Overview and Blast Loading

on Structures

Dr Seah Chong Chiang

Adjunct Assistant Professor
Department of Structures and Mechanics
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CCSEAH@NTU.edu.sg

-1-
Reference:
• Smith PD, Hetherington JG. Blast and Ballistic Loading
of Structures, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994
• Baker WE, Cox PA, Westine PS, Kulesz JJ and
Strehlow RA. Explosion Hazards and Evaluation,
Elsevier, 1983
• United Facilities Criteria, UFC-3-340-02. Structures to
Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions, 2008
(Download from http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFC/ufc_3_340_02.pdf)
• TM5-855-1. Fundamentals of Protective Design for
Conventional Weapons (Restricted Access but contents found
in several other sources and books, eg. “Modern Protective
Structures by Theodor Krauthammer, 2008)

-2-
Outline
• Introduction
• Explosion in Air
• External Blast
• Internal Blast
• External Blast Loading on Structures
• Group Exercise

Aim – To be able to derive the blast parameters and

loading on the structures

-3-
War on America (Sep 11, 2001)

http://web.archive.org/web/20010915180547/www.smh.com.au/news/0109/13/index.html

-4-
http://web.archive.org/web/20010915180547/www.smh.com.au/news/0109/13/index.html

-5-
Oklahoma Bombing (19 Apr 1995)

At 9:02am on April 19, a major explosion

destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in Oklahoma City. 168 lives
were lost, including 19 children and a
nurse killed during the rescue attempt.
490 people were injured.
The source of the blast was a Ryder
truck rented in Kansas and driven to
Oklahoma City with an estimated 4800
lbs. of fertilizer and fuel oil based
explosives inside.
http://www.infowars.com/articles/us/okc_partin_bo
mb_damage_analysis.htm

-6-
2002 Bali Bombing (12 Oct 2002)
The 2002 Bali bombing occurred on October 12,
2002 in the resort town of Kuta on the Indonesian
island of Bali, killing 202 people and injuring a
further 209. It is considered the deadliest act of
terrorism in Indonesian history. The majority of
the dead were foreign tourists, especially
Australians, although nearly one-fifth were
Indonesian nationals.
The first, smaller, bomb
was carried by a suicide
bomber and exploded
inside Paddy's Bar. The
second bomb was
contained in a vehicle
parked outside the Sari
Club.

-7-
2005 Bali Bombing (1 Oct 2005)
The 2005 Bali Bombing occurred on 1 Oct 2005,
resulting in 20 deaths and 129 injured. Investigations
revealed that back pack bombs were used.

-8-
2003 JW Marriott Hotel Bombing (5 Aug 2003)
The terrorist attack occurred on 5 Aug 2003 and the target was the JW
Marriot Hotel in Jakarta. The attack resulted in 12 deaths and 150 injured.
Car bomb was used.

-9-
2004 Australian Embassy Bombing (9 Sep 04)

The 2004 Australian embassy bombing took place on 9 September 2004 in Jakarta,
Indonesia. A one-tonne car bomb, which was packed into a small Daihatsu delivery
van, exploded outside the Australian embassy at Kuningan District, South Jakarta, at
about 10:30 local time, killing 9 people including the suicide bomber, and wounding
over 150 others.

- 10 -
2008 Islamabad Marriott Bombing (20 Sep 08)
The Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing occurred on 20 September 2008, when a
dump truck filled with explosives detonated in front of the Marriott Hotel in the
Pakistani capital Islamabad, killing at least 54, injuring at least 266 and leaving a 60
ft (20 m) wide, 20 ft (6 m) deep crater outside the hotel

- 11 -
Singapore Embassies Attack Plot
The Singapore plot was a plan by the Al-Qaeda-affiliated
Jemaah Islamiyah to bomb the diplomatic missions and attack
personnel of the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom,
and Israel based in Singapore. According to the Singaporean
government, at least eight of sleeper cell members were trained
in Afghanistan. Two of them were taken to videotape the U.S.
Embassy and Australian High Commission. The cell members
then set off to find 21 tons of explosives.
Besides the embassies, the targets the plotters were believed to
have been scouted included a United States Navy bus, United
States Air Force warplanes that were stationed at Paya Lebar
Air Force Base, United States warships, as well as several
United States companies and businesses.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore_embassies_attack_plot
- 12 -
Singapore Embassies Attack Plot

The targeted citizens especially included those from the United

States Navy who often traveled between the Yishun MRT Station
and Sembawang Wharf.
The video also detailed how bombs could be planted in the
sewers and drains near the Yishun MRT Station in order to
cause massive casualties when targeting United States
personnel.
Investigators found similar tapes at the residences of the
arrested men. In all, 33 men were arrested in relation to this plot.

