Prokaryotic Cells and

Microorganisms

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 Characteristics of Cells and Life
All living things (single and multicellular) are made of
cells that share some common characteristics:
– Basic shape – spherical, cubical, cylindrical
– Internal content – cytoplasm, surrounded by a
membrane
– DNA chromosome(s), ribosomes, metabolic capabilities

Two basic cell types: eukaryotic and prokaryotic

*
 Characteristics of Cells
Eukaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi, and protists
– Contain membrane-bound organelles that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm and perform specific
functions
– Contain double-membrane bound nucleus with DNA
chromosomes
Prokaryotic cells: bacteria and archaea
– No nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles
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Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Mitochondria
Chromosome Ribosomes
Ribosomes

Cell wall Cell

membrane
Flagellum Flagellum
Cell membrane *
 Characteristics of Life
• Reproduction and heredity – genome composed
of DNA packed in chromosomes; produce
offspring sexually or asexually
• Growth and development
• Metabolism – chemical and physical life
processes
• Movement and/or irritability – respond to
internal/external stimuli; self-propulsion of many
organisms
• Cell support, protection, and storage mechanisms
– cell walls, vacuoles, granules and inclusions
• Transport of nutrients and waste
*
 Structure of a bacterial cell
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Fimbriae Ribosomes Cell wall Cell membrane

Capsule

Slime
layer
Cytoplasmic matrix

Mesosome

Actin Chromosome Pilus Inclusion Flagellum *

filaments (DNA) body
 External Structures
• Appendages
– Two major groups of appendages:
• Motility – flagella and axial filaments
(periplasmic flagella)
• Attachment or channels – fimbriae and pili

• Glycocalyx – surface coating

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 Flagella
• 3 parts:
– Filament – long, thin, helical structure composed of
protein flagellin
– Hook – curved sheath
– Basal body – stack of rings firmly anchored in cell wall

Filament

Hoo
k

Outer
L ring
membrane

Cell wall

Basal
Ro Rings Periplasmic
body
d space Rings

Cell
membrane *
(a) 22 nm (b)
 Flagella
• Rotates 360o
• Functions in motility of cell through environment

(a) (c)

**
(b)
 Flagellar Arrangements
Monotrichous –
single flagellum
at one end
Lophotrichous –
small bunches
emerging from
the same site
Amphitrichous –
flagella at both
ends of cell
Peritrichous –
flagella
dispersed over
surface of cell
*
*
 Flagellar Responses
Guide bacteria in a direction in response to external stimulus:
Chemical stimuli – chemotaxis; positive and negative
Light stimuli – phototaxis
Signal sets flagella into motion clockwise or counterclockwise:
Counterclockwise – results in smooth linear direction – run
Clockwise – tumbles
Key

Tumble (T) Run (R) Tumble (T)

T
T
T

R
R

*
(a) No attractant (b) Gradient of attractant concentration
or repellent
 Periplasmic Flagella
• Internal flagella, PF PC OS

enclosed in the
space between the
(a)
outer sheath and the Outer sheath (OS)
cell wall
peptidoglycan Protoplasmic
cylinder (PC)
Periplasmic

• Produce cellular flagella (PF) Peptidoglyca

n
motility by contracting
and imparting
twisting or flexing
Cell membrane
motion
(b)

*
 Fimbriae
• Fine, proteinaceous,
hairlike bristles
emerging from the
cell surface

• Function in adhesion
to other cells and © Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
(a)
surfaces E. coli cells

G
Intestinal
microvilli

Dr. S. Knutton from D.R. Lloyd and S. Knutton, Infection and Immunity, January 1987, p 86-92. © ASM
*
(b)
 Pili
• Rigid tubular structure made of pilin protein
• Found only in gram-negative cells
• Function to join bacterial cells for partial DNA
transfer called conjugation

Fimbriae
Pili

*
© L. Caro/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 Glycocalyx
• Coating of molecules external to the cell wall,
made of sugars and/or proteins
• Two types:
1. Slime layer - loosely organized and attached
2. Capsule - highly organized, tightly attached

Slime layer

*
(a) (b) Capsule
 Functions of the Glycocalyx
• Protect cells from dehydration and nutrient loss
• Inhibit killing by white blood cells by phagocytosis,
contributing to pathogenicity (explain)
• Attachment - formation of biofilms

