VEHICLE DESIGN

&
CAD
Işık University - AUE 421

Week #4

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Today ?

Power Generation and Energy Storage Systems

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 Alternative Fuels & Propulsion Systems for Land Vehicles

Ø Natural Gas (in gaseous form or liquid methan) Fossile Energy

Ø LPG (mix of liquid propane and buthane) Carriers

Ø Bio-Diesel
From Biomass
Ø Bio-Ethanol

Ø Biomass-to-Liquid (BTL)
Ø Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) Synthetic Fuels
Ø Coal-to-Liquid (CTL)

Ø Hydrogen (used in fuel cells or in ICE's)

Ø Full-Electric vehicle Electrification

Ø Hybrid-electric vehicle (Electric + Gasoline or Diesel Engine) of vehicle propulsion

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 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (well-to-wheel)
from Different Categories of Vehicle

Combined Cycle Gas

Reference: Larminie, J., Lowry, J., Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John Wiley & Sons, 2003. Turbine
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 Energy use (well-to-wheel)
arising from different categories of vehicles

Reference: Larminie, J., Lowry, J., Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
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 Energy storage system weight and volumes
for various energy carriers
(considering a vehicle range of 500 km)

Weight
Weight
Weight

Volume
Volume
Volume

Reference: Pistoia, G., Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Elsevier, 2010.

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Internal Combustion Engines

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 Ideal Engine

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

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 Characteristic Curves of an Internal Combustion Engine

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

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 Traction Hyperbola

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

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 Traction Hyperbola

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

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 Driving Resistances
Rolling Resistance FR = fR . G

Gradient Resistance FGrad = G . sin α = G . p

Resistance of Acc. FAcc = λ . z . G

Aerodynamic Resistance FAero = (1/2) . ρ . v2 . cw . A

Total Resistance :

!F = FR + FGrad + FAcc + FAero = ( fR + p + λ . z ) . G + (1/2) . ρ . v2 . cw . A

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 Electric Motor vs. Internal
Combustion Engine

Like ideal
characteristics

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

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 Sample Power Performance Curves
Although there is
almost no limit for
developing a
powerful engine,
any
engine with power
around 100 hp
would be enough for
street cars with
normal
applications. It
seems that engines
with 600 hp reach
the limit of
application
for street cars.

Reference : Jazar, R.N., Vehicle Dynamics, Springer, 2008.

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 Passenger car engine performance maps
(Throttle Maps)

a Spark ignition engine

b turbo diesel engine with intercooler
Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.
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 Engine Map (“Onion Diagram”),
Specific Fuel Consumption be in g/kWh.

Consumption
map
of a 2.0 litre spark
ignition engine
with 111 kW

Reference: Naunheimer, H. et. al., Automotive Transmissions, Springer, 2011.

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Electric Motors

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 Electric Motor Usage in Vehicles

Electric machines find a place in conventional vehicles as starters and

alternators.

The former boost the engine to reach its idle speed and to start delivering
torque.

The latter produce electricity to charge the 12V battery and to feed the electric
auxiliary loads.

Electric motors basically can be organized in two main categories: direct

current (DC) motors and alternating-current (AC) motors.

All types of motors have a stationary part, called the stator, and a rotating
part, called the rotor.

The latter is connected to the output shaft on which the motor torque is acting.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Electric Motors for EV Applications
Current motor technologies for (H)EV applications include:

- separately excited DC,

- permanent-magnet synchronous AC,
- induction motors,
- switched reluctance motors which are being regarded as a very promising opportunity
for the near future.

A rough comparison among these types shows DC motors to be simpler and less
expensive, since they need relatively uncomplicated control electronics to be fed using
the DC supply already present on a vehicle. Their main disadvantage is the high
maintenance requirement, since brushes must be changed periodically.

AC motors are in general less expensive, but they require more sophisticated
control electronics (inverters), which cause the overall cost to be higher than that
of DC motors. However, they have higher power density and higher efficiency than DC
motors. The majority of vehicle applications therefore use AC motors. Among them,
induction motors are generally characterized by a higher specific power than permanent-
magnet motors.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Typical EM Characteristic

Reference: Ehsani, M. et. al., Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, CRC Press, 2005.
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 Typical EM Characteristic
Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in the
previous figure.

At the low-speed region (less than the base speed), the motor has a constant
torque. In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a
constant power. This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x,
defined as the ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed.

Reference: Ehsani, M. et. al., Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, CRC Press, 2005.
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 Electric Motors
Two-quadrant measured
efficiency map for a
typical traction motor

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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Batteries

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 Specific power versus specific energy
for various short-term energy storage systems

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries and Voltage Levels

346 Li-Ion
Nissan Tino
300
Ford Escape GM 800 Utilities
273,6
Battery Voltage [V]

Toyota Prius
NiMH Lexus RX400h
216
201,6 Toyota Alphard
Toyota Prius

Honda Insight Honda Civic Honda Accord

Pb Pb Saturn Vue Pb

36
Toyota Crown GMC Sierra Dodge Ram

2000 2002 2004 2006 2007

Reference : IfF – TU BS.

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 Batteries

Desirable attributes of traction batteries for EV and HEV applications are :

- high specific power

- high specific energy
- long calendar and cycle life
- low initial and replacement costs
- high reliability
- and high robustness

Among other current technical challenges, a key point is developing accurate

techniques to determine the capacity or the state of charge (SoC) of batteries
during their operation.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries

The capacity of a battery, usually expressed in Ah, is the integral of the

current that can be delivered under certain conditions.