- 13 -
Terrorism is a Real and Present Threat

27 Feb 08: Mas

Selamat Kastari
escaped from
Singapore Detention
Centre, caught in
Malaysia on 1 Apr 2009

26 Nov 08: Mumbai

Attacks resulting in the
Death of 1
Singaporean

- 14 -
Protective Design and Vulnerability
Assessment

Threat

Weapon Effects

Loading on Structures Vulnerability

Structural Response
Assessment

Design and
Construction

- 15 -
Effect of Explosive Output
• Blast overpressures
• Fragments
• Ground shock

The blast pressures are usually the governing factor

in the determination of the structure response.
However, in some situations, fragments and/or shock
loads may be just as important as the pressures in
determining the configuration of the facility.

- 16 -
Effect of Explosive Output
Car Bomb
http://www.visionresearch.com/index.cfm?sector=htm/app&page=gallery

Conventional Weapon
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=small+diameter+bomb&search_ty
pe=&aq=0&oq=Small+Diame

- 17 -
Blast Wave in Air (condensed HE)
• Explosion reaction generates hot gas at a pressure from 100 up to
300 kbar and at a temperature of about 3000-4000°C.
• A violent expansion of the gas forms a layer of compressed air –
the blast wave in front of this gas containing most of the energy
released by the explosion.
• The pressure of the compressed air at the blast wave front falls
with increasing distance.
• Overexpansion occurs associated with the momentum of the gas
molecules which is the negative phase of the blast wave.

- 18 -
Conversion Factors for Explosives
Explosive Mass specific energy TNT equivalent
Qx (kJ/kg) Qx/QTNT
Compound B 5190 1.148

RDX (Cyclonite) 5360 1.185

HMX 5680 1.256

Nitroglycerin (liquid) 6700 1.481

TNT 4520 1.000

Blasting Gelatin 4520 1.000

60% Nitroglycerin dynamite 2710 0.600

Semtex 5660 1.250

Note:
A conversion factor of 0.4 for poor quality home-made explosive.
A conversion factor of 0.4~0.6 for fuel-air or vapor cloud explosions

- 19 -
Free-Field Pressure Time Variation
p (t)

Positive phase

ps Area is

Negative phase
i- ∆pmin
p0

t
Ts T-
ta

bt
 −
t 
p (t ) = p s 1 −  e Ts

 Ts 
- 20 -
Blast Wave in Air
• First complete numerical solution of equations of motion for an
explosive blast by BRODE (1955)

6 .7
ps = 3
+ 1 (bar) p s > 10 bar
Z
0.975 1.455 5.85
ps = + 2 + 3 (bar) 0.1 ≤ ps ≤ 10 bar
Z Z Z
here Z is “scaled distance”, and Z=R/W1/3
R: Distance of blast wave front from the charge center
W: mass of explosive (expressed in kilograms of TNT)
Charge geometry is assumed as either spherical or hemispherical.

- 21 -
Blast Wave in Air

• Empirical solution presented by Henrych (1979)

14.072 5.540 0.357 0.00625

ps = + 2
− 3
+ 4
(bar) 0.005 ≤ Z ≤ 0.3
Z Z Z Z
6.194 0.326 2.312
ps = − 2
+ 3
(bar) 0.3 ≤ Z ≤ 1
Z Z Z
0.662 4.05 3.288
ps = + 2 + 3
(bar) 1 ≤ Z ≤ 10
Z Z Z

- 22 -
Blast Wave in Air

- 23 -
Blast Wave in Air
Baker et al.
Kingery and Bulmash

- 24 -
Example 1
What is the peak side-on overpressure at a range of (a) 20 m, and (b)
100 m from a 1000 kg spherical charge of TNT?

