Self-propelled particles

Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as self-driven particles, are terms used by physicists to
describe autonomous agents, which convert energy from the environment into directed or persistent
motion. Natural systems which have inspired the study and design of these particles include walking,
swimming or flying animals. Other biological systems include bacteria, cells, algae and other micro-
organisms. Generally, self-propelled particles often refer to artificial systems such as robots or
specifically designed particles such as swimming Janus colloids, nanomotors and walking grains. In the
case of directed propulsion, which is driven by a chemical gradient, this is referred to as chemotaxis,
observed in biological systems, e.g. bacteria quorum sensing and ant pheromone detection, and in
synthetic systems, e.g. bimetallic nanorods and enzyme molecule chemotaxis.

Contents
Overview
Examples
Biological systems
Artificial systems
Typical collective behaviour
Examples of modelling
Some applications to real systems
Marching locusts
Bird landings
Other examples
See also
References
Further references
External links

Overview
Self-propelled particles interact with each other, which can lead to the emergence of collective
behaviours. These collective behaviours mimic the self-organization observed with the flocking of birds,
the swarming of bugs, the formation of sheep herds, etc.

To understand the ubiquity of such phenomena, physicists have developed a number of self-propelled
particles models. These models predict that self-propelled particles share certain properties at the group
level, regardless of the type of animals (or artificial particles) in the swarm.[1] It has become a challenge
in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.[2][3][4]

Examples
Biological systems
Most animals can be seen as SPP: they find energy in their food and exhibit various locomotion
strategies, from flying to crawling. The most prominent examples of collective behaviours in these
systems are fish schools, birds flocks, sheep herds, human crowds. At a smaller scale, cells and bacteria
can also be treated as SPP. These biological systems can propel themselves based on the presence of
chemoattractants. At even smaller scale, molecular motors transform ATP energy into directional motion.
Recent work has shown that enzyme molecules will also propel themselves.[5] Further, it has been shown
that they will preferentially move towards a region of higher substrate concentration,[6] a phenomenon
that has been developed into a purification technique to isolate live enzymes.[7] Additionally,
microparticles can become self-propelled when they are functionalized with enzymes. The catalytic
reactions of the enzymes direct the particles based on corresponding substrate gradients.[8]

Artificial systems
There is a distinction between wet
and dry systems. In the first case the
particles "swim" in a surrounding
fluid; in the second case the particles
"walk" on a substrate.

Active colloidal particles, dubbed

An example of a SPP: a gold-platinum nanorod which undergoes
nanomotors, are the prototypical self-propulsion in hydrogen peroxide due to self-electrophoretic
example of wet SPP. Janus particles forces.
are colloidal particles with two
different sides, having different
physical or chemical properties. This symmetry breaking allows, by properly tuning the environment
(typically the surrounding solution), for the motion of the Janus particle. For instance, the two sides of
the Janus particle can induce a local gradient of, temperature, electric field, or concentration of chemical
species. This induces motion of the Janus particle along the gradient through, respectively,
thermophoresis, electrophoresis or diffusiophoresis. Because the Janus particles consume energy from
their environment (catalysis of chemical reactions, light absorption, etc.), the resulting motion constitutes
an irreversible process and the particles are out of equilibrium.

The first example of an artificial SPP on the nano or micron scale was a gold-platinum
bimetallic nanorod developed by Sen and Mallouk.[9] In a solution of hydrogen peroxide, this
"nanomotor" would exhibit a catalytic oxidation-reduction reaction, thereby inducing a fluid
flow along the surface through self-diffusiophoresis. A similar system used a copper-
platinum rod in a bromine solution.[10]
Another Janus SPP was developed by coating half of a polystyrene bead with platinum.
These were used to direct the motion of catalytic motors when they were close to a solid
surface. These systems were able to move the active colloids using geometric
constraints.[11]
Another example of a Janus SPP is an organometallic motor using a gold-silica
microsphere.[12] Grubb's catalyst was tethered to the silica half of the particle and in
solution of monomer would drive a catalytic polymerization. The resulting concentration
gradient across the surface would propel the motor in solution.
 Another example of an artificial SPP are platinum spinner microparticles that have
controllable rotations based on their shape and symmetry.[13]
Several other examples are described in the nanomotor-specific page.
Walking grains are a typical realization of dry SPP: The grains are milli-metric disks sitting on a
vertically vibrating plate, which serves as the source of energy and momentum. The disks have two
different contacts ("feet") with the plate, a hard needle-like foot in the front and a large soft rubber foot in
the back. When shaken, the disks move in a preferential direction defined by the polar (head-tail)
symmetry of the contacts. This together with the vibrational noise result in a persistent random walk.[14]

Typical collective behaviour

Typical collective motion generally includes the formation of self-assembled structures, such as clusters
and organized assemblies.

The prominent and most spectacular emergent large scale behaviour observed in assemblies of SPP is
directed collective motion. In that case all particles move in the same direction. On top of that, spatial
structures can emerge such as bands, vortices, asters, moving clusters.