Colony without a
capsule
Colonies with a
capsule

Cell
body
Capsule

© Kathy Park Talaro © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited

* *
(a) (b)
Biofilm on a catheter

Catheter
surface

Fungal
cells

Staphylococc
i

*
Janice Carr/CDC
 The Cell Envelope
• External covering outside the cytoplasm
• Composed of two basic layers:
– Cell wall and cell membrane
• Maintains cell integrity
• Two different groups of bacteria demonstrated by
Gram stain:
– Gram-positive bacteria: thick cell wall composed
primarily of peptidoglycan and cell membrane
– Gram-negative bacteria: outer cell membrane, thin
peptidoglycan layer, and cell membrane

*
 Structure of Cell Walls
(a) The peptidoglycan of a

• Determines cell shape,

cell wall is a huge,
3-dimensional lattice
work that is actually one
giant molecule to

prevents lysis due to surround and support

the cell.

changing osmotic
(b) This shows the

pressures molecular pattern of

peptidoglycan. It has
alternating glycans (NAG
and NAM) bound

• Peptidoglycan is the together in long strands.

primary component:
The NAG stands for
N-acetyl glucosamine,
and the NAM stands for
N-acetyl muramic acid.
Adjacent muramic acid
molecules on parallel

– Unique
chains are bound by a
cross-linkage of peptides
(green spheres)

macromolecule (c) An enlarged view of

the links between the
NAM molecules. CH2OH CH2OH
composed of a Tetrapeptide chains
branching off the
muramic acids NAG O NAM
O
O NAG NAG O NAM
O
O NAG
O O

repeating framework connect by amino acid

Interbridges. The
amino acids in the H3 C C H NH H3 C C H NH
interbridge can vary or C C O C C O
of long glycan chains may be lacking
entirely. It is this
linkage that provides
CH3 CH3

cross-linked by short rigid yet flexible

support to the cell.
L–alanine

D–glutamate
L–alanine
peptide fragments D–glutamate
L–lysine

D–alanine
L–lysine –glycine
–glycine –glycine
D–alanine –glycine
–glycine *
Interbridge
 Gram-Positive Cell Wall
– 20-80 nm thick peptidoglycan

– Includes teichoic acid and Peptidoglyca

n
lipoteichoic acid: function in Cell
membrane
cell wall maintenance and
enlargement during cell division;
move cations across the cell Gram (+)

envelope; stimulate a specific

immune response

– Some cells have a periplasmic

space, between the cell © S.C Holt/Biological Photo Service

Cell membrane
membrane and cell wall Cell wall (peptidoglycan) *
(a)
 Gram-Negative Cell Wall
– Inner and outer membranes
and periplasmic space
between them contains a
thin peptidoglycan layer
– Outer membrane contains
Cell membrane
lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
• Lipid portion (endotoxin) Peptidoglyca
n
may become toxic when
Outer membrane
released during
Gram (–)
infections
• May function as
receptors and blocking
immune response
• Contain porin proteins in © T. J. Beveridge/Biological Photo Service

upper layer – regulate Cell membrane

Periplasmic space
molecules entering and Peptidoglyca Cell
Outer
n membrane wall
leaving cell (b) *
 Structures of Gram-Positive and Gram-
Negative Bacterial Cell Walls

Lipoteichoic acid

Wall Lipopolysaccharides
Porin proteins Phospholipids
Teichoic acid
Outer
membrane layer

Peptidoglycan
Envelope

Periplasmic space

Cell membrane

Lipoproteins

Membrane
proteins Periplasmic
space Membrane
protein

Phospholipid Porin

Peptidoglycan
Membrane Lipoprotein
proteins
Teichoic acid
Lipopolysaccharide

*
Comparison of Gram-Positive and
Gram-Negative Cell Walls

*
 The Gram Stain
• Differential stain that distinguishes cells with a
gram-positive cell wall from those with a gram-
negative cell wall
– Gram-positive - retain crystal violet and stain purple
– Gram-negative - lose crystal violet and stain red from
safranin counterstain

• Important basis of bacterial classification and

identification

• Practical aid in diagnosing infection and guiding

drug treatment

*
 The Gram Stain
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Microscopic Appearance of Cell Chemical Reaction in Cell

(very magnified view)

Gram (+) Gram (–) Gram (+) Gram (–)

Step

1 Crystal Both cell walls stain with the dye.

Violet
(primary
dye)
Dye crystals No
2 Gram’ trapped in effect
siodine cell of iodine
(mordant)

3 Alcohol Crystals remain Outer wall is

(decolorizer) in cell. weakened;
cell
loses dye.

