177

Chapter 7

NATURAL GAS AND NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS

BRUCE A. ECKERSON, ARNOLD L. JOHNSON and

GEORGE V. CHILINGARIAN

INTRODUCTION

The contribution of natural gas to the national supply of energy in the U.S.A. is
presented in Figs. 7-1 and 7-2, with forecast through the year 2000. The demand for
natural gas is now greater than the supply during periods of cold weather.

100

LEAR
90

80

70
i3
E
a
8"
AND GAS LIPUIDS
b
3

'
;so
a
J

40
3!
I-
8'
6L 30

20

10

0 1920 1930 1940 I950 1960 1970 K)

Fig. 7-1. Distribution of United States energy market among various fuels, 1920-1980.
178

In the United States, over 75% of the required energy comes from petroleum and
natural gas (DeGolyer and MacNaughton, personal communication, 1976). Natural
gas and natural gas liquids contribute approximately 32% of this total.
Figure 7-1 shows the distribution of the total United States market from 1920 to
1980: (1) since 1920, the water power has remained approximately constant at 4%;
(2) nuclear energy has reached about 3% in 1975; (3) from 1920 to 1975, coal's share
of the market has decreased from 78% to 18%;(4) from 1920 to 1975, oil's share has
increased from 13% to 42%; (5) from 1920 to 1975, the natural gas share has
increased from 4% to 30%; and ( 6 ) the consumption of natural gas liquids have
increased from a negligible amount in 1920 to 3% of the energy market in 1975.
Marginal gas reserves containing large quantities of inerts, such as carbon dioxide
and nitrogen, are now being considered for development. Removal of inerts is
expensive and these resen-s can be economically produced when natural gas prices
are allowed to seek t h c - proper level. It is imperative that all available gas be
produced in the most efficient way, which requires an understanding of natural gas
and its properties.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is a naturally-occurring mixture of hydrocarbon and nonhydro,.

carbon gases found in porous formations beneath the earth's surface, often in
association with crude petroleum (AGA, 1965).
Primarily, natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules belonging to the
paraffin series. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, CH,; followed by ethane,
C,H,; propane, C,H,; butanes, C,H,,; and heavier components as shown in Table
7-1, and in Fig. 7-3. These compounds have the chemical formula of CnH2,,+,.
Natural gas is principally composed of methane with decreasing amounts of
ethane, propane, and heavier components. It normally is partially or completely
saturated with water vapor and may contain inert gases such as nitrogen and
helium, and acid gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans.
There are many dry gas fields in which no liquids are produced, and the only
processing required is dehydration, or perhaps, heating value adjustment.
The other fields, in which a clear condensate is produced with the gas, are called
condensate fields. In these fields the phenomenon of retrograde condensation often
occurs; that is, liquid condenses out of the gas as the pressure is reduced (Katz et
al., 1959). Thus, when the high-pressure gas is produced into a lower-pressure
system through a choke, liquid forms. Liquid also condenses in the formation as the
pore pressure drops and, unfortunately, does not completely revaporize before
abandonment pressure is reached. Cycling plants are installed to prevent this loss of
product.
The produced gas is processed to remove the heavy ends; the residue gas, rather
than being sold, is injected to maintain reservoir pressure. When the reservoir has
 179

TABLE 7-1
Composition of natural gases

Component Type of gas field Natural gas separated

Gas from crude oil
Dry gas, Sour gas,
Los Jumping condensate, Ventura "
Medanos " Pound ' Paloma L(
400 lb 50 Ib Vapor
(mole ') (mole ') %) (mole %) (mole %) (mole %)
Hydrogen sulfide 0 3.3 0 0 0 0
Carbon dioxide 0 6.7 0.68 0.30 0.68 0.81
Nitrogen and air 0.8 0 0 0 - 2.16
Methane 95.8 84.0 74.55 89.57 81.81 69.08
Ethane 2.9 3.6 8.28 4.65 5.84 5.07
Propane 0.4 1.o 4.74 3.60 6.46 8.76
Isobutane 0.1 0.3 0.89 0.52 0.92 2.14
n-Butane Trace 0.4 1.93 0.90 2.26 5.02
Isopent ane 0 * 0.75 0.19 0.50 1.42
n-Pent ane 0 0.63 0.12 0.48 1.41
Hexane 0 0.7 1.25
Heptane 0 0.15 1.05 4.13
Octane 0 6.30
Nonane 0
100.0 100.0 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
" In California. ' In Canada.

% ANNUAL
CHANGE 1979 O ' O ~ ~ 2000
~~ E
85-2000

YEAR

Fig. 7-2. Outlook on energy consumption in U.S.A.; forecast through the year 2000 (Copyright", 1985 by
Chevron Corporation.)
180

HYDROCARBONS IN NATURAL GAS

METHANE Ci CH4

ETHANE c2 C2H6 H-C-

" YC -H
k k
PROPANE C3 C3He Vt 'i'
H-C-C-C -H
k k h
M

Y H Y Y Y
PENTANE Ca CsH12 HC-~-C-C-C-H
~ A IH l H l H
Fig. 7-3. Principal hydrocarbons present in natural gas and their structural formulas. With few
exceptions, natural gas consists of at least 95% hydrocarbons. The remainder is nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
and, sometimes, small proportion of hydrogen sulfide. The principal hydrocarbon is methane with
heavier hydrocarbons, i.e., ethane, propane, butane, pentanes, hexanes, and heptanes, being present in
decreasing proportions.

been swept of heavy ends so that retrograde condensation no longer can occur, the
field is produced in a normal manner.
Gas is also produced with crude oil. This associated gas is normally rich in
recoverable liquids, and construction of a gas processing plant may be economically
justifiable even at relatively low gas production rates. At lower oil-gas separator
pressures the heavy ends content of the associated gas is higher.
Several gas analyses are given in Table 7-1 including dry gas, sour gas, gas from a
condensate field, and oil-well gas produced at different pressures. Although these
compositions are typical of many gases, it should be pointed out that nonhydro-
carbon contents may be many times those shown. Methane-ethane ratio may also
be as low as 4 : 1. This wide diversity of composition means that each gas must be
individually evaluated and properly handled. This is the function of a skilled gas
engineer, which is discussed later.
 181

GAS PROCESSING PLANTS

A typical gas processing plant produces residue sales gas and a variety of liquid
products including ethane, liquefield petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gasoline
(Table 7-11). Inasmuch as early plants were intended to remove only heavier
components intended for blending into motor fuel, the term gasoline plant came
into being. Since World War 11, recovery had emphasized both on LPG and natural
gasoline. LPG is usually defined as propane, butanes, or mixtures thereof. In recent
years, the extraction of ethane for petrochemical feedstocks has become an im-
portant function of the gas processing plant. Operation of the plant involves the
removal of impurities such as water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur compounds.
The number and types of hydrocarbon products produced depends on the size of
the plant and its location with respect to other facilities. Whereas older plants
generally have their own fractionation facilities, newer plants more often produce a
single demethanized or deethanized product, which is shipped by truck or pipeline
to a central fractionating facility. Older plants had a relatively long life expectancy,
being built during times of restricted production, and were designed for handling
relatively small volumes of gas over long periods. Modern plants, on the other hand,
have shorter lives, which is a result of unrestricted production, and the economics of
larger short-lived facilities are less acceptable. A centrally-located facility can handle
products from many sources and can, therefore, have a long economic life.
Natural gas may be liquefied and transported by ship. Liquefied natural gas,
normally referred to as LNG, is becoming an important source of energy for
European, American, and Japanese markets. Large LNG plants are operating or
planned for construction in Alaska, Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and