(a) Range 20 m
Brode equation: 184 kPa
Henrych equation: 156 kPa
Kingery and Bulmash: 195 kPa

(b) Range 100 m

Brode equation: 9.9 kPa
Henrych equation: 11.0 kPa
Kingery and Bulmash: 11.1 kPa

- 25 -
Idealization of Pressure-Time Profile

ps

II

Ts

- 26 -
Other Parameters
• Duration of overpressure

Henrych’s formula

Ts
3
= (0.107 + 0.444 Z + 0.264 Z 2 − 0.129 Z 3 + 0.0335Z 4 ) × 10 −3 [s/kg1/3 ]
W
0.05 ≤ Z ≤ 3 [m/kg1/3 ]

Sadovskyi’ formula

Ts = B × 6 W R × 10 −3 [s] B = 1.0 ~ 1.5

Bulson’s formula
Ts
=
[
980 1 + ( Z / 0.54)10 ] × 10 −3 [s/kg1/3 ]
3
W [1 + (Z / 0.02) ][1 + (Z / 0 / 74) ][1 + (Z / 6.9) ]
3 6 2 1/ 2

- 27 -
Other Parameters
• Shock wave impulse

is  1115 629 100.4 

=  663 − + 2 − 3  [kPa ⋅ s ⋅ m -2 ⋅ kg1/3 ] 0.4 ≤ Z ≤ 0.75
3
W  Z Z Z 

is  211 216 80.1 

=  − 32.2 + − 2 + 3  [kPa ⋅ s ⋅ m - 2 ⋅ kg1/3 ] 0.75 ≤ Z ≤ 3
3
W  Z Z Z 

Using an equivalent shock wave

1
is = p s ⋅ Ts
2
Using variation with time

t a +Ts
is = ∫ p s ( t )dt
ta

- 28 -
Cube Root Scaling Law (Hopkinson-Cranz)

Self-similar blast waves are produced at identical

scaled distances when two explosive charges of
similar geometry and of the same explosive but of
different sizes are detonated in the same
atmosphere.

• Z=R/W1/3 is constant for a given overpressure

• Similar blast waves if Z1=Z2 for two changes
• Impulse and TS are increased/decreased by
(W1/W2)1/3

- 29 -
Cube Root Scaling Law (Hopkinson-Cranz)

• Z=R/W1/3 is constant
for a given
overpressure
• Similar blast waves if
Z1=Z2 for two
changes
• Impulse and TS are
increased/decreased
by (W1/W2)1/3

- 30 -
Hemispherical Charge
• If only spherical charge data is available, the blast appears to
come from a hemi-spherical charge of mass = 1.8×spherical
charge mass. On rigid surface factor would be 2.

Ground surface W

- 31 -
Free Air Burst and Surface Burst

Free Air Burst

Surface Burst
- 32 -
Blast wave resultant for 1 kg TNT Charges

Spherical charges Hemispherical charges

- 33 -
Example 1: using 1 kg graphs
• R=50 m from the detonation of an 844 kg hemispherical charge of RDX
• TNT equivalent factor for RDX=1.185
• 844 kg RDX is equivalent to 844×1.185 = 1000kg TNT (=W)
• Scaled distance Z=R/W1/3=50/10001/3=5 m/kg1/3
• This is equivalent to 5 m from a 1 kg charge.
• From the Kingery and Bulmash graphs: Ps=43 kPa, is=60 kPa-msec and Ts=3.8
msec etc.
• The peak overpressure value so obtained is as required.
• Values of specific impulse and duration are scaled up by multiplying by
W1/3=10001/3=10.
• Thus at 50 m from the 844 kg RDX hemispherical charge, ps=43 kPa, is=600 kPa-
msec and Ts=38 msec.
• If charge were spherical then ps=30 kPa, is=390 kPa-Msec and Ts=33 msec.

