Glass is a non-crystalline, amorphous solid that is

often transparent and has widespread practical, technological,

and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware,
1. types of manufactured glass are "silicate glasses" based on the
chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the
primary constituent of sand
2. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container
glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of
approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O)
from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and
several minor additives.

Physical properties
See also: List of physical properties of glass

Optical properties
3. Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light
following geometrical optics,[30] without scattering it (due to the absence of
grain boundaries).[31] It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows.

4.
 Corrosion
Main article: Corrosion § Corrosion of glasses

Although glass is generally corrosion-resistant[49]

Strength
Main article: Strength of glass

Glass typically has a tensile strength of 7 megapascals (1,000 psi),[53] however

theoretically it can have a strength of 17 gigapascals (2,500,000 psi) due to
glass's strong chemical bonds. Several factors such as imperfections like scratches
and bubbles[54] and the glass's chemical composition impact the tensile strength
of glass.[55] Several processes such as toughening can increase the strength of
glass.[56]

5.
Obtain silica sand. Also called quartz sand, silica sand is the primary
ingredient in making glass. Glass without iron impurities is sought for clear
glass pieces, as the iron will cause the glass to appear greenish when present.
 Wear a face mask if handling extremely fine-grain silica sand. If inhaled,
it can irritate the throat and lungs.
 Silica sand is available from online retailers. It is fairly cheap - small
quantities shouldn't cost more than 20 dollars.[2] If you want to operate on an
industrial scale, specialty retailers can offer competitive rates on large orders -
sometimes lower than $100 per ton.
 If it is not possible to find sand sufficiently free of iron impurities, their
tinting effect can be countered by adding small amounts of manganese dioxide.
Or, if you want greenish glass, leave the iron in!


6.
7.
Add sodium carbonate and calcium oxide to the sand. Sodium
carbonate (commonly called washing soda) lowers the temperature
necessary to make glass commercially. However, it permits water to pass
through the glass, so calcium oxide, or lime, is added to negate this
property. Oxides of magnesium and/or aluminum may also be added to
make the glass more durable. Generally, these additives take up no more
than 26 to 30 percent of the glass mixture

8.
 Add other chemicals, depending on the glass's intended purpose. The
most common addition for decorative glass is lead oxide, which provides the
sparkle in crystal glassware, as well as the softness to make it easier to cut
and also lowers the melting point. Eyeglass lenses may contain lanthanum
oxide because of its refractive properties, while iron helps glass absorb heat.
 Lead crystal can contain up to 33 percent lead oxide; however, the
more lead oxide, the more skill required to shape the molten glass, so many
lead crystal makers opt for less lead content.

9.
10. Add chemicals to produce a desired color in the glass, if any. As
noted above, iron impurities in quartz sand make glass made with it
appear greenish, so iron oxide is added to increase the greenish tint, as is
copper oxide. Sulfur compounds produce a yellowish, amber, brownish or
even blackish tint, depending on how much carbon or iron is also added to
the mixture.
 11.
12. Place the mixture in a good heat-resistant crucible or holder. The
container should be able to withstand the extremely high temperatures
within the kiln - depending on your additives, your glass mixture may melt
at a range of temperatures between 1,500 and 2,500 degrees Celsius.
Your container should also be easily grasped with metal hooks and poles.

13.
Melt the mixture into a liquid. For commercial silica glass, this is done in a
gas-fired furnace, while specialty glasses may be created using an electric
melter, pot furnace or kiln.
 Quartz sand without additives becomes glass at a temperature of 2,300
degrees Celsius (4,172 degrees Fahrenheit). Adding sodium carbonate (soda)
reduces the temperature needed to make glass to 1,500 degrees Celsius
(2,732 degrees Fahrenheit).
 Homogenize and remove bubbles from the molten glass. This means
stirring the mixture to a consistent thickness and adding chemicals such as
sodium sulfate, sodium chloride or antimony oxide.

Shape the molten glass. Shaping the glass can be done in one of several
ways:
 The molten glass can be poured into a mold and let cool. This method
was used by the Egyptians, and it is also how many lenses are created today.
 A large amount of molten glass can be gathered at the end of a hollow
tube, which is then blown into while the tube is turned. The glass is shaped by
the air entering the tube, gravity pulling on the molten glass and whatever tools
the glassblower uses to work the molten glass.
 The molten glass can be poured into a bath of molten tin for support and
blasted with pressurized nitrogen to shape and polish it. Glass made by this
method is called float glass, and it is how glass panes have been made since
the 1950s.

Slowly cool the glass in a kiln. This process is called annealing, and it
removes any stress points that may have formed in the glass during cooling.
Glass that has not been annealed is significantly weaker. Once this process is
completed, the glass can then be coated, laminated or otherwise treated to
improve its strength and durability.
 The precise temperature for annealing can vary based on the precise
composition of the glass from as low as 750 degrees Fahrenheit to as high as
1000 degrees Fahrenheit. The rate at which the glass must cool may also
change - generally, larger pieces of glass must cool more slowly than smaller
pieces. Research proper annealing methods before beginning.
 A related process is tempering, in which shaped and polished glass is
placed in an oven heated to at least 600 degrees Celsius (1,112 degrees
Fahrenheit) and then quick-cooled ("quenched") with blasts of air at high
pressure. Annealed glass breaks into shards at 6,000 pounds per square inch
(psi), while tempered glass breaks into small pieces at no less than 10,000 psi
and usually at around 24,000 psi.
Formation from a supercooled liquid
Main article: Glass transition

In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed
by rapid melt quenching,[155][156][157][158][159] although the term glass is
often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass
transitiontemperature Tg. For melt quenching, if the cooling is sufficiently rapid
(relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is
prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of
the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a
material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This
ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory.[160] Generally, a glass exists in a
structurally metastablestate with respect to its crystalline form, although in
certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline
analogue of the amorphous phase.[161]

Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase

transition[162][163] where certain thermodynamic variables such
as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition
range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order
phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as
the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.[156] Nonetheless,
the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass,
and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical
equilibrium phase transformations in solids.[158][159]

Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed

in the supercooled liquid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a
solid.[162][164] The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over
extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical
analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). Laboratory measurements of
room temperature glass flow do show a motion consistent with a material
viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa s.[165]

Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in

a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition
temperature.[166] A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below
the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost
instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass
transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the
same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of
freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only
the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active,
whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain
why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most
experimental time scales.

Unsolved problem in physics :

What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular solid
and a glassy phase? "The deepest and most interesting unsolved
problem in solid state theory is probably the theory of the nature
of glass and the glass transition." —P.W. Anderson[167]
 (more unsolved problems in physics )

Behavior of antique glass

The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the
bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that
glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has
exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another.[168] This
assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the
observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made
by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a
round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above).
This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the
edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed
in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both
for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at
the bottom of the window.[169] Occasionally, such glass has been found installed
with the thicker side at the top, left or right.[170]

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a
similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling
table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the
pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller
window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour
centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect.
Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very
uniform in thickness.

Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow"
theory:

 Writing in the American Journal of Physics, the materials

engineer Edgar D. Zanotto states "... the predicted relaxation
time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation
period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even
longer."[171] (1032 years is many times longer than the estimated age of the
universe.)
 If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and
Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more—but this is not
observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edge;
 this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a
different viscosity from window glass).[162]
 If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye
after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any
slight deformation in the antique telescopic lenses would lead to a dramatic
decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.
However, the glass used in telescopic lenses is generally different from what
is used in windowpanes.[162]

Gallery
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