VD - Part 09 - Suspension Systems

VEHICLE DESIGN
&
CAD
Işık University - AUE 421
Week #9
Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

Today ?
Automotive Suspension Systems

Suspension Principles

Lumped Mass
A motor vehicle is made up of many components distributed within its exterior
envelope.
For many of the elementary analyses applied to it, all components move together.
- Braking
- Acceleration
- Cornering
For ride analysis, it is often necessary to treat the wheels as separate lumped
masses: => sprung mass (body), unsprung masses.
For single mass representation, the vehicle is treated as a mass concentrated

at its center of gravity. The point mass at the center of gravity, with
appropriate rotational moments of inertia, is dynamically equivalent to the
vehicle itself for all motions in which it is reasonable to assume the vehicle to
be rigid.
Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

Sprung and Unsprung Mass
In a vehicle with a suspension, such as an automobile, sprung
mass is the portion of the vehicle's total mass that is supported
above the suspension, including in most applications approximately
half of the weight of the suspension itself.
The sprung mass typically includes the body, frame, the internal
components, passengers, and cargo, but does not include the
mass of the components suspended below the suspension
components (including the wheels, wheel bearings, brake rotors,
calipers, which are part of the vehicle's unsprung weight.
Reference : www.wikipedia.org/
Suspension Functions
1. To isolate a car body from road disturbances in order to provide good
ride quality.
Ride quality in general can be quantified by the vertical acceleration of the
passenger locations. The presence of a well-designed suspension provides
isolation by reducing the vibratory forces transmitted from the axle to the
vehicle body. This in turns reduces vehicle body acceleration. In the case of the
quarter car suspension, sprung mass acceleration can be used to quantify ride
quality.
2. To keep good road holding.

The road holding performance of a vehicle can be characterized in terms of its
cornering, braking and traction abilities. Improved cornering, braking and
traction are obtained if the variations in normal tire loads are minimized. This is
because the lateral and longitudinal forces generated by a tire depend directly
on the normal tire load. Since a tire roughly behaves like a spring in response
to vertical forces, variations in normal tire load can be directly related to vertical
tire deflection. The road holding performance of a suspension can therefore be
quantified in terms of the tire deflection performance.
Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.
Suspension Functions
3. To provide good handling
The roll and pitch accelerations of a vehicle during cornering, braking and
traction are some measures of good handling. Half-car and full-car models can
be used to study the pitch and roll performance of a vehicle. A good suspension
system should ensure that roll and pitch motion are minimized.
4. To support the vehicle static weight

This task is performed well if the rattle space requirements in the vehicle are
kept small. In the case of the quarter car model, it can be quantified in terms of
the maximum suspension deflection undergone by the suspension.
Conventional suspension systems with passive elements (springs and

dampers) are used since the beginning of the last century!

Vertical Dynamics (Modeling)

Vehicle Vibrations
Vehicles are multiple-DOF systems. The vibration behavior of a vehicle, which
is called ride or ride comfort, is highly dependent on the natural frequencies
and mode shapes of the vehicle.
Vehicle vibration models:
one-eight car model, quarter car model, bicycle car model, half car model, full
car model.
Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Vehicle Vibrations
Cabin
Seat
Seat suspension
Cabin suspension
Body springs and dampers
Tires at wheels
Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Vehicle Vibrations

Natural Frequencies
Vehicle Body
Human
Wheel
Seat
Natural Frequency

Mechanical Vibrations
Mechanical vibrations is a result of continuous transformation of kinetic
energy K to potential energy V , back and forth. When the potential energy is
at its maximum, the kinetic energy is zero and vice versa. Because periodic
fluctuations of kinetic energy appear as periodic motions of a massive body, we
call this energy transformation mechanical vibrations.
The mechanical element that stores kinetic energy is called mass, and the
mechanical element that stores potential energy, is called spring. If the
total value of mechanical energy E = K + V decreases during a vibration,
there is a mechanical element that dissipates energy. The dissipative
element is called the damper.

