Pipe Fittings

A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe sections, adapt to different sizes or shapes and
for other purposes, such as regulating (or measuring) fluid flow. Pipe Fittings (especially uncommon
types) require money, time, materials and tools to install, and are an important part of piping and
plumbing systems. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed separately. The purposes of
the fittings, shown in Fig. 3 may be generally stated as follows:

 Elbows – for making angle turns in piping.

 Nipples – for making close connections. They are threaded on both ends with the close nipple
threaded for its entire length.

 Couplings – for connecting two pieces of pipe of the same size in a straight line.

 Unions – for providing an easy method for dismantling piping.

 Tees and Crosses – for making branch line connections at 90º.

 Y-bends – for making branch line connections at 45º.

 Return Bends – for reversing direction of a pipe run.

 Plugs and Caps – for closing off open pipe ends or fittings.

 Bushings – for connecting pipes of different sizes. The male end fits into a coupling and the
smaller pipe is then screwed into the female end. The smaller connection may be tapped
eccentrically to permit free drainage of water.

 Reducers – for reducing pipe size. Has two female connections into which the different sized
pipes fit. May also be made with one connection eccentric for free drainage of water.

Figure 3 Types of fittings

Methods of Connecting Pipe

There are three general methods used to join or connect lengths of pressure piping. These are:

1. Screwed Connections.

2. Flanged Connections.

3. Welded Joints.

Each of these methods has certain advantages and disadvantages and each will be discussed in the
following sections.

Screwed Connections

In this method, threads are cut on each end of the pipe and screwed fittings such as unions, couplings,
and elbows are used to join the lengths. This method is generally used for pipe sizes less than 101.6 mm
(4 inch) for low and moderate pressures. It has the advantage that the piping can be easily disassembled
or assembled. However, the threaded connections are
subject to leakage and the strength of the pipe is reduced when threads are cut in the pipe wall.

Flanged Connections

This method uses flanges at the pipe ends which are bolted together, face to face, usually with a gasket
between the two faces. Flanged connections have the advantage over welded connections of permitting
disassembly and are more convenient to assemble and disassemble than the screwed connections. In
order to prevent leakage at flanged connections, the flange faces, which butt together, would have to be
absolutely flat and smooth. While it is theoretically possible to grind the faces to this condition, it is a
time consuming and expensive proposition. Therefore gaskets are usually used between flange faces.
Gaskets are made of a comparatively soft material which, when the flanged connection is tightened, will
fill in any small depressions in the flange faces and thus prevent leakage.

For more on Flanged Connections, check out:

 Introduction to Flanges.

 Introduction to Gaskets.

Welded Connections

In this method, the pipe lengths are welded directly to one another and directly to any valves or fittings
that may be required. The use of these welded joints for piping has several advantages over the use of
screwed connections or flanged connections:

1. The possibility of leakage is removed with the elimination of screwed or flanged joints.

2. The weight of the piping system is reduced due to the elimination of connecting flanges or
fittings.

3. The cost of material and the need for maintenance are reduced with the elimination of flanges
and fittings.

4. The piping looks neater and is easier to insulate with the elimination of bulky flanges and
fittings.

5. Welded joints give more flexibility to the piping design as the pipes may be joined at practically
any angle to each other.
The main disadvantage of using welded joints for piping is the necessity of obtaining a skilled welder
whenever a connection is to be made.

Piping Supports

Piping must be supported in such a way as to prevent its weight from being carried by the equipment to
which it is attached. The supports used must prevent excessive sagging of the pipe and at the same time
must allow free movement of the pipe due to expansion or contraction. The supporting arrangement
must be designed to carry the weight of the pipe, valves, fittings and insulation plus the weight of the
fluid contained within the pipe. Various types of piping support are shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4 Piping supports

Piping Drainage
In the case of steam piping, it is necessary to constantly drain any condensate from the lines. If this is
not done then the condensate will be carried along with the steam and may produce water hammer and
possibly rupture pipes or fittings. In addition, the admission of moisture carrying steam to turbines or
engines is most undesirable. Various devices are used to remove this condensate and moisture from the
lines and these are discussed in the following sections.

Steam Separators

Steam separators, sometimes called steam purifiers are devices which, when installed in the steam line,
will remove moisture droplets and other suspended impurities from the steam. To do this, the separator
either causes the steam to suddenly change its direction of flow or else it imparts a whirling motion to
the steam. Both of these cause the moisture and other particles to be thrown out of the steam stream.

