 0.5 when drainage away from the tank or vessel is
3.22, .nd 3.24.
NOTBl:
provided.
1. 1ntCfloate for htcrmcdiate Y B I Y U . 0.3 when 1 in. thickness of external insulation is
2. I h c weNd area for B e lank or storage shall be cslcylatcd
fouom:
YCSIC~ a8
provided.
SQhnO a d rphemld: the total cxposcd Surface Up to the mPxlmum
horizontal diameter or to a height of 25 ft. 0.15 when 2 in. thickness of external insulation is
whichever is srcaler.
Horimntal tank: 75 pcrccnl of the total exposed surface.
provided.
Vmical unk: the tom upmed area of L c shell within a
muimum height of 30 fl above grade.
0.075 when 4 in. thicknesa of external insulation is
provided.
Note 2: The values for insulation are based o n an arbi-
WheW trary conductance value of 4 Btu per hr per sq ft per deg F
per in. of thickness. Insulation shall resist dislodgement by
CFH = venting rcquircmcnt, in cubic feet of free air fire-hose streams and shall be noncombustible.
per hour-14.7 psia at 60 F.
A = exposcd wcttcd surface, in square feet. Note 3: Water films covering the metal surfaces can, un-
der ideal conditions, absorb substantially all incident radia-
N m I: The foregoing forn~ulais based on tion. However, the reliability of effective water application
is dependent upon many factors. Freezing weather, high
Q = 21.000 A',. winds, clogging of the system, unreliability of water supply,
at given in API RP 520: Design and Installation of Pressure- and tank surface conditions are a few factors which may
RdieVing Systems in Refineries, Parf I-Design. The total heat prevent adequate or uniform water coverage. Because of
absorbed, Q, is in British thermal units per hour. The constant, these uncertainties, the use of an environmental factor other
1,107, is derived by converting the heat input value of 21,000 than 1.0 for water spray is generally discouraged.
Bhl per hr per sq ft to standard cubic feet of free air by using
tbs latent heat of vaporization and molecular weight of hexanc 4.0 Means of Venting
(aCr Apwndix of this standard for further detail).
3.23 The total venting requirements in cubic feet 4.1 Normal Vents
of free air determined from Table 2 and the formula in Normal venting shall be accomplished by a pilot-
Par. 3.22 are based on the assumption that the stored operated relief valve, prcssure relief valve, pressure
liquid will have the characteristics of hexane, since this vacuum (PV) valve, or an open vent with or without
will provide results which are within an acceptable a flame-arresting device. in accordance with the follow-
d e p e of accuracy for almost all liquids encountered. ing requirements:
However, if a greater degree of accuracy is desired,
the total emergency venting requirement for any specific 1. A pilotsperated relief valve, if used, shall be so
liquid may be determined by the following formula: designed that the main valve will open automatically
and protect the tank in the event of failure of the pilot
Cubic feet of free air per hour = Y E valve diaphragm or other essential functioning device.
L a Relief valves equipped with a weight and lever prefer-
Where: ably should not be used.
V = cubic feet of free air per hour from Table 2 or 2. A pressure relief valve is appliciible on tanks oper-
the formula in Par. 3.22. ating above atmospheric pressure; in cases where a
174
vacuum can be created within a tank, vacuum protcction
may be required.
3. PV valves are recommcndcd for usc on atnlospheric
storage tanks in which oil with a flash point bclow 100 F
is stored and for use on tanks containing oil which is
heated above the flash point of the oil. A flanic arrester
is not considered necessary for use in conjunction with
a PV valve.
4. Open vents with a flame-arresting dcvice may bc
used in place of PV valves on tanks .in which oil with a
flash point below 100 F is storcd and on tanks conlain-
ing oil which is heated above the flash point of the oil.
5 . Open vents may be uscd to provide vcnting capncity
for tanks in which oil with a flash point of 100 1: or
above is storcd, for heated tanks whcrc thc oil stordg':
tempcrature is bclow the oil flash point, for tanks with
a capacity of less than 59.5 bbl (2,500 gal) used for
the storage of any product, and for tanks with a capacity
of less than 3,000 bbl (1 26,000 gal) used for the storage
of crude oil.
6. In the case of viscous oils, such as cu:baA and
penetration grade asphalts, whcre the danger of t x k
collapse resulting from sticking pallets or from pluggin2
of flame arresters is greater than the possibiiity of i l a m
transmission into the tank, open vcnts may be used as
an exception to the requirement for PV valvcs or flame-
arresting devices as called for in items 3 and 4.
4.2 Emergency Vents
Emergency venting may be accomplished by the
use of:
1. Larger or additional open vents as limited by Par.
4.1, items 3 and 4.
2. Larger or additional PV valves or pressure relief
valves.
3. A gage hatch which permits the cover to lift under
abnormal internal pressure.
4. A manhole cover which permits the cover to lift
under abnormal internal pressure.