4 Safranin Red dye stains

Red dye
(red dye the colorless
has no
counterstain) cell.
effect.
*
 Nontypical Cell Walls
(always some exceptions)
• Some bacterial groups lack typical cell wall
structure, i.e., Mycobacterium and Nocardia
– Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid mycolic
acid (cord factor)
• Pathogenicity and high degree of resistance to certain
chemicals and dyes
• Basis for acid-fast stain used for diagnosis of infections
caused by these microorganisms
• Some have no cell wall, i.e., Mycoplasma
– Cell wall is stabilized by sterols
– Pleomorphic
*
 Cell Membrane Structure
• Phospholipid bilayer with a mosaic of embedded proteins –
fluid mosaic model
• Functions in:
– Providing site for energy reactions, nutrient processing,
and synthesis
– Passage of nutrients into the cell and discharge of wastes
– Cell membrane is selectively permeable
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Carbohydrat
e
Glycolipi
receptor
d
Integral Integral
protein protein

Phospholipi *
d Peripheral
protein
 Inside the Bacterial Cell
• Cell cytoplasm:
– Dense gelatinous solution of sugars, amino acids, and
salts
– 70-80% water (Why is this important to know?)
• Serves as solvent for materials used in all cell
functions

*
 Nucleoid
• Chromosome
– Single, circular, double-
stranded DNA molecule that
contains all the genetic
information required by a cell

• Plasmids
– Free small circular, double-
stranded DNA
– Not essential to bacterial
growth and metabolism
– Used in genetic engineering -
readily manipulated and Courtesy of Michael J. Daly

transferred from cell to cell

*
 Bacterial Ribosome
• Ribosomes
– Made of 60% ribosomal
RNA and 40% protein
– Consist of two subunits:
large and small
– Prokaryotic differ from Ribosome (70S)
eukaryotic ribosomes in
size and number of
proteins
– Site of protein synthesis
– Found in all cells Large Small
subunit subunit
(50S) (30S)
*
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Inclusions and granules
– Intracellular storage bodies
– Vary in size, number, and content
– Bacterial cell can use them when environmental
sources are depleted

M
P

© D. Balkwill and D. Maratea

(a) (b) *
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Cytoskeleton
– Many bacteria possess an internal network
of protein polymers that is closely
associated with the cell wall

Actin
filaments

*
© Rut CARBALLIDO-LOPEZ/I.N.R.A. Jouy-en-Josas, Laboratoire de Génétique Microbienne
 Bacterial Internal Structures
• Endospores
– Inert, resting, cells produced by some G+ genera:
Clostridium, Bacillus, and Sporosarcina
• Have a 2-phase life cycle:
– Vegetative cell – metabolically active and growing
– Endospore – when exposed to adverse environmental
conditions; capable of high resistance and very long-
term survival
– Sporulation - formation of endospores
• Hardiest of all life forms
• Withstands extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation,
and chemicals
• Not a means of reproduction
– Germination - return to vegetative growth
*
 Endospores
• Dehydrated,
metabolically inactive
• Thick coat
• Longevity verges on
immortality, 250
million years
• Resistant to ordinary
cleaning methods
and boiling
• Pressurized steam at
120oC for 20-30
minutes will destroy

*
 Bacterial Shapes,
Arrangements, and Sizes
• Vary in shape, size, and arrangement but
typically described by one of three basic shapes:
– Coccus – spherical
– Bacillus – rod
• Coccobacillus – very short and plump
• Vibrio – gently curved
– Spirillum – helical, comma, twisted rod,
• Spirochete – spring-like

*
 Common bacterial shapes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

(a) Coccus (b) Rod/Bacillus (c) Vibrio

Janice Carr/CDC Janice Carr/CDC From Jacob S. Teppema, “In vivo adherence and colonization of Vibrio cholerae strains
that differ in hemagglutinating activity and motility, ” Journal of Infection and Immunity,
55(9): 2093-2102, Sept. 1987. Reprinted by permission of American Society for
Microbiology