Steam Traps

The purpose of the steam trap is to discharge the water of condensation from steam lines, separators
and other equipment without permitting steam to escape. In addition, most traps are designed to
discharge any air present in the lines or equipment. Steam traps should be installed in lines wherever
condensate must be drained as rapidly as it accumulates, and wherever condensate must be recovered
for heating, for hot water needs, or for return to boilers. They are a “must” for steam piping, separators,
and all steam heated or steam operated equipment.

Piping Insulation

Most piping systems are used to convey substances that are at temperatures much higher than that of
the surrounding air. Examples would include the main steam piping and feedwater piping. In order to
reduce the amount of heat lost to the surrounding air from the hot substance, the piping is covered with
insulation. The insulation not only retains the heat in the hot lines but also prevents the temperature
inside the process plant building from becoming uncomfortably high. In addition, insulation of hot pipe
lines will prevent injury to personnel due to contact with the bare surfaces of the pipe.

In the case of piping which carries substances at a lower temperature than that of the surrounding air,
insulating the piping will prevent sweating of the pipe and consequent dripping and corrosion.

A material suitable for use as an insulation should have the following characteristics.

 High insulating value.

 Long life.

 Vermin proof.

 Non corrosive.

 Ability to retain its shape and insulating value when wet.

 Ease of application and installation.

Some of the more common materials used for piping insulating are discussed in the following sections.

 Diatomaceous Silica – This material is bonded with clay and asbestos and is used for
temperatures up to 1030ºC.

 Asbestos – Pipe covering sections are molded from asbestos fibre and are used for
temperatures up to 650ºC.
  Calcium Silicate – This insulation is made from silica and lime and is suitable for temperatures
up to 650ºC.

 Cellular Glass – This material is glass which has been melted and foamed and then molded into
pipe covering forms. It can be used for temperatures up to 430ºC.

 Magnesia (85%) – This material is composed of magnesium carbonate with asbestos fibre. It is
available in molded form for pipe covering and also is supplied in powdered form to be mixed
with water to form an insulating cement which is used to cover pipe fittings. Magnesia pipe
covering is suitable for service up to 315ºC.

 Glass Fibre – This is glass that has been processed into fibres and then formed into pipe
covering sections which are suitable for temperatures up to 190ºC.

 Plastic Foams – These are plastics that have been processed into a foam during manufacture
and then formed into pipe covering sections. They are available for temperatures as low as -
170ºC and as high as 120ºC.

Introduction to Valves

Various types of valves are required in any piping system in order to regulate the fluid flow within that
system. Valves can be manually operated or they can have an actuator to change and control the valve
opening. The actuator may be pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically operated. The valves
represent a considerable percentage of the overall expenditure of the chemical process industry and,
therefore, must be carefully selected.

Valves are installed on equipment/piping to perform any of the following functions,

 Isolation

 Reglation

 Non Return

 Special Purpose

It is imperative that process piping engineer should be familiar with all types of valves and the advent of
any new designs. Thorough knowledge of the operation, maintenance, and adjustment of valves is
equally important since the success of the process plant and its total activity will depend on it. In this
article we are going to study the overview of few most common valves used for isolation and regulation
purpose. These include the gate valve, globe valve, needle valve, butterfly valve, ball valve, plug valve,
and check valve.

Gate Valves

The gate valve, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a gate-like disc, actuated by a screwed stem and handwheel,
which moves up and down at right angles to the path of flow. In the closed position, the disc seats
against two faces to shut off the flow. Gate valves are not suitable for throttling service because
excessive wear, due to wire drawing (erosion), occurs on the gate and gate seats. They are suitable as
stop (or isolating) valves, where conditions require either full flow or no flow. They have the advantage
that, when fully opened, the resistance to flow is low with a minimum of pressure drop, as the fluid flow
moves in a straight line.
Figure 1 Gate Valve

Globe Valves

The globe valve, shown in Fig. 2, is constructed in such a way as to cause the flow of the fluid passing
through it to change direction twice. The disc and the seat are parallel to the main flow path, and the
disc is moved toward, or away from, the seat by means of a threaded stem. Due to its construction, the
globe valve is ideal for throttling or regulating flow with a minimum of wire drawing and seat erosion.
Another advantage of the globe valve compared to the gate valve is that it is cheaper to manufacture.
On the other hand, the globe valve offers much more resistance to flow than does the gate valve. The
unbalanced single disc type of globe valve shown in Fig. 2 is seldom used in sizes larger than 305 mm (12
in.) due to difficulty in opening and closing against fluid pressure.
Figure 2 Globe Valve