5 . A connection between the roof and the shell which
is weaker than the weakest vertical joint in the shell or
shell-to-bottom connection. A tank with a roof-to-shell
attachment (maximum ?bin. single-fillet weld), as
described in Par. 3.5.2(c) and ( e ) of API Standard
650, is recognized as having a weak seam connection
and, therefore, will not require emergency vents.
6. Other forms of construction demonstrably compa-
rable for pressure relief purposes.
4.3 Vent Discharge
For tanks located inside buildings, discharge from
vents shall be to the outside of the buildings. A weak
roof-to-shell connection shall not be used as a means
for emergency venting a tank within a building.
5.0 Testing of Venting Devices
The capacity of venting devices shall be established
by any of the following:
1. In accordance with Par. UG-131 of Unfred Pres-
sure Vessels, Sect. VIII of A S M E Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (1965), with the exception that the deter-
mination of theoretical flow for the valve (actual dis-
charge area) and the application of any coefficient to
determine flow capacities shall be based on formulas
which describe flow rates occurring below the critical
pressure drop, rather than those shown in Par. UG-
131(e), item 2, which describe theoretical flow rates
above the critical pressure drop.
2. By determining flow capacities of manhole covers
with long bolts and similar venting devices by calcula-
tion, using a flow coefficient of 0.5, rather than by flow
test. The flow formula used shall be suitable for non-
critical flow and shall give proper consideration to
actual flow area, flowing pressure, and features of the
vent which would affect flow capacity. Data and cal-
culations to show how capacities were determined shall
be available.
3. By flow-testing at least one production model of
every type and size of venting device under the condi-
tions listed hereinafter. Tests may be made by the
manufacturer if certified by a qualified impartial ob-
server, or tests may be delegated to an outside agency.
5.1 Capacity Data
5.1 1 Capacity data shall be presented in the form
of curves or tables which give the volume of flow
through both vacuum and pressure ports, and which
cover the full range between the opening pressure (or
vacuum) and the pressure (or vacuum) at which the
ports are fully open. Capacity data for pilot-operated
vents or devices which open fully at set pressure (or
vacuum) may be expressed as a flow coefficient, this
coefficient being the ratio of the flow of the vent to
the flow of a theoretically perfect nozzle of the same
diameter.
5.12 Capacity data shall indicate points of initial
opening and final closing of the venting device; the
closing noted as pressure (or vacuum) is decreased
after fully opening the ports.
5.13 Capacity data shall be expressed in terms of
cubic feet of free air per hour at 60 F and at a pressure
of 14.7 psia.
5.14 Pressures shall be expressed in inches of
water; however, auxiliary scales shall be expressed in
ounces per square inch, and other units of measurement
may also be included if desired.
5.15 Sufficient measurements shall be made at
pressures in the viciuity of the opening points, particu-
larly at 1.15, 1.25, and 1.50 times the opening pressure
or vacuum, in order to clearly establish the flow capacity
at those points.

5.16 The pressure or vacuum at which the valve
disk reaches its fully open position shall be noted in the
capacity data sheet.
5.17 Capacity data shall include a statement of the
manner in which the valves were mounted and tested.
If any fluid other than air is used in the test, this fact
shall be noted on the test report, together with the
temperature of the fluid actually used and its specific
gravity at standard conditions.
5.2 Mounting of Venting Device for Test
5.21 To minimize the effect of entrance losses, the
venting device shall be mounted on the top of the test
tank at a location near the center of an area which is
essentially flat. The flat area shall have a diameter at
least five times greater than the nominal diameter of the
device to be tested.
5.22 The valve shall be mounted for test on a
straight-pipe nipple which has the same nominal di-
ameter as the valve and a length one and one-half times
the nominal diameter. The pipe nipple shall squarely
enter the top of the test tank near the center of the flat
portion, with the end of the nipple machined to 90 deg
with the axis and flush with the inside of the tank.
Rounding of the entrance in excess of a %-in. radius
shall not be permitted.
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5.23 Valves to be used on productica tanks or
to be mounted on special nozzles or fittings shall be
mounted on the test equipment in the same manner as
they are to be mounted in the field, with their axes in
the position normally used on a tank.
5.3 Test Tank
5.31 The test tank shall be so constructed as to
prevent high-velocity jets from impinging on the venting
device.
5.32 Provisions shall be made to dampen pulsations
in the test medium supply in order to avoid errors in
flow metering.
5.4 Flow Metering
5.41 Air or other suitable gas shall be employed in
testing the venting device.
5.42 Air or gas flow shall be measured in accord-
mce with Chapter 4, “Flow Measurement by Means of
Thin Plate Orifices, Flow Nozzles, and Venturi Tubes,”
of Part 5, “Measurement of Quantity of Materials,” of
the supplement on “Instruments and Apparatus” to the
ASME Power Test Codes.