graphically in Fig. 12-1 would be accoptable are equally acceptable. Select ‘ofien depends on compatibility wit the required specified strength of in sit cxete, Rebound raises the cement content situ shotcrete. Cement content is also controlled by the imum density, sufficien strength requirements in relation to the max- to overcome bulking of ‘the materil. At Unnecessatily highstrengih maximum density, the mass becomes plastic reajirements will equteexcesive cement con- and will begin to flow or sag, “The internal os 07 ‘to meet variables in pro- Rortoning of he ow principal Porn cement ‘compounds. is being marketed which claims no strength loss340 Tunnel Engineering 1s shown much promise in de hhour and higher 28-day strongths. Organic accelerators ate not caustic, and are therefore priate for shotcrete accel fommonly spied ASTM C266, However 8 fon a number of projects. Due tothe dificulty in achieving good reprcducibilty, and the dif ‘strength Shoterete has basically the same strength char- acteristics as concrete, and compression tests fare the most common measute of overall by the shterete ew, andsesing ih aes may not be reps ‘Shoter ‘construction number of factors which influence shoterete ‘quality, as indicated by its compressive strength, ate given below. accelerators prod tually between 20 and 30% compared with unaccelerated roughness of mixing and field conditions When spraying: igher aceelerat ‘sed than when sp Higher accelerator trhig dn nd prevent oo aleion snd sloughing which might occur if less scceleator were used. For spraying ver- tical surfaces, accelerator dosages can be minimized since the risk of sloughing i flower, and accelerator material costs are important. The quality of shotcrote is affectet by the ‘quality of materials and each operation in aration and placement. Variation in terete quality can result from variations the following: moisture preseat in the regregates; mixing of cement and aggre- sales; blending of dry-mix and accelerator; example, by Parker'® ar ratio of flexural to com tims has been documented by Sallstiom.™ He described tests made with nine combi ing ofthe frst shotsret the form, and 155 psi in 30 reinutes the accelerated mixes. Relative ies for to four of these tests suffered a 15% decrease fram the unaceelerated values in 28 day lleratively, 3inch cubes. The inlent of the procedure is to determine the early strength, Difficulties in achieving specified strengths at the New Melones Tunnel in California, Hunter342 Twnnet Colorado and Nanticoke Cooling feffee: upon required overdesign vdyoed. Due to the statistical mths exceeding the design strength, fc, were recuired ‘The US. Bureau of Reclamation followed 2 ruction may be of cores taken from in-place shoterete, or from test panels, a8 determined necessary by the test panel per mix. Average co preconst testing must equal design Strength fe. Both the Bureau of Reclamation ‘and ACI specifications contain factors to per ‘mit conversion of cube results to equivalent core values. ‘The Peachtree Staton with 4120 pei minimum strength. i and aggreyate qual- andard concrete cylinders, and the structure in question. ‘The hese cores, when corrected Tong, inch ‘Shoterete is commonly used eit in allowable stress, He therefore must be that Feld shotcrete strengths will not elow assumed ultimate stress, within the limits of statistical probability. For permanent structures in public use, such as subway stations support only, ‘option, and at his discretion. If such ithe case, high compressive strengths may be unimportant. In such cases, overall quality of workmanship content of the mixed coase and fine aggregates before mixing with cement should not range outside 3 to 6%. Irepularities of, ‘content in the feed result in icegula feed through the nozzle, adversely shoterete quality. The natural ten f granular material to drain should be trol aggregate moisture, largely contained in the sand fraction, where drainage is slower than in the sHone fraction, Both will drain given a base fiom which drainage water can escape. In the 2004ach annual rainfall atthe Alto Anchicaya Project, Colombia, sands dug ftom the river ‘were dumped into a hopper and drained, then 1 was found impossible to maintain the ‘moisture content within desirable limits ina pre ‘mixed sand and {inch gravel mix during the ‘iny season. While plugging of drop pipes, hoppers, shoterete machine and hoses was fre: quent, the final product was not adversely the aggregates. There is less opt alleviate segregation from ‘there is variable wear and gate and cement screws. A close product must be maintained ‘cement content analyses. Powdered accelerator should not be added to ‘Care must be taken to ensure that acceleratorPlacing Equipment ‘Two types have been developed for spraying. dry-mix: 1, Dual pressure chamber desi vening aie lock, in which dry ‘duced in batches inco the upper chamber. is delivered under pressure and delivery hose. ‘chamber is being recharged. Feed into the delivery hose is continuous, chine, where it falls into a series of nine oF cylinder or bowl. the charge in each into the delivery hose. Both types of machires ean be equally satis- factory. ‘The dual chamber type has the dis- ‘advantage of demanding constant form at capacity. Several rotary ty ‘manufactured, and currently are tending to re: place the dual chamber pressure vessel placer. Performance of rotary types is largely a matter of drive power employed. Placers vary in main- Tequirements and in dustmaking. If erally less Ratings for the shoteote placing machines are from 7 to 11 cubic yardsfhour through the nozzle. Maximum delivery distances vary widely with different machines, but can exceed 900 horizontally and 300 fect vertically forthe designs. In extreme delivery distances, steel pipe ean be sections, to lesser Conveying Dry mix