EPJ manuscript No.

(will be inserted by the editor)

Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

R. Kree and A.Zippelius
Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Institut für Theoretische Physik, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
e-mail: kree@theorie.physik.uni-goettingen.de

Received: November 10, 2021/ Revised version: date

arXiv:2111.05112v1 [cond-mat.soft] 9 Nov 2021

Abstract. We have analyzed the dynamics of a spherical, uni-axial squirmer which is located inside a
spherical liquid drop at general position rs . The squirmer is subject to an external force and torque in
addition to the slip velocity on its surface. We have derived exact analytical expressions for the linear and
rotational velocity of the squirmer as well as the linear velocity of the drop for general, non-axisymmetric
configurations. The mobilities of both, squirmer and drop, are in general anisotropic, depending on the
orientation of rs , relative to squirmer axis, external force or torque. We discuss their dependence on the
size of the squirmer, its distance from the center of the drop and the viscosities. Our results provide a first
step towards a discussion of the trajectories of the composite system of drop and enclosed squirmer.

PACS. 47.63.Gd swimming microorganism – 87.17.Jj cell locomotion, chemotaxis – 87.85 Tu modeling
biomedical systems

1 Introduction Most theoretical studies of composite systems have fo-

Controlled locomotion on micro- or nanometer scales is of
great interest for both, cell biology and micro-robotics [1,
2,3,4, 5, 6]. In the former case, one aims to understand the
swimming motion of microorganisms and cell motility. In
the latter case, the goals are control and design of micro-
robots optimized for a variety of biomedical applications.
Our focus here is on a composite system, consisting of an
active device, encapsulated in a liquid drop.
Such composite systems have been studied experimen-
tally in several different setups, using liquid droplets con-
taining concentrated aqueous solution of bacteria [7, 8, 9,
10] in order to understand pattern formation and swim-
ming in a confined geometry. One example are suspensions
of Bacillus subtilis which form stable vortex patterns in-
side a liquid drop [7]. In another setup Escherichia coli in
a water oil emulsion was shown to be able to propel the
droplet [8]. Similar propulsion has been observed for bac-
teria in a liquid droplet, when put into an ordered liquid
crystalline state with defects [9]. Yet another example are
magnetotactic bacteria which were shown to selfassemble
into a rotary motor [10]. In the context of micro-robotics,
synthetic microswimmers, such as artificial bacterial flag-
ella [11] or photocatalytic particles [12] are able to propel
liquid droplets, which is of interest in many biomedical
applications, such as targeted drug delivery. The big ad-
vantage of self-propulsion is that energy can be supplied
by the surroundings; the main disadvantage is lack of con-
trol. Therefore a combination of both, self-propulsion and
actuation by external fields, is a promising candidate to
achieve optimal control of an otherwise self-propelled com-
posite device.
cussed on simple internal active devices. The simplest ones
are point forces [13, 14], which can be combined to model
pullers and pushers. Alternatively the active device has
been taken as a squirmer [15] whose slip velocity generates
a flow inside the droplet and thereby can propel it [16, 17].
Marangoni flow on the droplet‘s surface provides another
driving mechanism, leading to stable comoving states [18].
In yet another approach, the device is a passive particle
encapsulated in the droplet, experiencing external forcing
or shear flow [19]. In all these studies analytical solutions
were given for the concentric configuration only. The more
complex system with many squirmers inside a droplet was
studied numerically in ref. [20]; propulsion of the droplet
was observed only, if the encapsulated squirmers moved
coherently.
In a previous paper [21], henceforth denoted by I, we
presented an analytical solution for a squirmer, encapsu-
lated in a drop and displaced from the center of the drop
by a. We only discussed the axisymmetric case, such that
both, the symmetry axis of the squirmer and an applied
external force, are parallel to the displacement a. We iden-
tified stable, co-moving states of squirmer and drop which
can be achieved by an appropriate adjustment of the ex-
ternal force such that squirmer and drop move with the
same velocity. These states allow for a controlled manip-
ulation of the viscous drop by external forcing.
Here we extend our analysis and calculate the mobili-
ties of both the squirmer and the drop for general orienta-
tions of the displacement a with respect to the symmetry
axis of the squirmer and/or the applied external force. For
the non-collinear arrangement, the squirmer is subject to
2 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