Needle Valves

Needle valves, shown in Fig. 3, are designed to allow precise flow control. Its name is derived from the
sharp pointed disc and matching seat. They are extensively used for continuous blowoff or
chemical feed control services. The stem threads are finer than usual so that considerable movement of
the hand wheel is required to increase or decrease the opening through the seat. Usually, these valves
have a reduced seat diameter in relation to the pipe size.

Figure 3 Needle Valve

Butterfly Valves

A butterfly valve, shown in Fig. 4, consists of the valve body, disc, shaft, and the necessary packing
and bushings for shaft support. The body is frequently a solid ring type, which is mounted between pipe
flanges. The disc is generally cast in one piece. Correct alignment of this valve is required to prevent
binding of the swing-through disc. The thickness of the disc is determined by the pressure drop across
the valve (throttling or closed position). Butterfly valves come in sizes from 25 to 3800 mm (1 to 152
inches) and are designed for pressures up to 13 800 kPa and temperatures up to 1100ºC. The flat disc
can be rotated through 90º from the wide open to the fully closed position. The valve is fitted with a
lever for manual operation. A power actuator is required to position the disc for bigger sizes because
large pressure differentials can exist across the disc. The valve shown in Fig. 5 can be manually or
electrically operated. The butterfly valve is commonly used in thermal and hydroelectric power stations,
oil and gas processing industries, oil and gas transmission, and in water and sewage plants. They
have the following advantages: relatively light weight, ease of operation, self cleaning, and negligible
pressure drop across the valve when it is fully open.

Figure 4 Butterfly Valves

Figure 5 Power Operated Butterfly Valve

Ball Valves

The ball valve, shown in Fig. 6, contains a spherical plug with a passage bored through it which controls
the fluid flow through the valve body. The basic type of ball valve requires a quarter turn from the fully
open to the fully closed position. The valve can be operated by means of a lever, which also serves as an
open or shut indicator, or by the use of an automatic actuator.

Figure 6 Ball Valve

The spherical plug not only gives precise control of the flow through the valve, but also gives a tight
shutoff when in the closed position. The valves are designed so that no internal lubrication is required
and the torque required to rotate the ball is negligible. The ball and stem are generally machined from
one piece.

For larger sizes and higher pressure ratings, the ball is constructed with a double stem and is supported
by bearings. This construction requires a seal for one end and a packing box for the opposite end. Fig. 7
shows such an arrangement.

Figure 7 V Ball Valve

Fig. 8 illustrates the alternative manual-automatic operation for this particular valve. The ball valves are
manufactured in sizes from 3 to 1000 mm (1/8 to 40 in.) and for pressures up to 69000 kPa with service
temperatures from -185ºC to 550ºC.

Figure 8 Manual-Automatic Positioning

Ball valves are suitable for handling slurries and fluids with a high solid content, and for this reason have
found wide applications in the paper industry, chemical plants, and sewage treatment plants.

Plug Valves

The plug valve, shown in Fig. 9, is a quarter turn valve, as are butterfly and ball valves. The plug valve
consists of a tapered or straight cylinder containing a hole, which is inserted into the cavity of the
valve body. The hole in the plug lines up with the axis and opening in the valve body. The valve has a
tapered plug which is secured in the valve body by the valve cover. A packing box is recessed in this
cover, with packing held in place by the gland, thus preventing leakage along the valve stem.

Figure 9 Plug Valve

The tapered plug has a tendency to jam in the tapered seat and can cause scoring if forced to turn. Most
plug valves are lubricated to eliminate this problem. The lubricant is supplied through the center of the
stem and is distributed through channels to the seating surfaces. Other valves are equipped with a
flexible, smooth liner which eliminates the need for
lubrication. The pressure drop across this valve when it is in the wide open position is very low. This type
of valve is self-cleaning. Plug valves are used as quick opening valves in gas supply lines, low pressure
steam lines, water treatment plants, pulp and paper, and chemical industries.