- 34 -
Shock Wave Reflection
• Normal reflection

ps+p0 p0 p+p0 pr+p0

Us Ur
ρs ρ0 ρ ρr
Ts T0 T Tr
us u0=0 u ur=0

Incident wave Reflected wave

- 35 -
Shock Wave Reflection

• Reflected pressure
6 p s2
pr = 2 ps + 2 ≤ p s / p0 ≤ 8
p s + 7 p0

• If ps<<p0: weak shock, then pr=2ps

• If ps>>p0: strong shock, then pr =8ps
• Reflection coefficient: 2<CR[=pr/ps]<8
• But for explosions at close range, CR can be up to 20
• pr and associated impulse ir available on scaled
distance graphs

- 36 -
 Shock Wave Reflection
Peak incident pressure vs. ratio of normally Positive phase shock wave parameter for a
reflected pressure/incident pressure spherical TNT explosion in free air at see level
14 1.E+6
Pr, kPa
Ps, kPa
1.E+5 Ir, kPa-ms/kg^(1/3)
Is, kPa-ms/kg^(1/3)
12
ta, ms/kg^(1/3)
10000 Ts, ms/kg^(1/3)
U, m/ms
Lw, m/kg^(1/3)
10 1000

100
pr / ps

8
10

6 1.0

0.1
4
.01

2 .001
1.0 10 100 1000 10000 1.E+5 .01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Peak Incident Pressure, ps (kPa) Scaled Distance Z = R/W^(1/3)

- 37 -
Regular Oblique Reflection

- 38 -
Regular Oblique Reflection

Reflected wave front Ur Incident wave front

αr
Ur1=UrSin αr
Us
αr A αi us

cA=Us/Sinαi

Regular oblique reflection occurs up to a critical

angle of incidence of about 40°.

- 39 -
Mach Reflection

Reflected wave front

Ur Incident wave front

Us

i nt t raj ectory
Triple-po
Front of main shock wave

Reflected wave meets less resistance as it travels

through tail of incident wave, and fuses with it at
triple point.

- 40 -
Oblique Reflection
Figure 2-193. Reflected pressure coefficient
Reflected pressure coefficient
versus vs angle of incidence
angle of incidence
13.5

Peak Incident Overpressure, psi

12 5000 70
3000 50
2000 30
10.5 1000 20
500 10
400 5
300 2
9
200 1
150 0.5
Cr = Pr / Pso

100 0.2
7.5

4.5

1.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle of incidence, Degrees

1 psi = 6.985 kPa

- 41 -
Oblique Reflection

Reflection coefficient vs angle of

incidence for varying values of incident
overpreseure (high pressure range)

1 bar = 100 kPa

- 42 -
 Oblique Reflection
Scaled height of triple point
4.8
Numbers adjacent to curves
indicate scaled charge
height, Hc/W^(1/3)
Scaled Height of Triple Point, m/kg^(1/3)

4 1
1.5
2

3.2 2.5
3

2.4 3.5

1.6
4

0.8 5

6
7
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Scaled Horizontal Distance from Charge, m/kg^(1/3)

- 43 -
Exercise 1
A 27 kg spherical TNT explosive charge is detonated
under sea level atmospheric conditions, remote from any
reflecting surface such as the ground. Determine the
side-on blast wave parameters (ps and is), the positive
phase duration (Ts), the arrival time (ta) and the speed at
which the blast wave is moving (Us) at a range of 6 m
from the charge center.
If a large reflecting surface were located at 6 m from the
charge, what would be the peak reflected overpressure
and impulse (pr and ir) acting on the surface?

- 44 -
Solution
Scaled distance Z=R/W1/3=6/271/3=2 m/kg1/3
1.E+6
Pr, kPa
Ps, kPa
1.E+5 Ir, kPa-ms/kg^(1/3)
Is, kPa-ms/kg^(1/3)
p s = 195 kPa
is = 276 kPa ⋅ msec
ta, ms/kg^(1/3)
10000 Ts, ms/kg^(1/3)
U, m/ms

Ts = 5.5 ms
Lw, m/kg^(1/3)
1000

100 t a = 5.8 ms
10 U s = 550 m/s
1.0 p r = 645 kPa
0.1
ir = 707 kPa ⋅ msec
.01

.001
.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Scaled Distance Z = R/W^(1/3)

- 45 -
Internal Blast Loading
• When an explosion occurs within a structure, the peak
pressures will be amplified by their reflections.

• Effects of the high temperatures and accumulation of

gaseous products will exert additional pressure and
increase the load duration.

• The combined effects of these pressures may eventually

destroy the structure unless the structure is designed to
sustain the effects of the internal pressures.

• Provisions of venting will reduce their magnitude as well

as their duration.