a torque with respect to the center of the drop and hence

rotates in addition to its linear velocity. We also include
an applied external torque, which might be generated by
an external magnetic field, provided the active particle is
magnetized. In fact propulsion of helical structures by ro-
tating magnetic fields has been discussed in detail [22, 23,
24], and biohybrid helical spermbots are interesting can-
didates for biomedical applications [25]. Electric fields
could also provide a torque, if the active particle has a
permanent dipole moment.
The linearity of Stokes equation allows us to decom-
pose the analytical calculations into subproblems. We first
solve (i) an autonomous swimmer, (ii) a passive particle,
which is driven by (iia) an external force or (iib) an exter-
nal torque. The case of an encapsulated squirmer, subject
to an external force and torque is obtained by superposi-
tions of (i), (iia) and (iib). The analytical solution is con-
structed in a special geometry, for which the displacement
of the squirmer is perpendicular to the squirmer axis or
the direction of external force. Then we superimpose this
solution with that of reference I and use frame indepen-
dence to obtain our results for general displacements and
orientations . Fig. 1. Geometry used in sect. 2 and 3. Squirmer (yellow) of
The paper is organized as follows: The model is de- radius , encapsulated in a viscous drop (blue) and displaced
fined in sec.2; the analytical method and the solution is from the center by a. The direction of the displacement is cho-
sen perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the squirmer, n,
presented in sec.3. The results of the analytical calculation
shown as a red arrow and chosen to point along ez . If exter-
are the mobilities of the squirmer and the drop as func-
nal forces Fext are present, they also point in z-direction and
tions of the sizes of particle and drop, the displacement external torques Dext point in y-direction.
vector and the viscosities. They are presented in sec.4 and
discussed in sec.5.
R = 1 and the viscosity of the exterior fluid η + = 1. We
do, however, keep the notation η + , because some results,
2 Model e.g. the mobility of the drop in the exterior fluid, are more
intuitive with the explicit notation. The slip velocity is ex-
We study the propulsion of a viscous drop, which is driven panded in spherical harmonics χlm (Ω) = Plm (cos θ)eimφ
by an active device in its interior, as depicted in Fig.1. The (Plm denoting the associated Legendre polynomials. ) in
active device is either a squirmer with a tangential slip ve- the coordinate system (P) of the squirmer, i.e. the angle
locity on its surface (1) or a passive particle, subject to Ω = (θ, φ) has its vertex at the center of the squirmer. For
an external force F ext and/or torque D ext (2), or a com- the purposes of this work, we only have to consider ` = 1
bination of both. The active device is modeled as a solid components, and we choose the polar axis θ = 0 so that
particle of radius , positioned at rs = −a, measured from the slip velocity on the surface of the squirmer is given by
the center of the drop. Following the above strategy, we
consider perpendicular alignment of a and squirmer axis n vslip (Ω) = −h sin θeθ = h∇s χ10 , (1)
for problem (1) and similarly perpendicular alignment of
a and Fext and Dext for problem (2). We first choose spe- where ∇s denotes the surface gradient.
cial coordinates with a = aex , n = ez and Fext = Fext ez The squirmer generates a flow field inside (v − ) and
and Dext = Dext ey . In all of this and the next section, we outside (v + ) of the drop. For small Reynolds number the
will stick to this assignment and postpone a discussion of flow fields can be calculated from Stokes’s equation
general relative orientations to sec. 4. We introduce two
frames of reference: one with its origin in the center of the ∇ · σ ± = η ± ∇2 v ± − ∇p± = 0, (2)
particle (P) and one with its origin in the center of the
drop (D). A point has position vector r in the first frame and the incompressibility condition ∇ · v ± = 0. The vis-
and position vector r 0 = r − a in the second (see Fig1). cous stress tensor σ ± is given by its cartesian components
±
The drop is assumed to be spherical and consists of σij = −p± δij + η ± (∂i vj± + ∂j vi± ), with the pressure p de-
an incompressible Newtonian fluid with viscosity η − . It is termined from incompressibility.
immersed in an ambient Newtonian fluid of viscosity η + Stokes equation has to be supplemented by boundary
which is at rest in the laboratory frame (LF). The two conditions on the surface of the active particle and on
fluids are assumed to be completely immiscible, and the the surface of the drop. Given the displacement of the
drop is neutrally buoyant. We choose units of mass, length active particle away form the center of the drop, we expect
and time such that the density ρ0 = 1, the drop radius linear as well as rotational motion of the particle (squirmer
 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer 3