Check Valves

The check valve, shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, is a valve which prevents reversal of flow in piping. The
flow of fluid keeps the check valve open while gravity and reversal of flow will cause the valve to close.
The two basic types of check valves are the swing check and the lift check.

Figure 10 Swing Check Valve

Figure 11 Lift Check Valve

The swing check valve features an almost straight line flow, and therefore offers little resistance to flow.
The disc, which is hinged at the top, swings freely in an arc from the fully closed to the fully open
position. The flow through the lift check valve undergoes two changes in direction as it passes through a
horizontal section upon which the disc seats. The disc moves upward to allow the fluid to pass through
and moves downward to close if the flow should reverse. A dashpot is used to
cushion the action of the disc in this design.

Piping Valve Classifications

Valves are mechanical devices specifically designed to direct, start, stop, mix, or regulate the flow,
pressure, or temperature of a process fluid. Valves can be designed to handle either liquid or gas. By
nature of their design, function, and application, valves come in a wide variety of styles, sizes, and
pressure rating classes. We will try to classify valves according to their function, application, motion,
port size etc. One confusing aspect of valve classification is that a specific valve my fit into more than
one classifications. Therefore, the user should be careful when equating a particular valve with a
particular classification.

Valve Classification According to Function

By the nature of their design and function in handling process fluids, valves can be categorized into
three areas.

1. On-off Valves (also known as Block Valves or Shut off Valves)

2. Non Return Valves

3. Throttling Valves

On-off Valves / Block Valves / Shut off Valves

On-off valves are used to start or stop the flow of the medium through the process. A majority of on-off
valves are hand operated, although they can be automated with the addition of an actuator. Although
the functioning of an on-off valve is simple, providing for highly reliable and repeatable tight shutoff can
be equally challenging.

On-off valves are commonly used in applications where the flow must be stopped completely and
quickly. Reasons can be maintenance, any potential safety hazard like leakage, or shut down in down
stream process piping / equipment. On-off valves are also used in mixing applications where exact
measurement of fluids being mixed does not matter. Safety management systems also require
automated on-off valves to immediately shut off the system when an emergency situation occurs.

Common on-off valves include gate, plug, ball, pressure-relief, and tank bottom valves. Pressure relief
valves are self actuated on-off valves that open only when a preset pressure is surpassed.

Non Return Valves

Non return valves allow the fluid to flow only in one desired direction. Any flow in the opposite direction
is mechanically restricted from occurring. A non-return valve is fitted to ensure that a medium flows
through a pipe in the right direction, where pressure conditions may otherwise cause reversed flow.

Non return valves are used to prevent back flow of fluid, which could damage equipment or upset the
process. Such valves are especially useful in protecting a pump in liquid applications or a compressor in
gas applications from back flow when the pump or compressor is shut down. Non return valves are also
used in process systems that have varying pressures, which must be kept separate.

All check valves are non return valves.

Throttling Valves

Throttling valves are used to regulate the flow, temperature, or pressure of the service. These valves can
move to any position within the stroke of the valve and hold that position, including the full-open and
full-closed positions. Therefore they can act as on-off valves also.

Throttling valves are equipped with actuators or actuation systems, which provide greater thrust and
positioning capability, as well as automatic control. Few throttling valve designs are also provided with a
hand operated manual handwheel but accuracy is a concern there.

Pressure regulators are throttling valves that vary the valves position to maintain constant pressure
downstream. Control valves, also part of the family of throttling valves, are capable of varying the floiw
conditions to match the process requirements. To achieve automatic control, these valves are always
equipped with actuators.

Valve Classification According to Application

By the nature of their applications, valves can be categorized into three areas.

1. General Service Valves

2. Special Service Valves

3. Severe Service Valves

General Service Valves

General service valves are those valves that are designed for the majority of commonplace applications
that have low or moderate pressure and temperature ratings (pressure rating between class 150 to 600
and temperature between -50 to 350 degree C), non corrosive fluids, and common pressure drops that
do not result in cavitation or flashing. General service valves have some degree of interchangeability and
flexibility built into the design to allow them to be used in a wider range of applications. Their body
material are usually carbon steel or stainless steel.

Special Service Valve

Special service valves are those valves that are custom engineered or designed for a single application
that is outside the preview of normal process applications. Because of its unique design and
engineering, it will only function inside the parameters and service conditions of that particular process
application. Such valves usually handle very high temperature, high pressure, or a corrosive medium.