- 46 -
Internal Blast Loading

• Unvented (containment) structures – Should be strong

to survive without any pressure relief via “venting”.
• Vented structures – Designed in such a way that parts
of the structure fail in a controlled manner to provide
pressure relief.

- 47 -
Internal Blast Loading

Cylindrical Containment Structure

- 48 -
Internal Blast Loading

Comparison of Predicted and Measured Pressure

Pulse at Point on Sidewall of Cylindrical
Containment Structure
- 49 -
Confined Explosion Structure
• Interior pressure:
– shock pressure
– Gas pressure: accumulation of the gaseous
products and temperature rise
• Exterior pressure: leakage pressure

- 50 -
Confined Explosion Structure

• For fully vented cubicle type structures, the effects of the

gas pressure may be neglected.
• Detonation in an enclosed structure with relatively small
openings is associated with both shock and gas
pressures.
• The duration and impulse of the gas pressure is a function
of the size of the opening.

- 51 -
Shock Pressure

• Initial reflected pressure

– From face-on loading data (eg. graphs of pr vs Z)
• Subsequent reflections
– Use empirically-derived rules
– Use semi-empirical/numerical techniques
– Use numerical methods – “Hydro-codes”

- 52 -
Shock Pressure - Empirical Derived Rules

1
Pr2 = Pr1
2
1
Pr3 = Pr2
2

- 53 -
Empirical Derived Rules

• Pressure-time histories are linear (i.e. pressure pulses

are “triangle”)
• Initial reflections are at normal incidence
• Two significant subsequent reflections – each half the
previous peak
• All three pulses have same duration and reflection
process over after 5ta+Tr
• Ts=2is/Ps, Tr=2ir/Pr

- 54 -
Further Simplification

• When considering the response of a target structure that

is much longer than the entire load duration, pulse shape
is irrelevant – so lump together all three pulses.

1 1
Impulse = (1.0 + 0.5 + 0.25) Pr1 × Tr = 1.75 × Pr1 × Tr
2 2

- 55 -
Semi-Empirical/Numerical Techniques
• BLASTIN family of semi-empirical/numerical codes
developed for blast and gas pressure calculations in
an unvented cubicle but extended ….
• BLASTXW: blast wave and gas pressure in multiple
chamber cubicles
• CHAMBERM: calculates blast pressure from external
detonation entering cubicle with multiple openings
(now subsumed into BLASTXW)
• TUNREF: calculates blast pressure entering a smooth
straight tunnel (with x-section change) from external
detonation (also subsumed into BLASTXW)
- 56 -
Numerical Codes
• SHARC – finite difference code running on mainframe
computer
• SHAMROC – second generation variant of SHARC
• AUTODYN2D and AUTODYN3D – finite difference
codes developed by Century Dynamics Ltd
• Air3D – Developed by Dr Tim Rose
• ABAQUS, LSDYNA, etc.

- 57 -
Provision of Venting
• Permanent openings
– Nested angles
– Side-by-side angles and tees, etc
– Interlocking I-beams
• Frangible panels
• Louvered panels
• “Designed-In” structural failure

- 58 -
Gas Pressure
• Blast pressure formed by accumulation of gaseous
product and temperature rise in a confined area.
• Containment of toxic and harmful materials in a structure.
• Gas pressure Pg is used as the basis for design and is a
function of the charge weight and the contained net
volume of the chamber.

Pressure-time variation for a partially vented explosion

- 59 -
Idealized Gas Pressure Loading

P1=PQS+P0

- 60 -
Gas Pressure-Time History
• P(t)=P1e-ct, where c=2.13αeAsa0/V
– P1=PQS+P0
– αe=vent area/wall area
– As=total inside surface area
– a0=speed of sound in air
– V=volume of chamber
• ct is written 2.13 (αeAs/V2/3)(ta0/V1/3)
• Or ct=2.13τ
• Thus P(t)/P0=P1/P0e-2.13τ

- 61 -
Duration of Gas Pressure

• When P(t) falls to P0 then t=tmax

• Therefore τ= τmax
• Thus P(t)/P0=P0/P0=1
• So that 1=P1/P0e-2.13τmax

• Thus τmax=ln(P1/P0)/2.13=0.4695ln(P1/P0)