Another class of large scale behaviour, which does not imply directed motion is either the spontaneous
formation of clusters or the separation in a gas-like and a liquid-like phase, an unexpected phenomenon
when the SPP have purely repulsive interaction. This phase separation has been called Motility Induced
Phase Separation (MIPS).

Examples of modelling
The modeling of SPP was introduced in 1995 by Tamás Vicsek et al.[15] as a special case of the Boids
model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds.[16] In that case the SPP are point particles, which move with a
constant speed. and adopt (at each time increment) the average direction of motion of the other particles
in their local neighborhood up to some added noise.[17][18]

Simulations demonstrate that a suitable "nearest neighbour rule" External video

eventually results in all the particles swarming together, or
SPP model interactive simulation
moving in the same direction. This emerges, even though there
(http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/self-dr
is no centralised coordination, and even though the neighbours
iven-particle-model/self-driven-partic
for each particle constantly change over time (see the interactive
le-model_en.jar)[19]
simulation in the box on the right).[15]
– needs Java
Since then a number of models have been proposed, ranging
from the simples so called Active Brownian Particle to highly elaborated and specialized models aiming
at describing specific systems and situations. Among the important ingredients in these models, one can
list

Self-propulsion: in the absence of interaction, the SPP speed converges to a prescribed

constant value
Body interactions: the particles can be considered as points (no body interaction) like in the
Vicsek model. Alternatively one can include an interaction potential, either attractive or
repulsive. This potential can be isotropic or not to describe spherical or elongated particles.
Body orientation: for those particles with a body-fixed axis, one can include additional
degrees of freedom to describe the orientation of the body. The coupling of this body axis
 with the velocity is an additional option.
Aligning interaction rules: in the spirit of the Vicsek model, neighboring particles align their
velocities. Another possibility is that they align their orientations.
One can also include effective influences of the surrounding; for instance the nominal velocity of the SPP
can be set to depend on the local density, in order to take into account crowding effects.

Some applications to real systems

External video
Marching locusts Marching locusts (http://www.scie
Young desert locusts are ncemag.org/content/suppl/2006/06/0
solitary and wingless 1/312.5778.1402.DC1/1125142s1.m
nymphs. If food is short ov) – sped up 6-fold.
Locust nymph they can gather together When the density of locusts reaches
and start occupying a critical point, they march steadily
neighbouring areas, together without direction reversals.
recruiting more locusts. Eventually they can become a marching
army extending over many kilometres.[20] This can be the
prelude to the development of the vast flying adult locust swarms which devastate vegetation on a
continental scale.[21]

One of the key predictions of the SPP model is that as the population density of a group increases, an
abrupt transition occurs from individuals moving in relatively disordered and independent ways within
the group to the group moving as a highly aligned whole.[22] Thus, in the case of young desert locusts, a
trigger point should occur which turns disorganised and dispersed locusts into a coordinated marching
army. When the critical population density is reached, the insects should start marching together in a
stable way and in the same direction.

In 2006, a group of researchers examined how this model held up in the laboratory. Locusts were placed
in a circular arena, and their movements were tracked with computer software. At low densities, below
18 locusts per square metre, the locusts mill about in a disordered way. At intermediate densities, they
start falling into line and marching together, punctuated by abrupt but coordinated changes in direction.
However, when densities reached a critical value at about 74 locusts/m2, the locusts ceased making rapid
and spontaneous changes in direction, and instead marched steadily in the same direction for the full
eight hours of the experiment (see video on the left). This confirmed the behaviour predicted by the SPP
models.[1]

In the field, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average
density of marching bands is 50 locusts/m2 (50 million locusts/km2), with a typical range from 20 to 120
locusts/m2.[21]:29 The research findings discussed above demonstrate the dynamic instability that is
present at the lower locust densities typical in the field, where marching groups randomly switch
direction without any external perturbation. Understanding this phenomenon, together with the switch to
fully coordinated marching at higher densities, is essential if the swarming of desert locusts is to be
controlled.[1]

Bird landings
Swarming animals, such as ants, bees, fish and birds, are often
observed suddenly switching from one state to another. For
example, birds abruptly switch from a flying state to a landing
state. Or fish switch from schooling in one direction to schooling
in another direction. Such state switches can occur with
astonishing speed and synchronicity, as though all the members
in the group made a unanimous decision at the same moment.
Phenomena like these have long puzzled researchers.[24]
Flocks of birds can abruptly change
In 2010, Bhattacharya and Vicsek used an SPP model to analyse
their direction in unison, and then,
what is happening here. As a paradigm, they considered how just as suddenly, make a unanimous
flying birds arrive at a collective decision to make a sudden and group decision to land[23]
synchronised change to land. The birds, such as the starlings in
the image on the right, have no decision-making leader, yet the
flock know exactly how to land in a unified way. The need for the group to land overrides deviating
intentions by individual birds. The particle model found that the collective shift to landing depends on
perturbations that apply to the individual birds, such as where the birds are in the flock.[23] It is behaviour
that can be compared with the way that sand avalanches, if it is piled up, before the point at which
symmetric and carefully placed grains would avalanche, because the fluctuations become increasingly
non-linear.[25]