Severe Service Valve

Severe service valves are special service valves designed with special features to handle extremely
severe process applications, such as high pressure drops that results in severe cavitation, flashing,
chocked flow, or high noise levels. Such valves may have highly engineered trims or special disks to
either minimize or prevent the negative effects of the application on the valve. In addition to highly
engineered valve body parts, severe service valves may require special actuation control to overcome
the forces of the process application.

Valve Classification According to Motion

By the nature of their mechanical motion, valves can be categorized into two areas.

1. Linear Motion Valves (also known as Multi Turn Valves)

 2. Rotary Motion Valves (also known as Quarter Turn Valves)

Linear Motion Valves / Multi Turn Valves

Linear motion valves are those valves that have a sliding stem design that pushes a closure element into
the valve body which further regulates the open and close positions. The closure device could be a disc,
slat or flexible material, like a diaphragm. Linear motion valves tend to be slower in operation, but they
have a higher level of accuracy and stability in the position of the closure member.

Linear valves are known for their simple design, easy maintenance, and versatility with more sizes,
pressure classes, and design options. These types of valves are extremely versatile with many different
trim sizes and design options available. A linear-motion valve is also more resistant to cavitation
compared to a rotary valve. Although linear valves are typically more expensive.

Gate valves, Globe valves, pinch valves, diaphragm valves, three way valves, angle valves all belongs to
linear motion valves category.

Rotary Motion Valves / Quarter Turn Valves

Rotary motion valves are those valves that use a closure element that rotates through a quarter turn (45
degree) to open or close the flow. Rotary valves are usually smaller in size and weigh less than
comparable linear motion valves, size for size. It should be noted that rotary valves are limited to certain
pressure drops and are known to have cavitation and flashing problems. However, as technology
continues to advance, these problems are becoming less common.

Ball valves, Butterfly valves, Plug valves, and Spherical valves all belong to rotary motion valves.

Valve Classification According to Port Size

By the nature of their flow passageway, valves can be categorized into two areas.

1. Full Port Valves

2. Reduced Port Valves

Full Port Valves

Full port valves are those valves whose closure element does not restrict the flow. Valve internal flow
passageways are large enough to pass the flow without any significant restriction.

Full port valves are used primarily with on-off and blocking services, where the flow must be stopped or
diverted. Full port valves also allows for the use of pig in the pipeline to remove any process buildup or
scale.

Reduced Port Valves

Reduced port valves are those valves whose closure element restrict the flow. The flow area of the port
of the closure element is less than the area of the inside diameter of the pipeline. This restriction allows
the valve to take a pressure drop as flow moves through the closure element, allowing a partial pressure
recovery after the flow moves past the restriction.

The primary purpose of reduced port valves is to control the flow through reduced flow or through
throttling, which is defined as regulating the closure element to provide varying levels of flow at a
certain opening of the valve.
Introduction to Pipe Support
A pipe support is a designed element that transfer the load from a pipe to the supporting structures. The
load includes the weight of the pipe, the content that the pipe carries, all the pipe fittings attached to
pipe, and the pipe covering such as insulation. The four main functions of a pipe support are to anchor,
guide, absorb shock, and support a specified load. Pipe supports used in high or low temperature
applications may also contain insulation materials. The overall design configuration of a pipe support
assembly is dependent on the loading / operating conditions and pipe support location.

Type of Loads

Primary Loads

Primary loads are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as gravitational forces acting on the
pipe such as weight of pipe and fluid, internal fluid pressure, external pressure on pipe, forces due to
relief or blow down, pressure waves generated due to water/steam hammer effects, wind and seismic
loads.

Sustained Loads

 Dead Weight

It is the self weight of pipe including contained fluid, weight of pipe fittings & other inline components
(say flanges, valves, insulation etc.). This type of load act throughout the life cycle of pipe. These loads
cause bending, and the bending moment is related to normal and shear stresses. In horizontal pipes, this
load is taken care by placing pipe support on regular span to avoid sagging of pipe. In vertical pipes, this
load is taken care by placing adequate load taking support in the horizontal portion just before/after
vertical portion or lug support in the vertical portion.