Main Relations
Kinetic energy
The force to accelerate the a mass m
A force fk to generate a deflection in spring is

proportional to relative displacement of its ends.
Stored potential energy in the spring =

Work done by the spring force during the
spring deflection
Stored potential energy if the spring is linear

Main Relations
If fc is proportional to the relative velocity of the its
ends, it is a linear damper with a constant damping c.
Such a damping is also called viscous damping.
A vibrating motion x is characterized by period T, which is the required time for one
complete cycle of vibration. Frequency f is the number of cycles in one T.
The frequency of a vibrating motion
In theoretical vibrations, we usually work with angular frequency ω [ rad/s], and in

applied vibrations we use cyclic frequency f [Hz].
Angular frequency ω and the cyclic frequency f

Free Vibrations, Forced Vibrations
When there is no applied external force or excitation on a vibrating

system, any possible motion of the system is called free vibration.
If we apply any external force or excitation, a possible motion of the

system is called forced vibration. There are four types of applied
excitations: harmonic, periodic, transient, and random. The
harmonic and transient excitations are more applied, and more
predictable than the periodic and random types. When the excitation is
a sinusoidal function of time, it is called harmonic excitation and when
the excitation disappears after a while or stays steady, it is transient
excitation. A random excitation has no short term pattern, however, we
may define some long term averages to characterize a random
excitation.

Serial Springs
Serial dampers
Serial springs have the same force, and a resultant displacement equal to
the sum of individual displacements.
Parallel Springs
Parallel dampers
Parallel springs have the same displacement x, with a resultant force, fk.

A One DoF Vibrating System
Every vibrating system can be
modeled as a combination of masses
mi, dampers ci, and springs ki.
Such a model is called a discrete or

lumped model of the system.
The number of masses, times the

DOF of each mass, makes the total
DOF of the vibrating system.
When each mass has one DOF, then

the system’s DOF is equal to the
number of masses.
The DOF may also be defined as the

minimum number of independent
coordinates that defines the
Eq. of motion: configuration of a system.

Two, Three, and One DOF Models
quarter car model ms: body mass (sprung)

mu: wheel mass (unsprung)
ku: tire stiffness

cu: tire damping
1/8 car model
ks: body spring stiffness
cs: body damper coeff.
md: drivers mass

kd: drivers seat stiffness
cd: drivers seat damping

⅛ Car Model
• The simplest
model for vertical
vibrations of a
vehicle
• The mass ms
represents one
quarter of the
car’s body, which
is mounted on a
suspension
made of a spring
ks and a damper
cs.
Eq. of motion:

¼ Car Model
Eq. of motion:

Quarter Vehicle Data
250 kg
The tire stiffness is much

higher than the suspension
16000N/m 1000Ns/m
stiffness!
Natural frequencies:
45 kg ω1 = 7.62 rad/sec
ω2 = 62.59 rad/sec
160000N/m

The Natural Frequency (Example)
Natural frequency
A system has as many natural frequencies as its degrees of freedom.

Response to a Step Input (One DOF
System)
tr: rise time

tp: peak time
xp: peak value
S: overshoot
ts: settling time

Influence of Suspension Parameters
on Sprung Mass Vibrations

Influence of Suspension Parameters
on Unsprung Mass Vibrations

Passive Suspensions – Summary
In addition to providing vibration isolation for the vehicle body, an automotive
suspension strongly influences the cornering, traction and handling properties as well
as the rattle space requirements of the vehicle.
An improvement in the performance of any one function is often obtained at the

expense of another. A high order multi-degree-of-freedom model involving many
suspension parameters is typically required in order to analyze the influence of
suspension design on all the performance functions.
The following conclusions on suspension design can be summarized:
a. Decreasing suspension stiffness improves ride quality. However, it increases

rattle space requirements.
b. Increased suspension damping reduces resonant vibrations at the sprung

mass frequency. However, it also results in increased high frequency
harshness.
c. Increased tire stiffness provides better road holding but leads to harsher ride at
frequencies above the unsprung mass frequency.

Passive Suspensions – Summary
d) An analysis of the full car and half car models' response to road irregularities
indicated that the suspensions can be designed independently at each wheel. The
quarter car suspension model is therefore adequate to study and design
automotive suspension systems for optimizing response to road irregularities.
e) To study the influence of cornering on vehicle roll and the influence of braking and
longitudinal acceleration on vehicle pitch, half car and/or full car models must be
used.

Semi-active and Active Suspensions
The inherent limitations of classical suspensions have motivated the investigation of
controlled suspension systems, both semi-active and active.
In a semi-active suspension the damper is generally replaced by a controlled

dissipative element and no energy is introduced into the system.
In contrast, an active suspension requires the use of a fully active actuator, and a
significant energy input is generally required.
Due to their higher reliability, lower cost and comparable performance semi-active
suspensions have gained wide acceptance throughout the automotive engineering
community.
Example : Magnetorheological-based semi-active suspensions are used on a number of

high-segment market cars which employ the Delphi MagneRide™ system. The system is
fitted on a few vehicles including some Cadillac models, the Chevrolet Corvette and most
recently the Audi TT, the Audi R8 and the Ferrari 599 GTB.
Reference: Guglielmino, E. et. al., Semi-active Suspension Control, Springer, 2008.