TABLE 7-11
Composition of natural gasoline (liquid volume per cent)

Ventura Gasoline Plant Ten Section Gasoline Plant

Reid vapor pressure 38 psia 60 psia 100 psia 22 psia
Ethane Trace 0.5 0.7 0
Propane 1.1 16.0 43.8 0
Isobutane 19.0 16.0 10.7 0.2
n-Butane 41.0 34.7 23.0 22.7
Isopentane 13.2 11.2 7.4 24.1
n-Pentane 11.3 9.5 6.3 21.0
Hexane 6.8 5.7 3.8 12.6
Heptane 5.3 4.4 2.9 13.7
Octane 1.2 1.o 0.7 4.1
Nonane 1.1 1.0 0.7 1.2
Decane Trace Trace Trace 0.4
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
182

other countries. Production of LNG, however, is not a normal surface operation in

petroleum production.

GAS SPECIFICATIONS

Sales gas specifications for natural gas include one or more of the following:
water content, hydrocarbon content, heating value, specific gravity, acid gas con-
tent, temperature, and pressure.

Water content

Water content is ordinarily expressed as pounds of water per million standard

cubic feet of gas; however, dew point temperature and pressure also are used. The
two methods have a definite relationship as shown by curves of water content as a
function of saturation temperature and pressure (N.G.P.S.A., 1966). Common
specifications are 1-, 4-,or 7-lb gas (i.e., lb water/Mscf gas) depending on the
severity of conditions to which the gas will be exposed. In some warmer areas a
maximum dew point of 50°F at delivery pressure is specified to assure that no water
will condense in underground lines. Ground temperatures seldom fall below that
level in those areas.

Hydrocarbon content

Hydrocarbon content is usually indicated indirectly by either heating value or

specific gravity. This procedure is not entirely accurate because composition can
vary widely in a multicomponent system without changing either property signifi-
cantly. Hydrocarbon dew points are sometimes specified or limits placed on gas
enrichment with reference to specific components, expressed as gallons of liquefia-
ble material per thousand cubic feet of gas (GPM, G/M, or gal/Mcf). Of particular
importance are hexanes and heavier components which may condense or otherwise
create problems in gathering or distribution systems. If significant amounts of
carbon dioxide or nitrogen are present, neither gravity nor heating value will
indicate hydrocarbon content. If both of these properties are measured, presence of
one or both of these impurities will be indicated because either will raise gravity and
lower heating value.
Hydrocarbon content is not specified as often as it was in the past. The demand
for energy has made purchasers less demanding. Gas is seldom sold strictly on a
volume basis today, the price being adjusted for the heating value of the gas. The
contract gas price is expressed as $/MMBtu; the price per Mcf is equal to
$/MMBtu X gas Btu per cf/1000.

Acid gas content

Acid gas content is specified according to the particular impurity. The usual
specification for hydrogen sulfide is 0.25 grain/100 scf, although specifications as
 183

high as 1.0 grain/100 scf are sometimes found. As a comparison, current OSHA
standard for H,S in ambient air is 20 ppm (1.2 grains/100 scf); at that level,
protective gear is required. Mercaptans are also expressed as grains/lOO scf;
however, they do not often present a problem in gas sales because mercaptans are
added as a warning odorant for natural gas. Carbon dioxide content may also be
specified; an upper limit is commonly 5% by volume. There are a few reported cases
of carbonyl sulfide (COS), although its occurrence in natural gas is rare.

GAS TEST METHODS

The value of any specification depends on the availability of reliable test methods
to determine the specific property. Reference is made to published test methods of
the American Society for Testing Materials (A.S.T.M), Gas Processors Association
(G.P.A.), and the Pacific Energy Association (P.E.A.; previously Western Gas
Processors and Oil Refiners Association: W.G.P. and O.R.A.). Specific references
are given at the end of this chapter (G.P.A., 1980a-d; N.G.P.S.A., 1962,1966,1972;
P.E.A., 1943, 1950, 1966; W.G.P.&O.R.A., 1950a,b, 1955, 1956, 1965). The follow-
ing methods are the most common.
Water content

Water content is most often determined by measuring the dew point temperature
at a fixed pressure with a commercial device (Bureau of Mines Tester). This
indicator consists of a pressure chamber with a thermometer and a mirror that can
be cooled with a refrigerant. The dew point is visually observed and the water
content read from any standard chart (e.g., N.G.P.S.A., 1966). Some experience is
required to differentiate between the water and the hydrocarbon dew points. Water
content and dew point are relatively independent of gas composition. At very low
water contents, a. suitable refrigerant may not be readily available and, in some
cases, a continuous record is desired. In these cases a recorder using the conductiv-
ity of a hygroscopic salt is used.
Carbon dioxide and air

Determination of carbon dioxide and air, as well as hydrocarbons, is most

frequently done by gas chromatography. Carbon dioxide is also determined by
Orsat analysis which is based on volume reduction of a known volume of gas after
reaction of the carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide solution. Air is sometimes
estimated by determining oxygen by Orsat analysis with a special reagent (pyrogal-
101) and assuming a normal air/O, ratio.

Hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is determined by the cadmium sulfide test in which a measured

volume of gas is first bubbled through a cadmium solution to precipitate cadmium
184

sulfide and then titrated iodometrically. In the presence of very high concentrations
of H,S the Tutweiler method is used by allowing it to react directly with iodine
solution. A qualitative test for the presence of H,S is the use of moist lead acetate
paper. Semiquantitative tests can be made with any of several “length of stain”
tubes, in which a substrate is impregnated with a reagent that turns dark on contact
with H,S. The length of darkening and the volume of gas are a measure of the H,S
con tent.

Specific gravity

Specific gravity, whch can be determined with a gravity balance, is commonly

measured with a Ranarex or calculated from the gas analysis.

Heating value

Calorimeters are used for direct determination of heating value. Inasmuch as the
equipment is very expensive, however, it is more common to analyze the gas by
chromatography and calculate the heating value from known properties of the
individual components. A method for this calculation has been published by the
G.P.A. This method is also used for specific gravity and compressibility determina-
tions.

Gas measurement

Measurement of natural gas usually involves inserting a restrictive orifice in the

line and measuring the pressure drop across the orifice. Basic measurement data
were developed by the American Gas Association, which appears in the publications
of G.P.A., P.E.A., and the Southern California Meter Association. Chapter 2 of
Volume I1 discusses the equipment and procedures involved in gas measurement in
detail.

NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS

Natural gas liquids can be classified as (1) ethane, (2) LPG (liquefied petroleum
gas), or (3) natural gasoline. The LPG is normally restricted to propane and butane
or mixtures thereof, with small amounts of ethane and pentane being present as
impurities. Natural gasoline is considered by many to consist of pentane and heavier
hydrocarbons, but the term is also applied to mixtures of LPG and pentanes plus
(i.e., pentanes and heavier fractions).

Liquid specifications

Liquid specifications as set by mutual agreement between buyer and seller vary
widely, but approximate limits for commercial products can be summarized as
follows:
 185

Ethane
Maximum methane content = 1.5%by volume. Maximum carbon dioxide content
= 0.28% by volume. It is noncorrosive by using copper strip method.

Propane
A minimum of 95% propane by volume, a maximum of 1-2% butane, and a
maximum vapor pressure which limits ethane content. The currently used vapor
pressure is 208 psig, which is limited by the working pressure of DOT shipping
containers (300 psig at 130°F.) Corrosivity, sulfur content, dryness, and specific
gravity also may be specified. If propane is to be used as a motor fuel, the propylene
content is limited because of its low octane rating.
Butane
The percentage of one of the butane isomers is usually specified along with the
maximum amounts of propane and pentane. Other properties that may be specified
are vapor pressure, specific gravity, corrosivity, dryness, and sulfur content.
Butane-propane mixture
In the case of butane-propane mixture, in addition to limits on nonhydro-
carbons, the maximum isopentane content is usually stated. The particular mix is
identified by vapor pressure or percentages of the components.
Natural gasoline
In the midcontinent area, natural gasoline is designated or sold on the basis of
vapor pressure or, sometimes, by grade. The grade is defined by the vapor pressure
and the percent vaporized at 140'F and 740 mm Hg. On the Pacific Coast, gasolines
are usually sold on the basis of actual composition, which is determined from the
Reid vapor pressure-composition curves prepared for each product source. Specifi-
cations for natural gasoline limit the Engler distillation end point to 375°F. End
points of 300-32OoF, however, are more common.
Liquid testing
Standard tests for LPG and gasoline are given in the technical bulletins referred
to above. The P.E.A. Bulletin TS-352 presents an empirical method for computing
Reid vapor pressure from analytical data. Engler distillation and copper strip
corrosivity tests are A.S.T.M. methods. The G.P.A. has published an improved
copper strip method using instrumental readings to replace colorimetric visual
evaluation,

GAS TREATING

Water removal
The most common impurity in natural gas requiring treatment is water. Water
removal is necessary to prevent condensation of water and formation of ice or gas
186

PUMP

Fig. 7-4. Fluid process for gas treating.

hydrates. Liquid water can cause corrosion or erosion problems in pipelines and
various equipment, particularly in the presence of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide. Solid formation can plug pipelines, block control valves, and cause other
operating problems. The simplest method of water removal is to cool the gas to a
temperature equal to or below the required dew point. The range of this method can
be extended if cooling can be done at higher pressures. For example, if it is
necessary to produce a gas with a dew point of 50°F at 135 psig (water content of
60 lb/MMscf) when the best available cooling is 80"F, the required dew point can
be realized by cooling to 80°F at 460 psig or higher, under which conditions the
water content will be 60 lb/MMscf or lower.
In a majority of cases, cooling alone is insufficient and, in field applications,
usually impractical. Most dehydration requires the use of solid adsorbents or
hygroscopic liquids. Solid desiccants include alumina, silica gel, and molecular
sieves. Liquid agents for countercurrent contact are usually di- or triethylene glycol.
Ethylene glycol can be directly injected into the gas stream in refrigeration-type
plants (see Fig. 7-8).
Figure 7-4 shows a typical fluid process for gas treating which may be used for
glycol dehydration. Field units normally do not have a reflux drum or pump. The
regenerator overhead is cooled with air fins at the top of the column or by an
internal coil through which the feed flows. Reflux condenses and flows downward
by gravity.
Countercurrent vapor-liquid contact between the gas and the glycol produces an
outlet dew point that is a function of the contact temperature and the residual water
content of the stripped or lean glycol. Stripping (regeneration) of glycols is limited
by the temperatures to which they can be heated. Both di- and triethylene glycol
tend to decompose before they boil. The boiling point composition curves of both
glycols are almost identical; better stripping and, hence, lower dew points can be
 187

COOLING GAS-OUT

n7-+by
Y
m, BED BED
COOLER A

-
WATER

-@ HEATING GAS - O U T +
, r

COOLING GAS-IN
I
INLET I V PROCESS GAS-IN

obtained with triethylene glycol which has a higher decomposition temperature.

Normal dew point depressions are 50-60°F below contact temperature for diethyl-
ene glycol and 70-75°F for triethylene glycol.
Special techniques such as stripping of hot triethylene glycol with dry gas give
dew point depressions up to 100°F or more. The Drizo Process, which uses heavy
hydrocarbon vapors as a stripping medium for triethylene glycol, reportedly can
give equally low dew point depressions. Vacuum distillation can also be used.
Figure 7-5 shows a typical two-bed solid adsorbent treater used for dehydration.
While one bed is removing water from process gas, the other is being heated and
cooled. Sometimes a three-bed system is used: one bed is adsorbing, one is heating,
and one is cooling. An added advantage is that the three-bed system can be used as
a two-bed system while the third bed is being maintained or replaced. For this
reason, a third bed is most often used where a dehydrator failure can result in a
costly plant shutdown.
Desiccants, as mentioned above, may be alumina, silica or molecular sieve. Silica
gel and aluminas have capacities for water adsorption in the order of 7-8% by
weight; cheaper bauxite (crude alumina): 4-6%; and molecular sieves: up to 15%.
These are long-term design capacities and not the higher initial capacities often
quoted. Molecular sieves are severalfold more expensive, but provide very low dew
point outlet gas and are used almost exclusively for cryogenic plant feed prepara-
tion.
Because of its high tolerance to hydrogen sulfide, silica is usually selected for
sour gas dehydration. To protect molecular sieve beds from plugging by sulfur,
alumina beds are sometimes placed ahead of the molecular sieves to remove the
sulfur compounds.
Regeneration is usually carried out with gas heated to 350-400'F. Heating is
continued until the gas leaving the bed reaches 300-375°F. Although lower temper-
188

atures result in longer bed life, higher temperatures regenerate better. Molecular
sieves require regeneration gas having temperatures of 450-500'F.
Downflow is most commonly used during adsorption, with regeneration flow
being in the opposite direction and cooling in the same direction as adsorption. This
flow pattern requires the smallest vessel diameter because of higher permissible gas
velocities. There is no tendency to lift the bed and cause breakage. Upflow, although
more expensive because of initial vessel cost, is more conducive to trouble-free
operation.