A dimensionless parameter is the state of charge, which describes the

amount of charge remaining in the battery, expressed as a percentage of
its nominal capacity.

Another key design parameter is the specific energy, i.e., the energy that can
be stored in the battery per unit mass, typically expressed in Wh/kg. The
specific energy affects the mass of batteries that must be carried on board,
thus the range of a purely electric vehicle.

For HEVs, possibly more important is the specific power, typically expressed
in W/kg, which is related to the acceleration and the grade performance
levels that the vehicle can achieve.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries
Batteries are composed of a number of individual cells in which three main components
are recognizeable:

- two electrodes, where half-reactions take place resulting in the circulation of

electrons through an external load (two components),
- and a medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between the positive and
negative electrodes (one component).

The cathode is the electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) takes place. When
discharging, it is the positive electrode, when charging, it becomes the negative
electrode.

The anode is the electrode where oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place. While
discharging, it is the negative electrode, while charging it becomes the positive electrode.

Schematics of a
lead-acid battery cell
A: Anode
C: Cathode
E: Electrolyte

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries

Ambient-temperature operating batteries have either aqueous (flooded) or non-

aqueous electrolytes.

High-temperature operating batteries have molten or solid electrolytes.

Presently, more than ten different technologies have been proposed. The
most commonly used are:

(i) lead–acid,

(ii) nickel–cadmium,

(iii) nickel–metal hydride,

(iv) and lithium-ion.

Electrochemical features of various traction battery

technologies

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries

Comparison of battery systems for electrical and hybrid propulsion

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Batteries – Areas of Usage

Areas of Usage

Mobile Usage Stationery Usage

Devices Vehicles Telecommunication UPS Max. Load Fotovoltaics

NiCd Lead Lead Lead Lead
NiMh NiCd NaS NiCd
Li-Ion Drive Bat. Board Net. NiMh

Electric Hybrid 12 V 42 V
Li-Ion & Li-Po ?
Lead Lead Lead Lead
NiCd NiCd NiMh
NiMh NiMh Li-Polymer
NaNiCl
Li-Ion
Li-Polymer

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 Cell Voltages

Lead Acid Ni-MH Li-Ion

U = 2,12V per cell U = 1,25V per cell U = 3,6V / cell
6 cells = 12,7 V 10 cells = 12,5 V 4 cell = 14,4V

• Li-Ion : less cells for the same voltage => better packaging
• Li-Ion : 2-3 times higher specific energy compared with NiMH batteries
• Li-Ion : 50% more power density compared with NiMH batteries

Serial connection of cells à Increase system voltage

Parallel connection of cells à Increase system energy capacity

Reference: Kümpers, J., Johnson Control, CTI 2007.

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 Discharge Characteristics of Li-Ion Cells

Voltage [V]

Capacity [Ah] ≈ State of Charge (SOC)

Cells can be damaged seriously if they are charged or discharged outside of the allowed
area. As as result of this, the whole battery system may be out of order!

à Battery Management : SOC of every cell unit must be checked and corrected (if
possible) during the operation!

Reference: Roßler, W., Infineon Technologies, CTI 2007.

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 Battery System Specifications
Ø Temperature : -20°C ile 50-60°C (Pb, NiMH, Li-Ion)
Ø Efficiencies : ca. 90% (Lead-Jel, Li-Ion), NiMH 70%
(efficiency : output power during discharge / power needed by charging)
Ø Self-discharge : 3-5% / Month (Lead-Jel) ve 30% / Month (NiMH)
Less in Li-Ion.
Ø Limited life (Lead-Batteries 3 – 5 Years, NiMH- and Li-Ion Batteries 10+ Years)
Ø Specific Cost [EUR/kWh]
Lead-Jel Battery = X
NiMH-Battery = 3-5X
Lithium-Ion Battery = 7-10X

Ø High cost and low specific power and energy

Ø Batteries are the weak point in the chain of automotive technology.

For a heavy truck : Instead of a 350 liters diesel fuel tank,

approximately a 10000 kg Li-Ion battery pack is needed.

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 Supercapacitors (Supercaps)
Power Pb-Acid SuperCap Capacitor
Charge
1-5h 0,3 - 30 s 10-3 - 10-6 s
duration
Discharge
0,3 - 3 h 0,3 - 30 s 10-3 - 10-6 s
duration
Energy [Wh/kg] 10 - 100 1 - 10 < 0,1

Lifecycle in
charge -
1000 > 500.000 > 500.000
discharge
counts
Specific power
< 1000 < 10.000 < 100.000
[W/kg]
Charge/Dischar
0,7 - 0,85 0,85 - 0,98 > 0,95
ge Efficiency

Ø Supercapacitors are devices for short time energy storage.

Ø They can be charged and discharged very quickly with a very high efficiency.
Ø High cost.
Ø They loose 30% of charge in one month.
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 Non-electric (and Electric) Hybrid Propulsion Systems

1. electrochemical, generator/motor and battery;

2. electrostatic, generator/motor and supercapacitor;
3. electromagnetic, generator/motor and superconductor coil;

4. inertial, CVT and flywheel;

5. potential, CVT and torsion spring;
6. pneumatic, pneumatic pump/motor and accumulator; and
7. hydraulic, hydraulic pump/motor and accumulator.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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The Future

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 Application map for various EV technologies

Reference: Pistoia, G., Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Elsevier, 2010.

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 Potential sources of hydrogen

Reference: Sperling, D., Gordon, D., Two billion cars driving towards sustainability, Oxford, 2009.
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