Comfort in a Vehicle
Whilst road holding and handling can be objectively quantified by the analysis of the
dynamic equations of a vehicle (this is also to question), this is not the case with
comfort, as it is an inherently subjective matter.
Vibration transmitted to passengers originates from a host of causes, including, amongst

others, road unevenness, aerodynamic forces and engine- and powertrain induced
vibration.
Road irregularities are indeed the major source of vibration. In a comfortable

vehicle, vibration must stay within some boundaries.
In the occurrence of a bump, vertical upward acceleration can reach several g

while if a pothole is encountered, the vertical downward acceleration cannot be
larger than 1g. This is also a reason why hydraulic dampers are designed with
non-symmetrical characteristics for the bound and rebound strokes.
People can better withstand an increase rather than a decrease in the gravitational force
(as can be experienced in a fast elevator, for instance).

Comfort Assessment in a Vehicle
Frequencies lower than 1 Hz are related to symptoms like motion sickness;
frequencies in the range 5–6 Hz are troublesome for the stomach, while
frequencies around 20 Hz are pernicious for head and neck.
In terms of sinusoidal input, the simplest method to compare passive and semi
active suspension response is through the peak value of chassis accelerations.
In a linear case it is straightforward: for an output displacement expressed by
x(t)=X sin(2πft), the peak values of the higher-order derivatives (velocity,
acceleration and jerk) are:

Springs, Dampers and Stabilizer Bars

Stiffness of the Body Spring
Pass. Cars: 1-1.5 Hz, Sports cars: 2-2.5 Hz
Because the suspension spring
is in series with a relatively stiff
tire spring, the suspension spring
predominates in establishing the
ride rate and, hence, the natural
frequency of the system in the
bounce (vertical) mode.
Since road acceleration inputs

increase in amplitude in higher
frequencies the best isolation is
achieved by keeping the natural
frequency low as possible.
The lowest acceleration occurs at the natural frequency of 1 Hz. At higher values of natural
frequency (stiffer suspension springs) the acceleration peak in the 1 to 5 Hz range increases.

Dampers in General
First dampers were implemented on automobiles in A mono tube, seen in detail
1910 and were frictional or Coulomb dampers. in figure c, is the most
common damper design. A
mono tube has one reservoir
By 1925, hydraulic dampers were in extensive use.
for the fluid and an
accumulator mechanism to
Active dampers started being used in the 1980’s. compensate for the change in
volume resulting from the
Today, dampers are often hydraulic with telescopic movement of the piston rod.
construction, with the three basic types shown The accumulator piston acts
below. as a barrier between the fluid
and a compressed gas, which
is usually nitrogen, used to
accommodate the volume
Telescopic dampers. changes occurring when the
a. through–rod piston rod enters the housing.
b. double tube
c. monotube
Accumulator with
Compressed gas
Reference : Atabay, E., Dynamics of a Landing Gear Mechanism, PhD Dissertation, Istanbul Technical Univrsity, 2012.
Damper Types
The following is a list of some common types of dampers employed in
engineering applications.
- viscous dampers
- viscoelastic dampers
- friction dampers
- Magneto_rheological fluid dampers
- Electro_rheological fluid dampers
- shape memory alloy dampers
- tuned mass dampers
- tuned liquid dampers

Damper Characteristics
In order to fully identify a damper, besides its damping characteristics it is
customary to define also its force versus displacement characteristics
(damper work characteristics), the area of which gives a measure of the energy
dissipated over a complete cycle.
The figure below plot the characteristics of an ideal linear viscous damper.
These are idealized characteristics as no hysteresis is present in the force
versus velocity characteristics (real dampers always contain a certain amount
of hysteresis in their force versus velocity map).
Energy
dissipation No hysteresis
viscous damper characteristics
ideal linear
viscous
damper

Body Dampers
At very light damping (10%) the
response is dominated by a very
high response at 1 Hz. This type of
response often referred to as "float",
causes the sprung mass to amplify
long undulations in the roadway.
Benefit is obtained at all
frequencies above the resonant
Float ! point as a result of the high
attenuation achieved.
common
The 40% damping ratio curve is
reasonably representative of most
cars.
At 100% (critical damping) the 1 Hz

bounce motions of the sprung mass
are well controlled, but with
penalties in the isolation at higher
frequencies.

Active Roll Stabilization ARS
zf.com
Reference: Isermann, R., (2006) Fahrdynamik-Regelung,

Vieweg
Reference : Isermann, R., Fahrdynamik-Regelung, Vieweg, 2006.