 Internal / External Pressure

A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal or external pressure load. A pipe with high
pressure fluid is under net internal pressure whereas pipe with vacuum conditions or jacketed pipe
covering may be under net external pressure. Internal or external pressure induces stresses in the axial
as well as circumferential (Hoop Stress) directions. The pressure also induces stresses in the radial
direction, but these are often neglected. This type of load is usually taken care during the selection of
material for pipe. Pipe material must withstand these stresses at the prescribed temperature and
pressure conditions.

Occasional Loads

 Wind Load

Piping which are located outdoors and above a certain elevation are exposed to wind and will be
designed to withstand the maximum wind velocity expected during the plant operating life. Wind
pressure for various elevations is used to calculate wind force.

 Seismic Load

Seismic load is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which means application of an
earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with
the ground, or with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami.
  Water Hammer

Water hammer is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a
gas) in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer
commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave
propagates in the pipe. It’s also called hydraulic shock.

For more on Water Hammer, check out Water Hammer in Process Plant

 Steam Hammer

Steam hammer, the pressure surge generated by transient flow of super-heated or saturated steam in a
steam-line due to sudden stop valve closures is considered as an occasional load. Though the flow is
transient, for the purpose of piping stress analysis, only the unbalanced force along the pipe segment
tending to induce piping vibration is calculated and applied on the piping model as static equivalent
force.

 Safety Valve Reaction Force

Reaction forces from relief valve discharge is considered as an occasional load. The reaction force due to
steady state flow following the opening of safety relief valve in an open discharge installation can be
calculated in accordance with ASME B31.1 Appendix II and applied on the piping model as static
equivalent force.

For more on Pressure Safety Valve, check out Introduction to Pressure Safety Valve

Secondary Loads

Secondary loads are caused by displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage
tank may be under load if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down due to tank settlement.
Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel
expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is attached to.

A pipe may experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or lower
respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The secondary loads are often
cyclic but not always.For example load due to tank settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle
movement during operation is cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn during shut-down and
resurfaces again after fresh start-up.

Types of Pipe Support

Rigid Support

Rigid supports are used to restrict pipe movement in certain direction(s) without any or limited flexibility
in that direction. Main function of a rigid support can be:

 Anchor or 3 Dimensional Stop

In this type of support arrangement, pipe is fixed with reference to the supporting structures.
Movement in any direction is not allowed. This can be achieved by welding or bolting the support with
supporting structure.

 Rest or Sliding Support

In this type of support arrangement, pipe is fixed with reference to vertical downward direction.
Movement in downward vertical direction, mainly due to the weight of pipe and containing fluid, is not
allowed. This support is sometimes also referred as sliding support.

 Guide

In this type of support arrangement, pipe is fixed with reference of directions other then the direction in
which weight of pipe and containing fluid is acting. Limited flexibility can be provided with the provision
of guide gap (gap between pipe outer surface and guide plate inner surface).

 Both Rest & Guide

In this type of support arrangement, pipe is fixed with reference to vertical downward direction along-
with any or all the guide directions.

Spring Support

Spring supports are used to support a load and allow simultaneous movement. Spring supports use
helical coil compression springs (to accommodate loads and associated pipe movements due to thermal
expansions). The critical component in both the type of supports are Helical Coil Compression
springs. They are broadly classified into,

 Variables Effort support

Variable effort supports also known as variable hangers or variables are used to support pipe lines
subjected to moderate (approximately up to 50mm) vertical thermal movements. Variable effort
supports are used to support the weight of pipe work or equipment along with weight of fluids while
allowing certain quantum of movement with respect to the structure supporting it. Hot load is the
working load of the support in the “Hot” condition i.e. when the pipe has traveled from the cold
condition to the hot or working condition. Load Variation (LV) or Percentage variation =[(Hot Load-Cold
Load) x 100]/Hot Load or [(Travel x Spring Rate) x 100]/Hot Load. Normally MSS-SP58 specifies max Load
Variation ( popularly called LV) as 25%.

 Constant effort support

Constant effort supports are used to support pipe lines subjected to large vertical movements typically
150 mm or 250 mm. For pipes which are critical to the performance of the system or so called critical
piping where no residual stresses are to be transferred to the pipe it is a common practice to use CES. In
a constant effort support the load remains constant when the pipe moves from its cold position to the
hot position. Thus irrespective of travel the load remains constant over the complete range of
movement. Therefore it is called a constant load hanger. Compared to a variable load hanger where
with movement the load varies & the hot load & cold load are two different values governed by the
travel & spring constant. A CES unit does not have any spring rate.