Acid gas removal

Treatment of natural gas to remove the acid gas constituents (carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide) is most often accomplished by contact with an alkaline solution.
The basic flow is the same as that shown in Fig. 7-4. Common treating solutions are
aqueous solutions of the ethanol amines or alkali carbonates. A number of special
treating agents have been developed in recent years the action of which is based on
physical absorption and chemical reaction. Most of the newer agents are economi-
cally competitive only when the ,partial pressure of the acid gas is high (50-75 psi or
higher). When only carbon dioxide is to be removed in large quantities, or when
only partial removal is necessary, hot carbonate or one of the physical solvents is
the most economical selection. The hot carbonate process operates at about 200'F
and both the heat exchanger and the solution cooler are eliminated (Fig. 7-4).
Hydrogen sulfide is sometimes removed by the iron oxide or dry box method.
The gas is passed through a bed of wood chips or shavings impregnated with iron
oxide, while the bed is being kept moist by circulation of a small stream of soda ash
solution. The hydrogen sulfide reacts with the iron oxide to form iron sulfide and is
regenerated by passing air through the bed, either continuously or on a batch basis.
Aeration of the bed converts the iron sulfide to elemental sulfur and iron oxide. The
method is suitable only for small quantities of sulfur, inasmuch as only about 90%
removal per bed can be realized. If several beds in series are required, the process is
not economic. The total sulfur removed by a bed is limited, because it becomes
clogged with elemental sulfur and must be discarded.
Modern environmental considerations may require that impurities should not be
discharged to the air. Most hydrogen sulfide removal processes return the hydrogen
sulfide unchanged. If the quantity involved does not justify installation of a sulfur
recovery plant, usually a Claw plant, then a process must be selected which
produces elemental sulfur directly. The dry box is suitable for the removal of small
quantities of hydrogen sulfide, whereas larger quantities require a continuous
process such as Ferrox or Stretford. Ferrox process is based on the same reactions
as the dry box method except that it is fluid and continuous. Stretford is a licensed
process using a solution containing vanadium salts and anthraquinone disulfonic
acid (ADA). In an excellent book, Dr. R.N. Maddox of Oklahoma State University
discusses these treating methods in detail (Maddox, 1974).
 189

Nitrogen removal

Nitrogen is sometimes found in sufficient quantities to lower the heating value of

the gas. Such a gas can sometimes be sold at reduced prices if it can be blended with
a gas having a higher heating value. Some gas reserves were left undeveloped in the
past because the low energy content in the gas would not justify treatment. At
current high gas prices, however, plants for the removal of nitrogen are being
considered and a few have been installed. Nitrogen removal requires liquefaction
and fractionation of the entire gas stream which is quite expensive.

LIQUID EXTRACTION

Recovery of liquid hydrocarbons can be justified either because it is necessary to

make the gas salable or because it is economic to do so. With the increasing scarcity
of natural gas, purchasers are less critical and processing for liquid recovery is
usually based on economic considerations alone. Figure 7-6 shows the value of
recoverable liquids as natural gas energy. The justification for building a plant
depends on the spread between the value of enriched gas containing heavier
hydrocarbons and the price of lean gas plus the value of extracted liquid. The
spread must be sufficient to pay operating costs, amortize the plant cost, and
provide an adequate rate of return on capital. In many cases, particularly when the
volume of gas is small, processing cannot be justified.
If salability of the gas is the only reason for processing, then liquid removal
usually is a field operation using either crude oil enrichment, adsorption, or

30

m
c

8 10

0
I.o 1.5 21) 2.5
Dollar8 per million BTU
Fig. 7-6.Value of liquids as gas.
190

refrigeration processes. If liquid recovery is economic, the extent to which extraction

is carried out will depend on the availability of a market for the products and
heating value limitations of the residue gas. Most of the liquid recovery plants
recover a substantial portion of the propane and essentially all of the butanes and
heavier hydrocarbons comprising gasoline. These products can be readily moved by
rail, truck, and pipeline. Ethane recovery depends on availability of a product
pipeline, although small amounts of ethane are moved by truck or rail when mixed
with heavier hydrocarbons. Sufficient amount of ethane, however, must be left in
the gas to meet contractual requirements for heating value.

Crude enrichment

The purpose of crude enrichment is to produce two products: sales gas and
enriched tank oil. The tank oil contains more light hydrocarbon liquids than the
virgin crude oil and the residue gas is drier (leaner). Inasmuch as crude oil is finally
separated at atmospheric pressure, only those fractions can be added that can be
retained at that pressure. Every crude oil enrichment process, therefore, must, in
some manner, remove light ends from the oil to make room for the gasoline-and the
LPG fractions. One of the simplest and yet least often recognized methods is
manipulation of the number and operating pressures of the gas-oil separators
(traps). In rare cases, separator temperatures also can be varied. Selection of trap
pressures will also affect the nature of other processing steps and significantly affect
the amount of gas compression.
One method of removing light ends is using pressure reduction (vacuum condi-
tioning). A typical process of this type is shown in Fig. 7-7. Heating, stripping with

p
SALES

bR
GAS

COOLER I

COMPRESSOR
TO FUEL OR
COMPRESSION

CRUDE I
OIL

1
-k
PUh

Fig. 7-7. Crude oil enrichment process.

 191

dry gas, or a combination thereof are also used. Generally, stripping is done at low
pressure, after which the crude so stripped is pumped to high pressure to act as an
adsorbent. The enriched crude oil is then reduced to atmospheric pressure in stages
or using fractionation (rectification). Crude oil enrichment is used where there is no
separate market for light hydrocarbon liquids, or where the increase in API gravity
of the crude will provide a substantial increase in the price per unit volume as well
as volume of the stock tank oil.

Adsorption

When gases are relatively lean, adsorption-type units are installed for liquid
recovery. Equipment is similar to that used for dehydration (Fig. 7-5),and operation
is identical except for the length of the cycle. Dehydration is normally accomplished
in eight hours or longer and permits saturation of the bed with water, resulting in
the displacement of adsorbed hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon recovery requires 30-60
min per cycle and most of the adsorbed hydrocarbons are retained. The size of the
unit depends on the amount of liquid to be adsorbed and, therefore, the process is
not economically feasible for rich gases.