Suspension Systems

Road Vehicle Suspension Mechanisms
• The suspension is what links the wheels to the vehicle body and
allows relative motion.
• There are two general types of suspensions: dependent, in which the left
and right wheels on an axle are rigidly connected, and independent, in
which the left and right wheels are disconnected. Solid axle is the most
common dependent suspension, while McPherson and double A-arm are
the most common independent suspensions.
• Sprung mass refers to all masses that are supported by the spring, such as
vehicle body. Unsprung mass refers to all masses that are attached to and
not supported by the spring, such as wheel, axle, or brakes.
• Wheels should be able to propel, steer, and stop the vehicle. So, the
suspension system must transmit the driving traction and deceleration
braking forces between the vehicle body and the ground. The suspension
members must also resist lateral forces acting on the vehicle.
Solid Axle Suspension
A solid axle with leaf spring suspension
The solid axle with leaf spring combination came to vehicle industry from horse-drawn
vehicles.

acceleration braking
A driving and braking trust force leaf springs into an S shaped profile.

Leaf springs are not suited for
taking up the driving and braking
traction forces. The driving and
braking flexibility of leaf springs,
generates a negative caster and
increases instability. To reduce the
effect of a horizontal force and S-
shaped profile appearance in a
solid axle with leaf springs, the axle
may be attached to the chassis by
a longitudinal bar (anti-tramp
bar).
A solid axle with an anti-tramp bar may be

kinematically approximated by a four-bar
linkage

Panhard arm to guide the solid axle

A triangle mechanism and a Panhard arm to guide the solid axle

• A solid axle is counted as an unsprung member, and hence, the unsprung
mass is increased where using solid axle suspension.
• A heavy unsprung mass ruins both, the ride and handling of a vehicle.
• Lightening the solid axle makes it weaker and increases the most dangerous
problem in vehicles: axle breakage.
• The solid axle must be strong enough to make sure it will not break under
any loading conditions at any age.
• When a vehicle is rear-wheel-drive and a solid axle suspension is used in

the back, the suspension is called live axle. A live axle is a casing that
contains a differential, and two drive shafts. The drive shafts are connected
to the wheel hubs. A live axle can be three to four times heavier than a
dead I-beam axle. It is called live axle because of rotating gears and shafts
inside the axle.
Solid axle with leaf springs Solid axle with coil springs Solid axle with torsional springs

Independent Suspensions
• Independent suspensions are introduced to let a wheel to move up and down
without affecting the opposite wheel.
• There are many forms and designs of independent suspensions. Double A-arm,
multi-link and McPherson strut suspensions are the most common designs.
Double A-Arm (Double Wishbone) Suspension McPherson Strut Suspension

Earle S. MacPherson (1940)
Double A-Arm (Double Wishbone) Suspension
McPherson Strut Suspension

Trailing Arm Suspension
Semi-trailing Arm Suspension

Spring Types
Air spring suspension Hydropneumatic suspension

Steel spring suspension
Reference : IfF – TU BS.

Roll Center and Roll Axis
• The roll axis is the instantaneous line about which the body of a vehicle rolls.
• Roll axis is found by connecting the roll center of the front and rear
suspensions of the vehicle.
Roll Center of a Double A Arm Suspension

Roll Center and Roll Axis
A suspension roll center at

(a) on
(b) above
(c) below
the road surface.

Six Degrees of Freedom of a Wheel

Wheel-Body Relative Kinematics
"Toe Angle"
When a pair of wheels

is set so that their
leading edges are
pointed toward
each other, the wheel
Toe Angle pair is said to have
toe-in. If the leading
edges point
away from each other,
the pair is said to have
toe-out.

Toe Angle
Toe settings affect three major performances:
tire wear, straight-line stability, and corner entry handling.
For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheels on a given axle of a car should point
directly ahead when the car is running in a straight line. Excessive toe-in causes
accelerated wear at the outboard edges of the tires, while too much toe-out causes wear
at the inboard edges.
Toe-in increases the directional stability of the vehicle, and toe-out increases the
steering response. Hence, a toe-in setting makes the steering function lazy, while a toe-
out makes the vehicle unstable.
The toe setting on a particular car becomes a trade-off between the straight-line stability
afforded by toe-in and the quick steering response by toe-out. Toe-out is not desirable for
street cars, however, race car drivers are willing to drive a car with a little directional
instability, for sharper turn-in to the corners. So street cars are generally set up with toe-
in, while race cars are often set up with toe-out.
With four wheel independent suspensions, the toe may also be set at the rear of the car.
Caster Angle
Caster is the angle to which the steering pivot axis is tilted forward or rearward from
vertical, as viewed from the side. Negative caster aids in centering the steering wheel
after a turn and makes the front tires straighten quicker. Most street cars are made with
4−6deg negative caster. Negative caster tends to straighten the wheel when the vehicle
is traveling forward, and thus is used to enhance straight-line stability.