(d) Spirillum (e) Spirochete (f) Branching filaments

Photo by De Wood. Digital colorization by Chris Pooley © VEM/Photo Researchers, Inc. © Science VU/Frederick Mertz/Visuals Unlimited

Key to Micrographs
(a) Micrococcus luteus (22,000×) (b) Legionella pneumophila (6500×) (c) Vibrio cholerae (13,000×) (d) Aquaspirillum (7,500×)
*
(e) Spirochetes on a filter (14,000×) (f) Streptomyces species (6500×)
 Pleomorphism
• Variation in cell shape
and size within a Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

single species – Metachromatic

granules

often occurs in
response to the
environment
Palisades arrangement

• Some species are

noted for their
© A.M. Siegelman/Visuals Unlimited

pleomorphism Metachromatic
granules
Palisades arrangement

*
 Bacterial Arrangements
• Arrangement of cells is Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

dependent on pattern of (a) Division in

one plane
Diplococci
(two cells)
Streptococci (variable
number of cocci in
chains)

division and how cells

remain attached after
division:
– Cocci:
(b) Division in two Tetrad (cocci in Sarcina (packet of 8 – 64
perpendicular planes packets of four) cells)

• Singles
• Diplococci – in pairs
• Tetrads – groups of four
• Irregular clusters (c) Division in Irregular clusters (number of cells
several planes varies)

• Chains
• Cubical packets (sarcina)
– Bacilli: Staphylococci and
Micrococci

• Diplobacilli
• Chains
*
• Palisades
 Classification Systems
for Prokaryotes
1. Microscopic morphology – individual cell
appearance
2. Macroscopic morphology – colony appearance
3. Bacterial physiology – presence of products that
are the result of bacterial metabolism and
physiological activities
4. Serological analysis – basically antibody
binding properties (antibody is a large molecule
produced by the body to attack foreign agents)
5. Genetic and molecular analysis – identification
based on the presence of genetic materials or
molecules
*
 Bacterial Taxonomy Based on
Bergey’s Manual
• Bergey’s Manual of Determinative
Bacteriology – five volume resource covering
all known prokaryotes
– Classification based on genetic information –
phylogenetic
– Two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
– Five major subgroups with 25 different phyla

*
Bergey’s Classification Scheme

*
Diagnostic Scheme for Medical Use
• Uses phenotypic qualities in identification
– Restricted to bacterial disease agents
– Divides bacteria based on cell wall structure,
shape, arrangement, and physiological traits

*
 Species and Subspecies
• Species – a collection of bacterial cells which
share an overall similar pattern of traits in
contrast to other bacteria whose pattern differs
significantly
• Strain or variety – a culture derived from a
single parent that differs in structure or
metabolism from other cultures of that species
(biovars, morphovars)
• Type – a subspecies that can show differences
in antigenic makeup (serotype or serovar),
susceptibility to bacterial viruses (phage type)
and in pathogenicity (pathotype)
*
Prokaryotes with Unusual Characteristics
• Free-living nonpathogenic bacteria

• Photosynthetic bacteria – use photosynthesis,

can synthesize required nutrients from
inorganic compounds
– Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
– Green and purple sulfur bacteria
– Gliding, fruiting bacteria
– Carry out more photosynthesis than all plants
combined

*
 Unusual Forms of
Medically Significant Bacteria
• Obligate intracellular
parasites Rickettsial
cells

– Rickettsias
• Very tiny, gram-negative
bacteria
• Most are pathogens
• Obligate intracellular Nucleus

pathogens
• Cannot survive or multiply Baca and Paretsky, Microbiological Reviews, 47(20);133, fig. 16, June 1983 © ASM

outside of a host cell Vacuole

• Rickettsia rickettisii –
Rocky Mountain spotted
fever
*
 Unusual Forms of
Medically Significant Bacteria

– Chlamydias
• Tiny
• Obligate intracellular parasites
• Not transmitted by arthropods
• Chlamydia trachomatis – severe eye infection
and one of the most common sexually
transmitted diseases
• Chlamydia pneumoniae – lung infections