or dragged passive particle). Hence the flow field on the they are regular at the origin (inner solutions) or regular
surface of the particle in frame (P) takes the general form at infinity (outer solutions). We use a complete set of inner
solutions given by
v − (r) = vslip (r) + U + ω × r for r = , (3)
rl−1
where U denotes the linear and ω the rotational velocity u1<
lm = Ψ1
(l + m)! lm
of the particle. Continuity of the flow field is assumed
rl
for points on the surface of the drop in frame (D) with u2< = Ψ2
position vector r 0
lm
(l + m)!(l + 1) lm
rl+1 2l
v − (r 0 ) = v + (r 0 ) for r0 = 1. (4) u3< = (Ψ 1 + Ψ 3 ),
lm
(l + m)!(2l + 1) lm (l + 1)(2l + 3) lm
The tangential stress is continuous, whereas the normal whereas outer solutions will be used in the form
stress jumps due to a homogeneous surface tension γ0 , so
that (l − m)! 3
u1>
lm = Ψlm
er0 · (σ+ − σ− ) = 2γ0 er0 for r0 = 1, (5) rl+2
(l − m)! 2
with er0 = r 0 /r0 . Once the flow fields v ± have been deter- u2>
lm =− Ψlm
mined, the linear velocity of the drop can be computed as lrl+1
an integral over the drop’s surface from (l − m)! 2(l + 1) 1
u3> = l 3
(−Ψlm + Ψ ).
Z
lm
r (2l + 1) l(2l − 1) lm
3
vCM = d2 x (er0 · v ± ) er0 . (6) The slip velocity Eq. (1) takes on the form vslip =
4π r0 =1 3 1
h∇s χ10 = (h/3)(ψ10 + 2ψ10 ) in vector spherical harmon-
ics. For displacements a = aex , we expect to find a so-
3 Analytical Solution lution with U = U ez and ω = ωey . These velocities are
expanded in vector spherical harmonics as follows:
Our strategy for the analytical solution is analogous to 1
U = U Ψ10 (10)
the one previously used in I. We briefly recall it for con-
i
sistency. In a first step, the internal flow, v − , is expanded 2
ω × r = − ωr(Ψ11 2
+ 2Ψ1−1 2
) = rω=Ψ11 , (11)
in a complete set of solutions of the Stokes equations in 2
frame (P), and is matched to the slip velocity on the where = denotes the imaginary part. To construct a so-
squirmer’s surface. This solution is similar to the flow field lution of the boundary value problem, we start from an
of a squirmer in unbounded space, but contains — in ad- Ansatz with three vector spherical harmonics: Ψ 1 := Ψ10
1
,
dition to fields which are regular at infinity— also those 3 3 2 2 2 2
Ψ := Ψ10 and Ψ := =Ψ11 = (Ψ11 + 2Ψ11− )/(2i). The
which are regular at the squirmer’s center and would be inner and outer solutions take on the form:
forbidden in unbounded space.
The boundary conditions on the drop’s surface are eas- u1< := u1<
10 = Ψ
1
(12)
ily formulated in the frame (D). Therefore we seek to ex- 2< r
u := (u2<
11 + 2u2<
1−1 )/(2i) = Ψ2 (13)
pand the flow field v − (r)= v − (r 0 + a) around the drop’s 4
center in the same set of solutions as used in (P). In r2 1 1 3
contrast to reference I, we consider displacements of the u3< := u3<
10 = (Ψ + Ψ ) (14)
3 5
squirmer which are perpendicular to either the symme- 1 3
try axis of the squirmer or the applied external force or u1> := u1>
10 = 3Ψ (15)
r
torque. 1 2
u2> := (u2> 2>
11 + 2u1−1 )/(2i) = − Ψ (16)
r2
1
3.1 Solutions of Stokes equation u3> := u3>
10 = (−Ψ 3 + 4Ψ 1 ). (17)
3r
In spherical geometries it is advantageous to construct so- The only solutions, which are accompanied by pressure
lutions of the Stokes equations from vector spherical har- are u3> and u3< , and the corresponding pressures are
monics. We use the following set of functions, which diag- explicitly given by
onalize the surface Laplacian:
p< = 2η − r cos θ and p> = 2η − cos θ/r2 , (18)
1
Ψlm = ∇s χlm + lχlm er (7)
3 apart from a constant reference pressure.
Ψlm = ∇s χlm − (l + 1)χlm er (8) The general solution of Stokes equation in frame (P)
2
Ψlm = er × ∇s χlm . (9) in the interior of the drop is given by a superposition of
both, the inner and outer solutions:
Here, l and m are integers with 0 ≤ l and −l ≤ m ≤
l and ∇s denotes the surface gradient. Solutions of the v − = a1 u1< + a2 u2< + a3 u3< + b1 u1> + b2 u2> + b3 u3> .
Stokes equations can be classified according to whether (19)
4 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

The flow field in frame (D) outside of the drop is given by
v + = c1 u1> + +c2 u2> + c3 u3> . (20)
This Ansatz involves nine parameters, which have to be
determined by the boundary conditions.
3.2 Drop velocity
The ellipsis denote non-vanishing terms with l ≥ 2. These
terms do not contribute to the velocities of squirmer and
drop, but will in general lead to deformations of the drop’s
spherical shape. In the present work we do not study this
part of the flow.
The pressure is expanded in terms of scalar spherical
harmonics and it turns out that it remains unchanged,
p(r 0 + aex ) = p(r 0 ).