"Our main motivation was to better understand something which is puzzling and out there in nature,
especially in cases involving the stopping or starting of a collective behavioural pattern in a group of
people or animals ... We propose a simple model for a system whose members have the tendency to
follow the others both in space and in their state of mind concerning a decision about stopping an
activity. This is a very general model, which can be applied to similar situations."[23] The model could
also be applied to a swarm of unmanned drones, to initiating a desired motion in a crowd of people, or to
interpreting group patterns when stock market shares are bought or sold.[26]

Other examples
SPP models have been applied in many other areas, such as schooling fish,[27] robotic swarms,[28]
molecular motors,[29] the development of human stampedes[30] and the evolution of human trails in
urban green spaces.[31] SPP in Stokes flow, such as Janus particles, are often modeled by the squirmer
model.[32]

See also
Clustering of self-propelled particles

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32. Bickel, Thomas; Majee, Arghya; Würger, Alois (2013). "Flow pattern in the vicinity of self-
propelling hot Janus particles". Physical Review E. 88 (1): 012301. arXiv:1401.7311 (https://
arxiv.org/abs/1401.7311). Bibcode:2013PhRvE..88a2301B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
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Further references
Bertin, E.; Droz, M.; Grégoire, G. (2009).
"Hydrodynamic equations for self-
propelled particles: microscopic derivation
and stability analysis". Journal of Physics
A. 42 (44): 445001. arXiv:0907.4688 (http
s://arxiv.org/abs/0907.4688).
Bibcode:2009JPhA...42R5001B (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPhA...42R5
001B). doi:10.1088/1751-
8113/42/44/445001 (https://doi.org/10.108
8%2F1751-8113%2F42%2F44%2F44500
1).
Czirók, A.; Stanley, H. E.; Vicsek, T.
(1997). "Spontaneously ordered motion of
self-propelled particles". Journal of Physics
A. 30 (5): 1375–1385. arXiv:cond-
mat/0611741 (https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-m
at/0611741).
Bibcode:1997JPhA...30.1375C (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997JPhA...30.137
5C). doi:10.1088/0305-4470/30/5/009 (http
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0%2F5%2F009).
Czirók, A.; Barabási, A. L.; Vicsek, T.
(1999). "Collective motion of self-propelled
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9C). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.209 (http
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9).
Czirók, A.; Vicsek, T. (2001). "Flocking:
collective motion of self-propelled
particles" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=dwMvAky-AJYC&pg=PA177&dq=%2
2self+propelled+particle%22%7C%22self+
propelled+particles%22&hl=en&ei=pJ6WTf
eKDZCkuAP3vN3jCw&sa=X&oi=book_res
ult&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AE
wAg#v=onepage&q=%22self%20propelle
d%20particle%22%7C%22self%20propell
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(ed.). Fluctuations and scaling in biology.
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ISBN 978-0-19-850790-1.
D'Orsogna, M. R.; Chuang, Y. L.; Bertozzi,
A. L.; Chayes, L. S. (2006). "Self-propelled
particles with soft-core interactions:
patterns, stability, and collapse" (https://ww
w.math.ucla.edu/~lchayes/lchayes_websit
e_folder/new_publications_folder/swarm.p
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(10): 104302.
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302D).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.104302 (http
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4302). PMID 16605738 (https://www.ncbi.n
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Levine, H.; Rappel, W. J.; Cohen, I.
(2001). "Self-organization in systems of
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E. 63 (1): 017101. arXiv:cond-
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Bibcode:2001PhRvE..63a7101L (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhRvE..63a
7101L). doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.63.017101
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017101). PMID 11304390 (https://www.nc
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Mehandia, V.; Nott, P.R. (2008). "The
collective dynamics of self-propelled
particles". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 595:
239–264. arXiv:0707.1436 (https://arxiv.or
g/abs/0707.1436).
Bibcode:2008JFM...595..239M (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JFM...595..23
9M). doi:10.1017/S0022112007009184 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002211200700
9184).
Helbing, D. (2001). "The wonderful world
of active many-particle systems" (https://bo
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&pg=PA357&dq=%22Advances+in+Solid+
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2&hl=en&ei=xHehTaW-F466vQO3raD0BA
&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum
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Physics. Advances in Solid State Physics
Volume 41. 41. pp. 357–368.
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ISBN 978-3-540-42000-2.
 Simha, R. A.; Ramaswamy, S. (2006).
"Hydrodynamic fluctuations and
instabilities in ordered suspensions of self-
propelled particles". Physical Review
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mat/0108301 (https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-m
at/0108301).
Bibcode:2002PhRvL..89e8101A (https://ui.
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101A).
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Sumpter, D. J. T. (2010). "Chapter 5:
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&ei=pJ6WTfeKDZCkuAP3vN3jCw&sa=X&
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18 (3).

External links
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