Refrigeration processes

Refrigeration processes can be classified according to the source of the refrigera-

tion and the nature of the basic separation step. A typical flow sheet is shown in
Fig. 7-8. In this case, mechanical or compression-type refrigeration is used to reduce

I GAS
SALES I f
FUEL
GAS

t
192

the temperature, and the basic separation is simply a phase separation followed by
liquid stabilization. When wellhead pressures are high and large pressure drops can
be used, expansion across a choke (Joule-Thomson effect) will supplement mecha-
nical refrigeration or even supplant refrigeration by an outside medium. Propane
and ammonia are the most common refrigerants. Ethylene glycol is injected into the
system at points where icing or gas hydrate formation can occur. The glycol is
recovered from the main separator and regenerated in the manner shown in Fig. 7-4.
The most common process used today, when liquid recovery can be economically
justified, is the one which uses a turboexpander to produce the necessary refrigera-
tion. Very low temperatures and high recovery of light components, such as ethane
and propane, can be attained using this process, a typical flow chart of which is
presented in Fig. 7-9. Inlet gas is dehydrated in molecular sieve beds and cooled by
heat exchange. The separated liquid containing most of the heavy fractions is fed to
a demethanizer column. The cold vapors are expanded through a turbine which is
loaded by a compressor wheel on the same shaft. This removal of energy from the
gas results in much lower temperatures than are possible by ordinary Joule-Thom-
son expansion. The expander outlet is a two-phase stream that is fed to the top of
the demethanizer column, which serves as a separator. The liquid is used as the
column reflux and the separated vapors combined with vapors stripped in the
demethanizer are exchanged with the feed gas. The heated gas, which is partially
recompressed by the expander compressor, is further recompressed to sales pressure
in a separate compressor. Inlet gas is used for heating reboiler, which makes the
 193

I
FGAS
UEL

GLYCOL
I SALES GAS
J
INTAKE t
GAS v
HEAT
EXCHANGER a
2
s
-43
Ir
REBOILER
CONDENSATE

\--1

-To
GLYCOL WATER I 1

Fig. 7-10. Vapor rectification process.

process very efficient, i.e., the fuel is only required for dehydrator regeneration and
for recompression. When the inlet gas is rich in liquefiable hydrocarbons, the inlet
heat exchange is supplemented by mechanical refrigeration ahead of the primary
separator.
Vapor rectification processes, typified by Fig. 7-10, also employ mechanical
refrigeration, but the basic separation is accomplished in a series of steps in the
vapor-rectified column. Refrigeration is applied to the column overhead to produce
reflux and, sometimes, to partially condense the feed. If the recovery of lighter
liquids is sufficiently high, the reboiler may be placed on the vapor rectifier and the
stabilizer is not used. The process is very flexible within the limits set by heating
medium, refrigeration system, and equipment size. Production can be varied simply
by resetting the top and bottom temperatures.

Absorption

Up until the early 1970s most hydrocarbon recovery plants involved oil absorp-
tion process. These complex plants tend to consume excessive fuel and are difficult
to operate. In a time of energy conservation and the trend towards construction of
short-lived plants, oil absorption process has become economically undesirable in
most new applications. Although the majority of operating plants still use this
process, very few newly-constructed plants utilize it. Oil absorption process involves
countercurrent contact between stripped or lean oil with the incoming wet gas,
(Figs. 7-11 and 7-12), at such conditions of temperature and pressure that the
desired amounts of the liquefiable components are dissolved in the oil (Figs. 7-13
and 7-14) together with lesser amounts of lighter components. Refrigeration is
frequently used to obtain lower (more favorable) temperatures. The remainder of
194

Wire Mesh Demirler

R e s i d u e G o s lo S a l e s

Lean Oil

Troy

Bubble C o p

Down Spoul

W c l Gor

Rich Oil

u
Fig. 7-11. A schematic diagram of bubble tray absorber.

the plant can be divided into the following functional sections: (1) separation of
light ends from the oil; (2) separation of absorbed materials from the oil; (3) final
removal of light ends from the raw product; and (4) separation of the raw product
into various finished products.
A typical oil absorption system is illustrated in Fig. 7-15. The extraction of a
given component in the absorber depends on (1)the number of equilibrium contacts
(theoretical trays) in the absorber during countercurrent flow of gas and liquid and
(2) the absorption factor A defined as L / V K , where L = moles of liquid, V = moles
of vapor, and K = equilibrium ratio. Inasmuch as the L / V is a molal ratio, a
low-molecular-weight oil will yield a large L for the same volume of oil circulated.
Refrigeration, intercooling, and presaturation of the oil with light components are
all used to reduce effective absorber temperature and increase the absorption factor
by reducing K,the equilibrium ratio (mole fraction of a component in the gas: mole
fraction of component in the oil). Increase in pressure also reduces K up to a point;
 195

Fig. 7-12. Bubble cap (a, b) and bubble tray (c, d).

LEAN OIL RATE O A L S ~ C F

Fig. 7-13. Relationship between the propane recovery (in 76) and lean oil/gas ratio (in gal/Mcf). Ventura
gasoline plant, California.
196

o/o PROPANE RECOVERED

Fig. 7-14.Relationship between the propane recovery (in %) and recovery of butane and pentane.
Ventura gasoline plant, California.

however, after reaching a minimum at some high pressure (500-600 psig), the value
of K starts to increase. Absorber pressure is usually set by the sales or end-use
pressure. Absorbers used in cycling plants are operated in the 1400-2000 psig range,
because it is more economic to cool or circulate more oil than to greatly increase the
recompression horsepower.
The rejection of unwanted light ends may be carried out in one or more steps.
Methane is nearly always removed in the rich-oil rectifier by pressure reduction and
heating. In many plants this column also removes the ethane. Following rich-oil
rectification, the absorbed material is removed from the oil in the stripper or a still.
If a heavy absorption oil is used, stripping is commonly done by preheating the oil
and countercurrently contacting it with steam. Steam is used because it is easily
condensed and is immiscible with the raw product. With low-molecular-weight oils,
 197

S
I CONDENSER

COOLER

Fig. 7-15. Oil absorption process.

the still feed is heated by ‘exchange with the still bottoms and a fired heater is
installed as a reboiler. Low pressure is conducive to good stripping, whereas high
pressure aids condensation. Although most operations represent a compromise
between these two factors, some plants use two stills in series: one at high pressure

ISOBUTANE

PROPANE BUTANE

XED

N4TURAL GASOLINE FROM

DISTILLATION AREA

REBOILER

DEPROPANIZED GA5OLINE
I

I I

Fig. 7-16. Flow diagram of fractionation area.

198

to condense the light ends and the second at low pressure to insure good stripping
of the heavier gasoline fractions. If the oil is not well stripped, the lighter compo-
nents in the oil will be vaporized in the absorber and lost in the residue gas stream.

Fractionation

As was mentioned earlier, the trend is toward construction of large, centrally

located, fractionating systems; however, at times local systems may be justified. The
order of fractionation (i.e., which product is produced first) can vary widely. There
are two general rules of thumb which can be substantiated by economic evaluation:
(1) remove any unwanted light ends in the first column so that the other columns
can run totally condensing; and (2) remove the largest product stream first. In
practice this means that the first column will be a deethanizer unless (1) all ethane
was removed in the rich-oil rectifier or (2) an ethane product is being made and
shipped as an ethane-propane mix. Normally propane or ethane is the largest
volume product and the depropanizer is the next column; they are followed by the
debutanizer and the butane splitter (Fig. 7-16). Using this design each column can
operate at a successively lower pressure and streams will flow from column to
column without pumping. On the other hand, if propane recovery is low, it may be
desirable to debutanize first in order to get rid of the large gasoline stream and then
depropanize, followed by a splitter if there is one.