To express the drop velocity vcm by the parameters of the

solution, we insert Eq. (20) into Eq. (6). With er · Ψ 1 =
cos θ and er · Ψ 3 = −2 cos θ we find
vCM = vCM ez = 2(c3 − c1 )ez .
3.3 Boundary condition on the surface of the squirmer
3.5 Boundary conditions on the surface of the drop
Given the translated velocity fields, we can evaluate the
(21) internal flow v − (er0 + aex ) at the boundary of the drop
(r0 = 1), as needed for the second boundary condition
Eq.(4). Continuity of the velocity across the drop’s surface
implies

Given the interior flow field in the form of an expansion a3 6 4 a

a1 + (1 + a2 ) + (b3 − c3 ) − a2 = 0 (25)
around the squirmer‘s center (19) in frame (P), we can 3 5 3 4
easily fulfill the boundary condition on the squirmer’s sur- b3 6 2 a3 a c3
face. Plugging our Ansatz into Eq.(3), we obtain three b1 − (1 − a ) + − b2 − c 1 + =0 (26)
3 5 15 2 3
equations: a a2
− a3 + + ab3 − b2 + c2 = 0. (27)
2 4
ε2 4 2
a1 + a3 + b3 =U + h (22)
3 3ε 3 To fulfill the balance of forces on the drop’s surface
ε2 1 1 1 Eq.(5), we need to compute the tractions t = −per + tvis .
a3 + 3 b1 − b3 = h. (23) The viscous part is obtained for any Stokes flow u± , using
15 ε 3ε 3
ε b2 the identity
a2 − 2 =εω, (24)
4 ε ∂
t± ±
+ er × ∇ × u± .


vis = η 2 (28)
relating the coefficients of the interior flow field to the ∂r
activity of the squirmer. Further six equations are pro- Together with the pressure contribution, we find for the
vided by the boundary conditions on the drop’s surface tractions in the interior of the fluid
Eqs.(4,5). However, before we can use them, we have to
shift the internal flow v − , given in frame (P) to its repre- t1< = 0 (29)
sentation in frame (D). t2< = 0 (30)
3η − r 3
t3< = Ψ (31)
5
3.4 Translations 6η −
t1> = − 4 Ψ 3 (32)
r
To express the vector field v − , given in terms of the solu- 3η −
tions Eqs.(12-17) in frame (P), on the surface of the drop t2> = 3 Ψ 2 (33)
in frame (D), we derive a generalization of the correspond- r
ing transformations for the solid scalar spherical harmon- 2η − 3
t = 2 (Ψ − Ψ 1 ),
3>
(34)
ics, which can be found in in ref.[26]. These translations r
are easily worked out by hand for the ` = 1 components
of the flow: represented in the frame (P). Since the tractions are linear
functions of the velocities, the transformation to the frame
u1< (r 0 + aex ) = u1< (r 0 ) (D) are easily obtained from the transformation of the
a velocities:
u2< (r 0 + aex ) = u2< (r 0 ) − u1< (r 0 ) + · · ·
4
2
2a 3η − 3aη −
u3< (r 0 + aex ) = u3< (r 0 ) + u1< (r 0 ) − 2au2< (r 0 ) + · · · t2> = = 3 Ψ 2 + 4 Ψ 3 (35)
5 r r
u1> (r 0 + aex ) = u1> (r 0 ) + · · · 3> 2η − 3 1 12a2 η − 3 3aη − 2
a t = (Ψ − Ψ ) − Ψ − 3 Ψ (36)
u2> (r 0 + aex ) = u2> (r 0 ) − u1> (r 0 ) + · · · r2 5r4 r
2
2a2 1> 0 All other tractions turn out to be unaffected by the trans-
u3> (r 0 + aex ) = u3> (r 0 ) + u (r ) − au2> (r 0 ) + · · · lation.
5
 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer 5