is conveyed to the placer machine by Deliveries of dry-mix to headings with acess ‘through vertical shafts can be made by dumping the dry-mix down an open pipe. Regardless of delivery method, each batch should await mix- Jing until called for, and be dumped, transported and sprayed before allowable standing time has been exceeded. At the Vancouver tunrel, the imix wis allowed to stand two hours, providing hydration had mot raised its temperature 10° above the temperature atthe time of the mix. ‘Such empirical limits must be reviewed foreach 1nd accelerator reactivity portable mixers sich as ‘mobiles, coment is added ‘when the mix is being processed into the placer. ‘The cement and aggregates thus may stand Indefiritely or be stored in bins. Delivery pipes 12 to 20 inches in diameter hhave been used. They should be installed without bends and hence should be dele into tunnel outside the shaft perimeter, and gouted to seal out water. The large diameter was found to be necessary in Mexico, becuse of ‘overdamp deliveries of mixed agaregate. Mixed product. 1100 feet radically ‘The bend increased segregation bbe 55 psi at the intke of a rotary placer, and increase feet of hose added to the the pressure chamber types ‘Air and water pres: valves 85 vary with the properties of iwery and the convenience of OISTANEL OF NORE FROM APPUCATION SHEE ce J q 2 — tl Fig 12. Hetound distance of nozzle and ange of spray,Cr a ANGLE © OF NOZZLE ‘AUTH ORMONTAL, DEGREES placement (Fig. 124). Damp surfaces and water flows increase ebound losses, Rebound is incressed also by gap grading; segregation in the feed excessive or insuficent discharge velocities; insufficient or pulsating water pressures; irregalar material or accelerator Aeliveries into’ the placer machine; and im- proper placer machine operation. "Rebound also varler with the hardnese of the surface ‘being sprayed, Therefore, it is high for the inital thin layer of shotcrete, but for sub- sequent layers the sprayed materials are em- ‘bedded in the plastic intial layer. It follows that rebound is higher for thin coatings than for thicker layer placec in one operation. When the nozzleman sprays downwards, the rebound falls back on the sprayed surfaces and js buried as spraying continues, The inv therefore, is better poured. Rotary placers be adjusted to serve this purpose, or a cement. enriched mix with @ high wle’ratio can be sprayed. Sequence of Ops ‘The primary function of shoterete is to halt crete should be applied within wo or four hours when in questionable ground, However, rock structures exist with more extended stand imes and others are largely self supporting, ‘such cases, shoterete or gunite may serve asa permanent overlay in a largely selE=uppo ‘excavation where minor loosening is possible: ample, in underground powerhouse supported by rock bolts The tunnel arch requites the frst attention, Spraying is sometimes started from the muck le In tunnels of 20 feet in height of more, possible to extend a movable platform the drill jumbo over the muckpile for spraying the arch while mucking. ‘The loading ‘equipment would have to suit this si Altematively, mucking and spraying dope side by side if the width of permits. Shotcreting should stat from near the face to provide the arch there with the ealist specified thickness can be completed on sub: sequent rounds during diling ‘Tunnels. Here the soft ground broke under heavy water flows, since the depressed Je was below springline, In this a thin spray coat was necessary to he roof temporarily. Except in smi tunnels, spraying can be integrated without delaying excavation procedures. Field Quality Control [A nozzleman's work includes degrees of is. ‘comfort that tend to influence his performance. It is more difficult and unpleasint (0 spray arch than horizontally. Blind monly placed at foot centers to estimate thicknesses appl re the thicknesses inpled. At the Vancouver tunnel, percussion wat Noles of 24-inch diameter three each round, at random spt check distanees to rock. Mechanized Spraying as ealy as possible after blasting, ‘mounting of the nozzle at some dstance ahead ‘A hydraulic boom with a lar to percussion dill mount jumbo is uted. The boo ‘movement in ao bly the most 50 ment, and has patented it under the nam Robot. Mounted on track such equipment ‘hoterets 347 Automatic spraying has been employed in at least two instances, both following machine- bored tunnels, At the Heitersberg Tunnel (35 feet in diameter) near Zurich, Switzerland, an automatic system was designed by Stabilator ‘AB to follow a Robbins mole. Two nozzles ‘were mounted that automatically sprayed a complete are from a precast invert, The oper- stor wa limited to adjusting water feed and rate of traverse, ad moving the unit forward at the end of each arc, The unit was 70 feet back from the face, however, which, inthe less com- petent lacustrine deposits, necessitated pattern bolting immediately behind the mole. A small, ‘manual robot was also mounted close to the cuttethead to pemit early support application A necessary. [At the Stillwater Tunnel in Arizona (16 feet in diameter) a nczzle was mounted experimen- tally on a Joy bylravlic drill boom with rotary head, following a mole. The unit was advanced at a predetermined pace, the nozzle simulta- neously moving through an arc rather like a ‘windshield wiper. The experiment has not been, repeated, however ‘Automatic spraying does not appear to Tend itself 10 the irregular ouslines resulting from drilling and blasting SHOTCRETE USAGE Suppor fof Loosening pressure has been the blast tunnel- ‘employed to seal an excavation again ‘Shoterete also ie being used over a broad range of underground conditions and for a variety of purposes ons: control of groundwater; n of caving or 1 support against rock ols; as a hod (NATM), rock bolts and soft