GAS GATHERING

Custody transfer of the gas normally takes place immediately downstream of the
trap, and it is the responsibility of the gas plant operator to gather the gas for
processing. Substantial savings in compressor horsepower can be realized if multiple
stages of separation are used. This means a partial duplication of the gathering
system to bring gas at two different pressures to a compressor station. A careful
economic study must be made to evaluate the advantages of one system over the
other during the life of the operation.
Generally, the processor gathers the gas at low pressure and compresses it to the
processing pressure which is usually the residue gas sales pressure (see Fig. 7-27). In
most gas processing units the greatest capital investment is for the gas compressors
and auxiliaries. If the gas gathering lines are short, it is advantageous to locate
compressors at the plant where they can be attended for more efficient operation. It
is a good rule of thumb that length of gathering lines to a compressor suction should
never exceed five miles. Field compressors, designed for unattended operation,
should be used for greater distances. In the later stages of a field’s operation, when
gas volumes have declined and gathering lines may be oversized, it may be possible
to bypass the field compressors. Laying of pipelines (pattern-wise), size of pipelines,
and location of compressors should be based on economic considerations, both
current and future.
 199

i COOL1 n

Fig. 7-17. Example of a gas-gathering system for an oil field.

If the wells are in a gas field, rather than an oil field, the gathering lines are
normally-sized to deliver the gas at utilization pressure. As the wellhead pressure
declines, compression is added to maintain the flow.
Hydrate formation in gas gathering lines is often a serious problem, particularly
if high pressures, low temperatures, and long distances are involved. Gas hydrates,
which resemble wet snow and have a crystalline structure, can plug lines and valves
if allowed to form. Hydrates may form at temperatures considerably above the
freezing point of water; for example, at a pressure of 800 psi a water-wet,
0.7-specific gravity gas will form hydrates at a temperature of approximately 65°F.
There are three methods commonly used to prevent hydrate formation in gas
gathering lines:
(1) Operation at temperatures and pressures at which hydrates cannot form.
Wellhead gas heaters are sometimes used to heat the gas entering the gathering
system, such as at the Shell’s Jumping Pound Plant in Canada.
(2) Dehydration of natural gas at the source before it enters the gas gathering
lines. This system is used at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska (Wilson, 1974) and at the Ekofisk
Field in the North Sea (Kennedy, 1972).
(3) Injection of hydrate inhibitors into the gas gathering lines. Methanol is
commonly used where only a small amount of inhibitor is required. It is sometimes
used for large systems particularly when salt water is present. For example,
200

methanol is injected into the gathering line at the offshore production platform for
the Viking Field in the North Sea. A methanol-water mixture is separated from the
well fluid at the associated onshore facilities. This stream is subsequently fractionated
to recover methanol as a top product and salt water as a bottom product.
When salt is not present, ethylene glycol is sometimes injected into the gathering
line to prevent hydrate formation. Dilute glycol is separated at the gas processing
plant for reconcentration and is recycled back to the inlet of the gathering system.
This procedure was followed in the offshore Molino Field near Santa Barbara,
California.
Two-phase flow is frequently encountered in gas gathering lines. This occurs
when warm gas enters the system and subsequently cools to a temperature below its
dew point and/or when well fluid consisting of gas, condensate, and water enters
the gathering system. Under certain flow conditions, long sections of line may fill
with liquid, thereby increasing the pressure drop in the system. Liquid can be
displaced out of the line to improve its efficiency by running spheres (“pigs”)
through the line. It may be necessary to install a large vessel or “slug catcher” at the
outlet of the gathering lines to collect these large volumes of liquid. The slug catcher
acts as a surge to level out the liquid flow to the processing facilities. An example of
this is the 3000-bbl capacity slug catcher at a pressure of 1050 psig installed in the
onshore facilities of the Viking Field.
Although only gas transmission lines and gathering lines in incorporated areas
are subject to regulation by the Federal Office of Pipeline Safety, prudent operators
should design and install all pipelines in accordance with those standards. Steel lines
must have certain minimum wall thickness and be designed for the required
operating pressure and density of population. They must be coated, wrapped,
cathodically protected against corrosion, and buried with the proper amount of
cover to avoid rupture by outside operations. Many operators are now using PVC or
other plastic pipe for gas gathering lines below a pressure of 50 psig. These pipes are
less expensive, require no coating, and are less expensive to install.

GAS INJECTION

Produced gas may be processed and injected back into the formation from which
it is produced. Additional gas from other formations may also be injected to
supplement the gas produced from a given oil zone. This is done for two reasons: (1)
reservoir engineers have determined that the production of oil can be maximized
(maximum recovery) by maintaining the field pressure and/or (2) the gas cannot be
sold because an outlet is not available and venting is not permitted because of air
pollution regulations. Injection pressures of 3000-4000 psig are common.
 201

GAS ENGINEERING

The gathering and processing of natural gas is very complex, and careful
evaluation of all engineering and economic factors is essential for an efficient and
profitable operation (see Fig. 7-18). This is the function of a gas engineer with the
assistance of specialists from other fields.
The first step in the evaluation of a new project is to determine gas reserves. This
is usually done by a reservoir engineer with assistance from a geologist. The results
of this study must also include an estimate of deliverability versus time. Although
the well test is helpful, test volumes tend to be higher than can be realized in
sustained production. The well test results also include compositional data. A
complete analysis is much more desirable than some quick test methods used for
product allocation. Consideration must be given to probable changes in composition
in oil well gases as gas/oil ratios increase.
On the basis of the gas analysis and the market conditions, the process engineer
will prepare a flowsheet for the processing scheme and the mechanical engineer will
prepare detailed designs and mechanical equipment specifications. Preliminary cost
estimates are prepared by the process and/or mechanical engineer. The gas engineer
will make an economic evaluation outlining production, income, expenses and
profitability. If the profitability meets the requirements of the management of a

FUNCTIONS OF ENGINEERING DEPT.

QE
NATURAL GAS AND GASOLINE DIVISION
j -1

I PROCESS
I
ENGINEERING 1 I
I
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING I

1 JUSTIFICATION, I
I

.
PROFITABILITY, PAYOUT
t ,
(PROJECT)
PROJECT

I I
~

HYDROCARBON BALANCE
I P L O T PLAN 1
I EQUIPMENT RATING 1
L I

I 1
I PROCESS ENGINEERING I 1 - 1
PROCESS PROBLEMS AND CONSTRUCTION
INSTRUMENTATION SUPERVISION

I START UP ]
Fig. 7-18. Example of functions of engineering department of the natural gas and gasoline division
202

particular company, the project will proceed. Economic criteria vary widely; among
those used are payout, rate of return on capital, ratio of cash flow to investment,
and the net present value at a specified discount rate.
Final engineering design may be completed in-house and the engineering draw-
ings submitted to contractors for construction bids, or the entire project may be
submitted to contractors for both final design and construction. The size of the
engineering group determines how much work is done in-house. In very small
companies, a few engineers perform all the engineering functions and preliminary as
well as final design may be made by an engineering contractor.
The various facets of gas engineering are so interrelated that even a specialist,
such as the process or mechanical engineer, should be as familiar as possible with all
aspects of a project, including field production, so that the proper decisions can be
made. The production engineer responsible for field operations should also be
familiar with the problems of the gas processor in order to make the entire
operation run smoothly.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS

(1) Draw a simplified flow 'diagram of absorption, stripping, and stabilization

operations.
(2) Describe three general methods of concentrating the components of gases.
(3) List agents which can remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gases. Also show
corresponding reactions.
(4) Draw a simplified flow diagram and cross section of an ethylene recovery
unit.
(5) For a specific period of operation of the ethylene recovery plant, the
compositions of the various streams are given below in mole%:

Component Feed Make Discharge Purge

29.2 0.0 23.3 42.6
2.9 0.0 2.5 3.9
1.1 0.0 1.1 1.3
1.3 0.0 1.3 1.6
58.4 0.0 71.5 49.2
1.2 13.9 0.2 0.5
5.9 86.2 0.0 0.8
100.0 100.1 99.9 99.9

For the period covered by the table, the number of moles of discharge gas was
1.447 times the number of moles of purge gas, and 94.8% of the C,H, was recovered
in the make gas.
For each 100.0 moles of feed gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams, entering the
answers on a skeleton-flow diagram.
 203

(6) For a specific period of operation of the natural gasoline plant, the composi-
tions of the various streams are given below in mole%:

Raw Absorber Reabsorber Stabilizer Finished

gas residual residual residual gasoline
gas gas gas
Cl 44.5 60.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
c2 16.9 22.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
c3 16.2 14.2 55.4 53.1 0.0
c4 12.1 2.6 44.6 46.9 34.4
c: 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 65.6
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

For each 110.0 moles of the raw gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams, entering the
answers on a skeleton-flow diagram.
(7) Crude oil is heated in exchangers by the counter-current flow of fuel oil.
Measured at 60°F, the exchangers handle 30,500 gal/hr of the crude and 10,250
gal/hr of the fuel oil. The gravity and U.O.P. characterization factor of the crude
are 35" API and 11.3, whereas those for the fuel oil are 20" API and 11.3,
respectively. The fuel oil is cooled from 750 to 250"F, and the crude enters the
exchangers at 85°F.
Compute the heat lost by the fuel oil in Btu/hr. Estimate the outlet temperature
of the crude oil, assuming all of the heat lost by the fuel oil is picked up by the
crude.
(8) Engineers were studying the advisability of deasphalting lube oil by contact
with a mixture of propane and normal butane. A mixture containing 32.1 mole%
propane, 31.2 mole% butane, and 36.7 mole S lube oil was flashed at 25 psig and
100°F. Under these conditions, the equilibrium ratios ( K= y / x ) were 3.87 for
propane, 1.28 for butane, and 0.00 for the lube oil. For 100.0 moles of the original
mixture, compute the number of moles and mole % of each constituent in the
equilibrium liquid. For the first approximation, assume that the total number of
moles of liquid is 1.75 times the total number of moles of vapor, or L / V = 1.75.
(9) Outline a satisfactory sampling procedure for a nonretrograde wet gas and
sketch the equipment required. What precautions should be taken?
(10) A mixture of nitrogen and propane having a gross heating value of 1035
Btu/cu ft is used as a fuel in lieu of natural gas. It is transported in a buried line. If
the ground temperature is 50"F, what is the maximum permissible pressure that will
avoid condensation of liquid in the line?
(11) (a) Define "equilibrium ratio".
@) What factors affect the value of the equilibrium ratio?
(c) What methods can be used to correlate the most complex of the factors
listed in (b)?
(12) On purchasing propane as a motor fuel, what properties should one specify?
Why? Describe testing procedures.
204

APPENDIX 7.1 - SAMPLE PLANT FLOW PROBLEMS (After Chilingar and Beeson, 1968, pp.
360-365)

Ethylene recovery plant problem

For a specific period of operation of the ethylene recovery plant, the composi-
tions of the various streams are given below in mole %:

Component Feed Make Discharge Purge

30.3 0.0 22.5 49.7
3.1 0.0 2.2 5.3
1.0 0.0 0.7 1.8
1.5 0.0 1.5 1.8
56.7 0.0 72.5 40.0
1.3 12.1 0.5 0.6
6.1 87.9 0.2 0.6
100.0 100.0 100.1 99.8

For the period covered by the table, the number of moles of discharge gas was
1.765 times the number of moles of purge gas, and 95.1% of the C,H, was recovered
in the make gas.
For each 100.0 moles of feed gas, compute the number of moles of each
component and the total number of moles in each of the other streams. Enter the
answers on a skeleton-flow diagram.

Description of plant used for ethylene recovery

The feed gas stream, which is piped directly from the demethanizer column, is
introduced about midway in the tower. It moves upward in contact with (and
countercurrent to) the activated carbon bed, moving downward through the tower.
At 140°F temperature, which is maintained at the feed point, the carbon selectively
adsorbs the ethylene and other gases of higher molecular weights.
The unadsorbed lighter gases, with predominating methane and hydrogen, pass
upward and are removed as a discharge gas. This removal occurs at a disengaging
plate located just below the cooling section at the top of the tower. This discharge
gas is then used around the plant as fuel.
In order to keep the system free of an excessive amount of 60-mesh or finer
carbon particles, a portion of the unadsorbed gases is permitted to pass up the
tower, and past the cooling section, as purge gas.
The adsorbed gases (mostly ethylene) pass downward with the carbon, into the
stripping section, where the temperature of the carbon is increased to about 510°F.
At this temperature the adsorbed gases are desorbed from the carbon, pass back up
the tower, and are removed as make gas at the second disengaging tray situated just
above the stripping section. A small portion of these gases, however, continues on
up past the disengaging tray and serves as reflux in the section of the tower below
 205

the feed tray. These gases serve to liberate the lighter components which may
contaminate the adsorbed material.
The last traces of adsorbed gases are removed by the steam (at 150 psig), which is
introduced below the stripping section. This steam passes upward and out with the
make gas, and is then condensed in a cooler. In order to remove the remaining
moisture from the product, the make gas is finally passed through an alumina
dehydrator.
As the carbon leaves the base of the tower, it is moved back up to the top
through a pipe. A sealing leg at the bottom of the tower prevents the stripping steam
from entering the lift section. The gas pressure for lifting the carbon is supplied by a
centrifugal blower. On reaching the top of the tower the carbon is dehydrated and
cooled to about 120°F in the cooling section.