The above tractions are plugged into the third bound- – an autonomous squirmer without applied external force
ary condition Eq. (5), implying 3 more linear equations or torque
for the yet unknown coefficients – a passive particle (no slip velocity) dragged by an ex-
ternal force
c3
b3 = (37) – a passive particle (no slip velocity) subject to an ex-
λ ternal torque.
3 6 2(c3 − 3c1 )
a3 − 6b1 + 3ab2 + 2b3 (1 − a2 ) = (38) We extract the analytical expressions for the mobilities,
5 5 λ
c2 relating Fext , Dext and the squirmer activity h to the ve-
b2 − ab3 = , (39) locities U , ω of the particle and vcm of the drop. Combin-
λ
ing these results with reference I and using frame indepen-
where λ = η − /η + denotes the viscosity contrast. dence, we then obtain the mobility tensors of the particle
and the drop for each of the three cases. The complete an-
alytical expressions for all the mobility tensors, including
3.6 Force and torque balance those from reference I can be worked out by hand (and
have been checked by symbolic computing using SymPy
The boundary conditions on the surface of the squirmer [27]). They are summarized in Appendix A. More general
and the drop provide nine linear equations. Force and situations, representing a squirmer subject to both, exter-
torque balance yield two more equations, so that all un- nal force and torque, which drives its enclosing drop, can
knowns, the nine coefficients of the general solution and be obtained by linear superposition.
U and ω, are uniquely determined.
An external force acting on the particle has to be bal-
anced by the total viscous force: Fvisc + Fext = 0. The 4.1 Encapsulated squirmer
total viscous force Fvisc can be expressed as an integral of
the tractions over the surface of a large sphere of radius The activity of the squirmer is conveniently characterized
R  1) Z by its velocity U0 = −2h/3 in an unbounded fluid. For
Fvisc = lim d2 x t+ . (40) the autonomous swimmer, force and torque balance imply
R→∞ R b3 = c3 = b2 = c2 = 0. The remaining linear equations are
easily solved and yield
The only flow term contributing to this expression is c3 u3>
which is ∼ 1/r, so that U = ζh⊥ (a2 , , λ) U0 (45)
+
Fvisc = −8πη c3 ez = −Fext . (41) 3
=− (λ − 1)3 a2 + ζh⊥ (0, , λ). (46)
2N
Hence force balance determines the coefficient c3 .
In the balance of torque Dvisc + D = 0 the viscous with
part is determined from
N =25 (λ − 1) + 3λ + 2, (47)
Z
Dvisc = lim d2 x r × t+ . (42) N ζh⊥ (0, , λ) 3 2
=3λ + 2 − (λ − 1) (3 − 5) (48)
R→∞ R
The offset of the squirmer from the center of the drop
Note that this torque is calculated in frame (D). The in a direction perpendicular to its symmetry axis (see
only flow term contributing to this expression is c2 u2> Fig.1) gives rise to an angular velocity ω = ωey of the
which falls off as ∼ 1/r2 , so that in our geometry Dvisc = particle with
Dvisc ey with
Dvisc = 8πη + c2 ey . (43) 153 (λ − 1)
ω = −κh (, λ)aU0 = − aU0 . (49)
The exerted torque in this frame is given by D = DF + 2
Dext . The first term DF = −a × Fext arises from any The angular velocity vanishes linearly with a.
moment-free force distribution with total force Fext . In
our special geometry, the torque balance becomes The drop moves in the direction of the symmetry axis
of the squirmer, vCM = vCM ez , obtained from Eq. 21,
8πη + c2 + aFext + Dext = 0, (44)
with
which fixes the parameter c2 . 53 λ
vcm = µ⊥
h U0 = U0 . (50)
N
4 Mobilities of squirmer and drop In I we considered an autonomous swimmer, which is
displaced from the center parallel to its symmetry axis ez .
The analytical solution of the linear system of Eqs. (22- We now combine these results with our new ones for per-
24), (25-27) and (37-39) is discussed here for three differ- pendicular alignment to obtain the mobilities for general
ent situations: orientations of displacement a and symmetry axis of the
6 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

squirmer n = U0 /U0 , and we write the linear superposi- 4.3 Passive particle subject to an external torque
tion of both results in coordinate free form as follows:
Finally we consider a passive particle (h = 0) with no
U = ζ̂h U0 (51) applied force (Fext = 0), subject to an external torque
vcm = µ̂h U0 (52) Dext in frame P. To construct the most general case, we
ω = κh a × U0 . (53) must discuss both perpendicular and parallel alignment of
torque and displacement, but the latter case has not yet
been included in our discussion. It requires an extension of
The resulting mobility tensor ζ̂h is symmetric and uni-
the calculations of reference I, which is given in Appendix
axial with respect to the a-direction e|| = a/a, i.e.
B.
||
For perpendicular alignment and in agreement with
ζ̂h = ζh (a2 , , λ)e|| ⊗ e|| + ζh⊥ (a2 , , λ)(1̂ − e|| ⊗ e|| ). (54) the coordinates chosen in sec. 3, we choose Dext = Dext ey ,
so that ω = ωey and U = U ez . In the absence of an ap-
||
The longitudinal component ζh follows from Eqs.(38,39) plied external force, we have b3 = c3 = 0. Torque balance
of I and is listed in Appendix A. The anisotropy vanishes determines the coefficient c2 according to Eq. (43) and
trivially for a = 0, when the encapsulated particle is lo- hence also b2 = c2 /λ according to Eq. (39). The trans-
cated at the center of the drop [28]. verse mobilities in the equations
The mobility of the drop turns out to be isotropic, i.e.
⊥ 2
µ⊥
|| U = ζD (a , , λ)Dext a (61)
h = µh = µh and µ̂h = µh 1. Rotation of the drop is only
observed for a displacement a with a nonzero component vcm = µ⊥ 2
D (a , , λ)Dext a (62)
perpendicular to the symmetry axis n of the squirmer.
The corresponding mobility tensor is uni-axial but anti- ω= κ⊥ 2
D (a , , λ)Dext (63)
symmetric, so that it is determined by a single coefficient
are explicitly given in Eqs.(84,90,95) of AppendixA.
κh , which can be read off from Eq.(49).
The configuration with parallel alignment of torque
and displacement leads to a spinning motion of the particle
around its direction of propulsion. Its calculation requires
4.2 Passive particle dragged by an external force an extension of the analysis given in reference I, which
is presented in Appendix B. The result is U = 0 and
Next, we consider a passive particle (h = 0), which is ||
ω = κD Dext with
dragged by an external force Fext = Fext ez , perpendicular
to its displacement a = aex from the center of the drop. 1
||
3 (λ − 1) + 1