- 62 -
Gas pressure impulse

t max t max
ig = ∫0 [ P(t ) − P0 ]dt = ∫0 ( P1e −ct − P0 )dt

=
P1
c
1− e (
− ct max
)
− P0t max

- 63 -
Gas Pressure Parameters

Peak quasi-static pressure vs charge to volume ratio

- 64 -
Gas Pressure Parameters

Scaled blow-down duration vs scaled maximum pressure

- 65 -
Gas Pressure Parameters

Gas pressure impulse vs normalized maximum pressure

- 66 -
Pressure by Internal Blast

By BLASTIN

- 67 -
Pressure by External Blast

By CHAMBER

- 68 -
Pressure by Underground Explosion

8.E+07 Reflected pressure (Pa)

7.E+07
6.E+07
5.E+07
4.E+07
3.E+07
2.E+07
1.E+07 Time (s)
0.E+00
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

4.E+07 Dynamic pressure (Pa)

3.E+07
Spherical Charge
2.E+07

1.E+07
Time (s)
0.E+00
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
AUTODYN2D -1.E+07

-2.E+07

- 69 -
Pressure by Underground Explosion
6.E+08 Dynamic pressure (Pa)
5.E+08
Target #1
4.E+08
3.E+08

#1 #3 2.E+08
1.E+08 Time (s)
0.E+00
-1.E+08 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

#2 #4 4.E+09 Dynamic pressure (Pa)

3.E+09 Target #2

2.E+09

1.E+09
Time (s)
Contact charge 0.E+00
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
-1.E+09

7.E+07 Dynamic pressure (Pa) 4.E+07 Dynamic pressure (Pa)

6.E+07 3.E+07
Target #3 Target #4
5.E+07
2.E+07
4.E+07
3.E+07 1.E+07
2.E+07
Time (s) 0.E+00
1.E+07 Time (s)
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
0.E+00 -1.E+07
-1.E+07 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 -2.E+07
- 70 -
Exercise 2
An Explosion of 50 kg of TNT occurs in a strong, vented
chamber. The chamber has a volume V=30 m3, and a
vent area Av=αeAs=10 m2. Atmospheric conditions are
standard see-level conditions of p0=1.013×105 Pa and
a0=3.40 ×102 m/s. What are the vented pressure
parameters?

- 71 -
Solution
• W/V=50/30=1.667

- 72 -
• The peak quasi-static pressure PQS is read off as 1.9×106
Pa. The scaled peak quasi-static pressure
P1 PQS + P0 1.9 ×106 + 1.013 ×105
= = = 19.8
P0 P0 1.013 ×10 5

ta0 α e As
= 1.39
V

1.39 × 30
t= = 12.3 m/s
340 × 10

- 73 -
i g α e As a0
= 7.50
P0V

7.50 × 1.013 × 10 5 × 30
ig = = 670 Pa ⋅ s
340 × 10

- 74 -
Exercise 3
A chamber for handling explosives is a cube of internal
dimension 4 m. Half of the roof of the structure is made
of frangible material to allow venting in the case of any
accidental detonation. Evaluate the vent time if
detonation of a charge of 5 kg of TNT occurs in the
chamber. What will be the gas pressure impulse that
the structure will need to resist if the chamber is to
survive? Atmospheric pressure may be taken as 105 Pa
and the speed of sound in air as 350 m/s.

- 75 -
Solution
• The chamber has a volume V=4×4 ×4=64 m3 so the
charge/volume ratio W/V=5/64=0.078

- 76 -
• The peak quasi-static pressure PQS is read off as 3.3×105
Pa. The scaled peak quasi-static pressure

P1 PQS + P0
= = 4.3
P0 P0
ta0α e As
= 0.7
V
• Given that the venting area,
Av is 2×4 = 8 m2

- 77 -
• With a vent area Av=αeAs=8 m2, vent time can be
evaluated as 16 milliseconds.

i g α e As a0
• Final P0V is read as 1.0 from which gas pressure
impulse ig is obtained as 2286 Pa-s.

- 78 -
Blast Loading on Structures

Large scale blast and

large target

Large scale blast and

small target

Small scale blast and

large target

- 79 -
Diffraction of Blast Wave

- 80 -
Diffraction of Blast Wave

- 81 -
Pressure vs Time

- 82 -
Drag Force vs Time

- 83 -
Translational Force vs Time

- 84 -
Sample Problem

- 85 -