Solution:

(95.1)( 6.1)
Moles of C,H, = = 5.8 moles
100

5.8
Total moles in make gas = -- - 6.6 moles
0.879

Material balance:

100.0= 6.6 + P + 1.765P

solving for P (moles of purge gas)

P = 33.8 moles

and

D = 100 - 33.8 - 6.6 = 59.6 moles (discharge gas)

Component Feed Make Discharge Purge
Mole % Mole % Moles Mole % Moles Mole % Moles
H2 30.3 0.0 0.0 22.5 i3.4 49.7 16.9
NZ 3.1 0.0 0.0 2.2 1.3 5.3 1.8
0 2 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.4 1.8 0.6
co 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.9 1.8 0.6
CH, 56.7 0.0 0.0 72.5 43.2 40.0 13.5
CZH, 1.3 12.1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.2
C2H4 6.1 87.9 5.8 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.2
100.0 100.0 6.6 100.1 59.6 99.8 33.8
206

Moles
Purge 33.8
Discharge 59.6 -=-
59*6 - 1.765
P 33.8
Make 6.6
100.0

5.8
Recovery of C,H, in make gas = - = 95.1%
6.1

Natural gasoline plant problem

The compositions of various streams (mole %) in a natural gasoline plant are as

follows:
Component Raw gas Absorber Reabsorber Stabilizer Finished
residual gas residual gas residual gas gasoline
c, 76.0 84.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
c2 9.5 10.5 ' 0.0 0.0 0.0
c3 6.0 3.9 78.6 73.7 0.0
c4 4.5 1.7 21.4 26.3 35.5
c; 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 64.5
100.0 100.1 100.0 100.0 100.0

Assume that the liquid volumes are additive and that 1 gal of gasoline can be
obtained from 37.0 scf of C, vapor, 31.0 scf of C, vapor, or 26.0 scf of C: vapor.
(a) Calculate the number of moles (based on 100 moles of raw gas) for each
stream and each component.
(b) Calculate the total number of moles per day (based on 15,000 standard Mcf
per day of raw gas being processed) of residual gases from the absorber, the
reabsorber, and the stabilizer.
(c) Calculate the composition of the raw gasoline fed to the stabilizer.
(d) Compute the number of gallons per day of finished gasoline produced (based
on 15,000 standard Mcf per day of raw gas being processed).

Description of natural gasoline plant

The natural gasoline plant (see Figs. 7.1-1, 7.1-2, 7.1-3, and 7.1-4) is processing gas
which is pumped from the casing heads of oil wells. The raw gas is compressed,
cooled, and then sent upward through an absorbing column, countercurrent to a
stream of cold absorption oil. The residual (or fuel) gas leaving the absorber
contains almost all of the C, and C, present in the raw gas. As the gasoline-rich
absorbing oil leaves the bottom of the absorber, it is pumped through a heat
exchanger, and through a steam preheater, into a common stripping still and
 207
FIELD FUEL r

COMPOSITIONS
VOLUME %
WET RESIDUE LlOUlD FIELD
GAS GAS HYDROCARBONS FUEL
METHANE 80.38 90.87 0 70.55
ETHANE
PROPANE
ISO- BUTANE 9 58
NORMAL BUTANE 2.24 .02 2 3 14
PENTANE + I69 17 4 4
100 00 100 00 100 00 100 00

-
Fig. 7.1-1. Example of compositions of various flow streams in a natural gasoline plant.

rectifier. The stripped absorption oil, which is devoid of all gasoline fractions, is
pumped from the bottom of the still through the above mentioned heat exchanger,
and through a cooler, back to the top of the absorption column.

4
LIGHT
FRACTIONS
!I

UTILITIES
STEAM
ABSORPTION RIC DlSTILLATION FRACTIONATION WATER
AREA AREA AREA E L E C T R I C POWER
COMPRESSED A I R

t
TO STORAGE
SPEC I F IC A T ION N A T U R A L

HYDROCARBONS

Fig. 7.1-2. Schematic flow diagram showing the various areas of gasoline plant.
208

,
r----* -
-

Fig. 7.1-3. Flow diagram of absorption area

The raw gasoline vapors from the top of the still are partially condensed and
collected in a small rundown tank. Inasmuch as the uncondensed vapors contain
sufficient amounts of pentane and heavier hydrocarbons, they are sent up through a
small reabsorber in order to relieve the main absorber of a heavy recycle load. The
reabsorber is fed at the top with gasoline-free absorption oil; and the rich oil from
the bottom is added to the rich oil from the absorber. The reabsorber does not
absorb propane, but absorbs some of the butane and all of the pentane. The
unabsorbed gas from the reabsorber is a residual or fuel gas.
The condensed raw gasoline from the still is pumped through the second heat
exchanger, and a steam preheater, to a stabilizer. The residual or fuel gas taken
overhead contains all of the propane, part of the butane, but none of the pentane.

Gosolip Vapors and Stwm

t c
I

Hot Lton Oil ACCUMULATOR

Cold Leon Oil

COOLER
Fig. 7.1-4. Flow diagram of distillation area.
 209

The finished, propane-free gasoline is pumped from the bottom of the stabilizer
through the second heat exchanger and a cooler to storage.

Solution:
Absorber residual gas:
C, = 84.0%= 76.0 moles

Total moles = -
loo x 76.0 = 90.5 moles
84.0
3.9
c, = -
84.0
x 76.0 = 3.5 moles, etc.

Finished gasoline:

C: = 64.5%= 4.0 moles

Total moles = -
loo x 4.0 = 6.2 moles
64.5
35.5
c, = -
64.5
x 4.0 = 2.2 moles

Reabsorber residual gas and stabilizer residual gas:

If R and S are the total number of moles in these two streams, respectively, then

0.786R+0.737S=2.5; 0.214 R + 0 . 2 6 3 S = ( 3 . 0 - 2 . 2 ) = 0 . 8

On solving these two equations simultaneously,

S = 1.9 moles and R = 1.4 moles

(a) The number of moles of C , , C , , C , , C,, and :

C in: (1) absorber residual gas
are 76.0, 9.5, 3.5, 1.5, and 0.0, respectively; (2) reabsorber residual gas are 0.0, 0.0,
1.1,0.3, and 0.0, respectively; (3) stabilizer residual gas are 0.0, 0.0, 1.4,0.5, and 0.0,
respectively; and (4) finished gasoline are 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 2.2, and 4.0, respectively.

15,000,000 = 39,600
(b) Moles/day raw gas =
379

Absorber residual gas = 0.905 X 39,600 = 35,800 moles/day

Reabsorber residual gas = 0.014 X 39,600 = 550 moies/day
Stabilizer residual gas = 0.019 x 39,600 = 750 moles/day

Note: At 60'F and a pressure of 760 mm Hg,the volume of 1 Ib-mole of a perfect gas is 379.4 cu ft (379
is commonly used).
210

(c) The number of moles of C , , C,, C,, C,, and C: in raw gasoline fed to the
stabilizer are 0.0, 0.0, 1.4,2.7, and 4.0, respectively. Thus,
Feed to stabilizer = 0.081 X 39,600 = 3210 moles/day.
(d) Finished gasoline:
C , = 0.022 x 15,000,000/31 = 10,600 gal/day
C: = 0.040 X 15,000,000/26 = 23,100 gal/day

Total 33,700 gal/day

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