The coefficients c2 , c3 are determined by the external force. κD = 3 −
(64)
Soving for the remaining coeffcients, we find 8π η

In coordinate free representation, the relations between

vcm =vcm ez = µ⊥
F Fext (55)
Dext and the velocities take on the form
U =U ez = ζF⊥ Fext (56)
ω =ωey = κF a × Fext (57) U = ζD a × Dext (65)
vcm = µD a × Dext (66)
The coeffcients µ⊥ ⊥
F , ζF , κF are given in Eqs. (77),(88),92) ω = κ̂D Dext , (67)
of Appendix A. A finite angular velocity of the particle
is due to the torque (in frame D) exerted by the external with a symmetric uniaxial tensor κ̂D .
force due to a finite displacement of the particle from the
center of the drop.
We proceed as in the previous subsection: we combine 5 Discussion
the above results for perpendicular alignment of a and
Fext with those of ref. I for parallel alignment. General
The general mobility tensors are obtained by superposi-
orientations of a and Fext then give rise to mobility tensor
tion of the 3 special cases worked out above and will now
relations, which read in coordinate free representation as
be used to discuss the general motion of drop and encap-
follows:
sulated particle.
U = ζ̂F Fext (58)
vcm = µ̂F Fext (59) 5.1 Motion of the drop
ω = κF a × Fext . (60)
A linear velocity of the drop is generated by all three
The tensors ζ̂F and µ̂F are symmetric and uniaxial with driving mechanisms: slip velocity of the squirmer, external
respect to the displacement a. The longitudinal compo- force and external torque
nents follow from Eqs.(40,41) of I and are recalled in Ap-
pendix A. vcm = µh U0 + µ̂F Fext + µD a × Dext (68)
 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer
The response to active slip, as characterized by µh , is com-
pletely isotropic and independent of a. In other words the drop ( → 1), one obtains U = 6πη1+  Fext , as expected.
linear velocity of the drop with an encapsulated squirmer The dependence of the anisotropy on the viscosity con-
only depends on the size  of the squirmer and the viscos- trast λ is more subtle, as can be seen in Fig.2c, where we
ity contrast λ. For small , it vanishes proportional to the plot the ratio of perpendicular to parallel mobility for an
volume of the squirmer.
If the drop is driven by an external force, acting on a monotonic function of , and it may show both possibilities
passive encapsulated particle, then the response is anisotropic ⊥
||
and characterized by the uniaxial tensor: µ̂F = µF (a2 )ea ⊗
ea + µ⊥ 2
F (a )(1 − ea ⊗ ea ). The ratio of the two mobilities
is given by
||
µF G − 3a2
= with G = 44 (λ − 1) − 52 + 3(2λ + 3)
µ⊥
F G − 6a2
so that the velocity of the drop is always larger for par-
allel alignment of force and displacement. The mobility
of the drop remains finite as the size of the particle goes
to zero and in fact coincides with the mobilities derived
previously [29] for a point force inside a drop. Finally, a
torque exerted on the encapsulated particle, also propels
the drop, provided the particle is placed off center.
5.2 Linear velocity of the particle
The general propulsion velocity of the encapsulated par-
ticle is given by
U = ζ̂h U0 + ζ̂F Fext + ζD a × Dext . (69)
The response of the particle to either an applied force or
to a nonzero slip is in general anisotropic. If only an ac-
tive slip is present or only an external force is applied,
the velocity is not in the direction of the squirmer axis or
the external force. The reason for this anisotropy is the
response flow due to reflection at the interface, which is
not concentric around the particle. The anisotropy there-
fore vanishes as  → 0, or equivalently as the radius of the
drop goes to infinity. In that limit we recover the result
for the squirmer in free space, U = U0 , and the result for
the mobility of a passive particle dragged by an external
force, U = 6πη1−  Fext , in leading order in .
If the squirmer fills the whole drop ( → 1), we also
find U → U0 , implying nonmonotonic behaviour of ζ̂h as
a function of . In Fig.2a we show ζh⊥ as a function of 
for several values of λ = η − /η + and rs = |rs | = 0.1. One
clearly observes nonmonotonic behaviour for all λ. Fur-
thermore, if the interior of the drop has a higher viscosity
than the outside (λ > 1), the drop moves faster than in
free space, because the frictional forces in the interior are
larger than in the exterior region. The opposite behaviour
is observed for λ < 1, i.e. a less viscous interior. In Fig.2b
and c, we illustrate the anisotropy of the response. The ra-
||
tio ζh⊥ /ζh is shown in Fig.2b as a function of  for several
values of λ and rs = 0.4 in comparison to the isotropic
||
case which is realised for λ = 1. Both cases, ζh⊥ ≶ ζh are
+ −
possible, depending on whether η ≶ η .
7
If a passive particle dragged by Fext fills the whole
||
applied force, ζF⊥ /ζF . For λ < 1, the ratio becomes a non-
||
ζh ≶ ζh , as illustrated by λ = 0.5 in Fig.2c.
5.3 Rotational velocity of the particle
All 3 driving mechanisms, slip, external force and external
torque, give rise to a rotation of the particle:
ω = κh a × U0 + κF a × Fext + κ̂D Dext , (70)
The rotational mobility due to slip vanishes as the volume
of the squirmer, i.e. there is no rotational motion of a
squirmer in free space. Note that we have not included a
chiral component of the slip which has been discussed for
a squirmer in unbounded space [30].
An external torque causes a rotation of the particle
||
with in general anisotropic mobilities κD 6= κ⊥ D . In free
space, i.e. in the limit R → ∞, the response becomes
isotropic and reduces to the rotational mobility in free
||
space: κD = κ⊥ 1
D = 8πη − 3 .
6 Conclusions and outlook
We have analysed the dynamics of a solid particle, encap-
sulated in a drop and displaced from the drop’s center
by a general vector a (non-axisymmetric configuration).
Several driving mechanisms have been considered. Either
the solid particle is a (uniaxial) squirmer, driven by an
active slip or it is subject to an external force or to an
external torque, or any combination thereof. We have de-
rived analytical expressions for the translational and ro-
tational mobilities, i.e. the linear and rotational velocity
of the squirmer as well as the linear velocity of the drop
as functions of translation vector a, particle radius  and
viscosity contrast λ = η − /η + . Our analytical method is
adapted to mobility problems in spherical geometries, for
which it is simple and straightforward. It can easily be
generalized to more complex squirmers, which possess chi-
ral components and/or higher l-components of active slip
velocity. The obtained results provide a first step towards
controlled locomotion of an (active) particle, encapsulated
in a spherical liquid drop. Based on the general results for
the linear (U ) and rotational (ω) velocity of the particle
as well as the linear velocity of the drop (vCM ), one has
to solve the equations of motion for the particle in the rest
frame of the drop:
ṙs = u = U − vCM (71)
ṅ = n × ω. (72)
Together with the equation for vCM , one thereby obtains
the trajectories of drop and squirmer. Adjusting the exter-
nal force and torque, should allow to steer the composite
8 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Mobility of a squirmer (a) and mobility anisotropy of a squirmer (b), and a passive particle dragged by an external
force (c), vs. radius of the particle for different viscosity contrasts λ, as shown in the legend of (a). In (a) the distance of the
particle from the drop’s center is rs = 0.1, in (b) and (c) it is rs = 0.4.