Camber Angle
negative camber positive camber
Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to vertical line to the road, as viewed from the
front or the rear of the car. A tire develops its maximum lateral force at a small camber
angle. Camber is not generally good for tire wear.

"Steering Axis Position"
Caster Angle
King-Pin
Inclination
or lean angle
Scrub Mechanical
radius trail

Testing

Vibration Measurement
A range of accelerometers
A typical charge amplifier

B&K Type 2626.
Reference : Harrison, M., Vehicle Refinement – Controlling Noise in Road Vehicles, SAE International, 2004.
Accelerometers
• They are mostly piezo-electric devices using a piezo-electric crystal loaded with a small
mass.
• They are designed to have a natural frequency well above the anticipated excitation frequency
range.
• They are usually small in size.
• Large accelerometers have lower natural frequencies, are more sensitive but cannot be used for
measuring high-frequency vibration or on lightweight panels due to the mass loading imposed by
them.
• Multi-axis accelerometers are available.
• Accelerometers are generally expensive and fragile.
• Accelerometers may be attached using plasticine, wax, magnetic holders for low frequencies
(usually below 2 kHz). Hard epoxy or cyanoacrylate adhesive or screw holders are needed for
high-frequency measurements. The mass of the mounting adds to the mass loading effect.
• Charge amplification of the signals from high impedance accelerometers is preferred. Charge
amplifiers allow measurement of frequencies down to 0.2 Hz and they are relatively insensitive to
connecting cable length. They allow integration of acceleration to velocity or displacement. They
tend to consume batteries quickly and are generally expensive to buy.
Reference : Harrison, M., Vehicle Refinement – Controlling Noise in Road Vehicles, SAE International, 2004.
Tire Vector Sensor – 5 dof meas. of tire Position
Corrsys - Datron

K & C Testing
Kinematics and Elastokinematics
K&C (Kinematic & Compliance)

Testing System
Fixed Body, Forces and Moments at the Tires
Measured: Parameters(P), Curves (C), Maps (M):

→ Body spring stiffnesses
→ Anti-roll bar stiffnesses
→ Camber curves
→ Roll steer
→ Lateral force steer
→ Longitudinal force steer
→…

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VEHICLE DESIGN

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 1

Automotive Suspension Systems

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 2

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 3

For single mass representation, the vehicle is treated as a mass concentrated

Reference : Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, 1992.

2. To keep good road holding.

4. To support the vehicle static weight

Conventional suspension systems with passive elements (springs and

Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.

Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 8

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Body springs and dampers

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Guney, A., Vehicle NVH Lecture Notes, 2012.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

The force to accelerate the a mass m

A force fk to generate a deflection in spring is

Stored potential energy in the spring =

Stored potential energy if the spring is linear

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

The frequency of a vibrating motion

In theoretical vibrations, we usually work with angular frequency ω [ rad/s], and in

Angular frequency ω and the cyclic frequency f

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

When there is no applied external force or excitation on a vibrating

If we apply any external force or excitation, a possible motion of the

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Such a model is called a discrete or

The number of masses, times the

When each mass has one DOF, then

The DOF may also be defined as the

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

quarter car model ms: body mass (sprung)

ku: tire stiffness

md: drivers mass

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

The tire stiffness is much

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

A system has as many natural frequencies as its degrees of freedom.

tr: rise time

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.

Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.

An improvement in the performance of any one function is often obtained at the

The following conclusions on suspension design can be summarized:

a. Decreasing suspension stiffness improves ride quality. However, it increases

b. Increased suspension damping reduces resonant vibrations at the sprung

Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.

Reference: Rajamani, R., Vehicle Dynamics and Control, Springer, 2006.

In a semi-active suspension the damper is generally replaced by a controlled

Example : Magnetorheological-based semi-active suspensions are used on a number of

Reference: Guglielmino, E. et. al., Semi-active Suspension Control, Springer, 2008.

Vibration transmitted to passengers originates from a host of causes, including, amongst

Road irregularities are indeed the major source of vibration. In a comfortable

In the occurrence of a bump, vertical upward acceleration can reach several g

Reference: Guglielmino, E. et. al., Semi-active Suspension Control, Springer, 2008.

Reference: Guglielmino, E. et. al., Semi-active Suspension Control, Springer, 2008.