system to designed places, as required by drug delivery or || 9

C4 = − (λ − 1) (79)
more generally in the context of microrobotics. 10
(80)

A Mobility tensors and

||
We now give the explicit form of all the mobility tensors C4⊥ = − C4 (81)
of the encapsulated particle and the drop as functions of 3(λ − 1)  6
a, η ± and . There are 5 symmetric tensors, ζw , µw , κD C2⊥ = 2 (λ − 1) + 53 (82)
4
(with w = h, F ), and 4 anti-symmetric tensors charac- 
terized by κw , ζD , µD . All these functions are polynomials + 3(λ − 1)
of a2 of degrees up to 2. The parallel components of ζw (83)
and µw have been obtained in I. They are included here
for completeness. All other components are calculated by
solving the linear system of equations set up in sect. (3.3) 3.) U = ζD a × Dext
and sect.(3.5) by symbolic computing using SymPy [27]  
||
(except the mobility κD , which is obtained in Appendix λ−1 3 2
N ζD = a + CD (84)
B). 8πη − 2

1.) U = ζh U0 with
CD = 25 (λ − 1) + 52 + 3(λ − 1) (85)
|| 3 2
N ζh = 3 (λ − 1)a + Ch0 (73)
3 4.) vcm = µh U0
N ζh⊥ = − 3 (λ − 1)a2 + Ch0 (74)
2
with ||
N µh = N µ⊥ 3
3 2 h =5λ (86)
Ch0 = 3λ + 2 −  (λ − 1)(3 − 5) (75)

2.) U = ζF Fext 5.) vcm = µF Fext

|| 1 ||
C4 a4 + CF 0


N ζF = −
(76) || 1  2

6πη N µF = − 3a + G (87)
1 12πη +
N ζF⊥ C ⊥ a4 + C2⊥ a2 + CF 0


= (77) 1  
6πη − 4 N µ⊥
F = − 6a2
+ G (88)
12πη +
with
 9
CF 0 =(λ − 1) 25 (λ − 1) + 4 − 52 (78) G =45 (λ − 1) − 52 + 3(2λ + 3) (89)
2
3 
+ (2λ + 3) + 3λ + 2
2 6.) vcm = µD a × Dext
 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer 9

−5 u1< := u1<
10 = Ψ
1
(98)
N µD = (90) r 2
8πη + u2< := u2<
10 = Ψ10 (99)
2
r2 1 1 3
7) ω = κh a × U0 u3< := u3<
10 = (Ψ + Ψ ) (100)
3 5
1> 1> 1 3
15 3 u := u10 = 3 Ψ (101)
N κh =  (λ − 1) (91) r
2 1 2
2> 2>
u = u10 = − 2 Ψ10 (102)
r
8) ω = κF a × Fext 1
u := u10 = (−Ψ 3 + 4Ψ 1 ).
3> 3>
(103)
3r
λ−1
N κF = − (6a2 + K) (92) The general solution of Stokes equation inside the drop is
8πη − thus given by

with v − = a1 u1< + a2 u2< + a3 u3< + b1 u1> + b2 u2> + b3 u3> ,

(104)
K = 25 (λ − 1) + 52 + 3(λ − 1) (93)
and the flow field outside of the drop by

v + = c1 u1> + +c2 u2> + c3 u3> . (105)

9) ω = κD Dext
Translations in the z-direction have been worked out in I
|| 1 for u1< , u3< , u1> , u3> and are easily extended to the 2
κD = M (94) new components:
8πη −
1  15a2 
u2< (r − aez ) = u2< (r)
κ⊥
D = −
(λ − 1) + M (95) (106)
8πη 2N
u2> (r − aez ) = u2> (r) + O(l ≥ 2) (107)
with The complete solution is now substituted into the bound-
ary condition to determine the yet unknwon coeffcients.
M = (λ − 1) + −3 (96) On the surface of the squirmer, Eq. (97) implies

2 4
a1 + a3 + b3 = U (108)
3 3
B Parallel alignment of displacement and 2 1 1
a3 + 3 b1 − b3 = 0. (109)
torque 15  3
 b2
a2 − 2 = − ω (110)
2 
In I, we analysed two uniaxial configurations: a squirmer
displaced from the center of the drop such that its symme- On the surface of the drop we require continuity of the
try axis coincides with the direction of the displacement flow
and a passive particle displaced from the center of the drop a3 3 4
such that the applied force is parallel to the displacement. a1 + (1 + a2 ) + (b3 − c3 ) = 0 (111)
Here we discuss the extension to an applied torque, par- 3 5 3
allel to the displacement. To make use of the formalism b3 3 a3 c3
b1 − (1 − a2 ) + − c1 + =0 (112)
developed in I, we choose Dext = Dez and consider a dis- 3 5 15 3
placement a = aez . We expect a rotational velocity of the a2
− b2 + c2 = 0. (113)
particle ω = ωez and possibly a linear velocity U = U ez . 2
The flow field on the surface of the particle is given by and continuity of the tractions

v − (r) =U + ω × r a3 a2 c1
− b1 − b3 + =0 (114)
=U ez + rω sin θeφ for r ∈ ∂Vs . (97) 10 5 λ
c3 − λb3 = 0 (115)
The contribution, due to the rotation, can be expressed in − +
3η b2 = 3η c2 . (116)
2
terms of vector spherical harmonics, rω sin θeφ = −rωΨ10 ,
and gives rise to a corresponding component of the flow- These are 9 equations, which together with force and
field, u102 . We thus have to extend Eqs.(10-13) of I torque balance determine the 9 coefficients in the general
10 R. Kree, A.Zippelius: Mobilities of a drop and an encapsulated squirmer

ansatz for the flow and U and ω. The equtions simplify 25. Medina-Sanchez M, Schwarz L, Meyer A, Hebenstreit F
considerably in this case: c3 = b3 = 0 (force balance), and Schmidt O 2017 Nano Lett. 16 555–561
c2 = D/(8πη + ) is determined by the external torque and 26. van Gelderen M 1998 DEOS Progress Letters 98 57–67
λb2 = c2 (Eq.116). This leaves us with 5 equations (109), 27. Meurer A, Smith C P, Paprocki M, Čertı́k O, Kirpichev
(111), (112),(113), (114) for the remaining 5 coefficients S B, Rocklin M, Kumar A, Ivanov S, Moore J K, Singh S,
(a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , c1 ), one equation for U (Eq.108)and one equa- Rathnayake T, Vig S, Granger B E, Muller R P, Bonazzi
tion for ω (Eq.110). The result is U = 0, i.e. no transla- F, Gupta H, Vats S, Johansson F, Pedregosa F, Curry
tional velocity of the squirmer; furthermore a1 = a3 = M J, Terrel A R, Roučka v, Saboo A, Fernando I, Kulal S,
b1 = c1 = 0 and Cimrman R and Scopatz A 2017 PeerJ Computer Science
3 e103
D || 28. Reigh S Y, Zhu L, Gallaire F and Lauga E 2017 Soft Matter
3 (λ − 1) + 1 = κD D.


ω= (117) 13 3161
8π3 η −
29. Kree R, Rückert L and Zippelius A 2021 Phys. Rev. Fluids
This result is used in Eq.(64). 6 034201
30. Pak O and Lauga E 2014 J. Eng. Math. 88 1

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