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Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
GRAVITY-FEED SYSTEMS
The simplest form of aircraft fuel systems is the
gravity-feed system used on many high-wing, sin-
gle-engine aircraft. A typical gravity-feed system
normally has two fuel tanks, a fuel selector valve, a
fuel strainer, a primer, and a carburetor. [Figure 7-2]
Figure 7-2. A typical gravity-feed fuel system consists of Figure 7-3. Pressure-feed fuel systems are used in aircraft
two fuel tanks, a selector valve, a strainer, a primer, and a where the fuel supply is located below the fuel metering
carburetor. device.
7-6 Engine Fuel and Fuel
Metering
FUEL TANKS The expansion space provides room for the fuel to
The condition of an aircraft's fuel tank can have a expand when exposed to warm temperatures while
tremendous effect on engine operations. Although the venting prevents tank pressurization and allows
fuel tanks are originally constructed to meet FAR air to take the place of the fuel as it is burned. Based
certification requirements, they must be properly on this, if a fuel vent becomes partially or completely
maintained to continue meeting their original blocked, a low pressure will form in the tank as the
design standards. For example, neglected or fuel is consumed. Eventually, this low pressure will
improperly maintained fuel tanks can lead to slow or completely stop fuel flow from the tank.
contaminated fuel being delivered to the engine or Therefore, if an engine is not receiving an adequate
fuel flow restrictions. Therefore, to increase your amount of fuel, especially at high power settings, you
ability to identify engine problems caused by an should check the fuel venting for blockage.
improperly maintained fuel tank, you must have a
basic knowledge of fuel tank design and Another thing to keep in mind is that, if an aircraft's
maintenance requirements. fuel system returns unused fuel from the fuel meter-
ing system, the unused fuel must be returned to the
Fuel tank construction varies depending on the type fuel tank that is required to be used first. In this case,
and intended use of the aircraft. In the early years of if you, as the aircraft operator, have not used enough
aircraft construction, fuel was retained in welded or fuel from the first tank, it's possible for the tank to
riveted tanks that were positioned in a wing or fuse- overflow. Therefore, it is important that you be
lage cavity. Although the location of fuel tanks has familiar with a particular aircraft's fuel system
not changed much, the materials used and methods before you operate the engine.
of construction have changed. Some of the new
materials used include 3003 and 5052 aluminum To prevent fuel from entering the fuselage or other
alloys and several composite type materials. These structures during refueling, a scupper and drain are
materials may include neoprene impregnated fabric sometimes installed near the filler neck of the tank.
used to form bladders, or fiberglass and honeycomb A scupper collects overflowing fuel and directs it to
materials that are formed into rigid tanks. In some an overboard drain. However, if the drain system for
applications, a special corrosion resistant material the scupper becomes obstructed, water and other
composed of steel coated with an alloy of lead and contaminants can collect in the scupper and
tin is used. This material is commonly referred to as possibly enter the fuel tank when the filler cap
terneplate. is removed. Therefore, an improperly maintained
scupper drain may present a source of fuel system
Even with the use of corrosion resistant materials, contamination leading to possible engine troubles.
fuel cells are not corrosion proof. For example, any
time water enters the fuel cell, corrosion can occur
LINES AND FITTINGS
within a fuel system. In addition, fuel cell age can
dramatically effect a fuel system's integrity. For Fuel lines routed in an engine compartment present
example, as a fuel cell's gasket and sealant materials special maintenance considerations. Heat,
age, they become brittle and can dislodge into the vibration, and corrosive elements are typically
fuel. Therefore, contaminants such as water, corro- greater in an engine compartment than in most other
sion, and sealer materials can cause engine malfunc- locations and, therefore, fuel lines installed in an
tions by restricting or completely blocking fuel flow. engine compartment require special attention.
As an example, a partial blockage of fuel flow can Consider that, if a fuel line fails in flight, not only
cause a dramatic leaning effect on the fuel/air mix- is the engine's operation affected, but an in-flight
ture which, ultimately, can lead to severe engine fire or explosion may occur. In order to maintain the
damage or even a complete engine failure. integrity of these lines, special procedures must be
used in their installation and care.
All fuel tanks incorporate design features that help
alleviate fuel system contamination and other opera- In modern aircraft, flexible fuel lines are often con-
tional hazards. For example, all fuel tanks are structed from synthetic materials such as neoprene
required to have a sump and drain installed at their or Teflon14, with the line's diameter being
lowest point. The sump provides a convenient loca- dependent upon the engine's fuel flow
tion for water and sediment to settle, allowing it to be requirements. Although these materials are
drained from the system. Additional tank design designed to be both abrasive and chemical
requirements call for expansion space and venting. resistant, there are additional steps that can be taken
to extend their life span. For
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-7
example, to increase a fuel line's fire resistance and
to help prevent deterioration, a fire sleeve may be
installed over the line. A fire sleeve is a hollow sil-
icone coated fiberglass tube that is slipped over a
length of the hose during fabrication. The sleeve is
held onto the hose by a stainless steel band that is
wrapped around the sleeve at each end. Figure 7-4. A lay line provides a method for visually identi-
Additionally, to prevent chemicals from entering fying whether a hose is twisted after it is installed. It should
the fire sleeve, the sleeve's ends are typically be noted that, instead of using a solid lay line, some manu-
dipped in a silicone type sealer before final assem- facturers use the identification markings as a lay line or an
bly. Although fire sleeves are invaluable in helping alternating pattern of lines and identification markings.
to protect flexible lines, they present a hazard by
preventing the underlying line from being easily
inspected. Therefore, the safest method for verifying area. Coiling the tubing also allows the line to
the integrity of a shielded fuel line is to replace it at expand and contract under adverse temperature
the aircraft manufacturer's recommended intervals. conditions. One disadvantage of using copper tub-
ing however, is its tendency to work harden.
In addition to using a fire sleeve, some fuel lines Therefore, stress fractures may occur due to the
may require the use of stainless steel heat shields. vibration and subsequent work hardening of the
These shields are strategically placed in the engine line. Operational problems associated with a
compartment to help radiate heat away from fractured primer line include leaking fuel and, in
flammable fluid lines. Therefore, it is important to the case of a primer line, excess air being drawn
verify that these shields are installed where into a cylinder causing a leaning of the fuel/air
appropriate and maintained in their original mixture. To help prevent fractures, some
condition. If they are not, the fuel within the fuel manufacturers require periodic annealing of the
line could become warm enough to vaporize and tubing to restore its ductility.
cause vapor lock.
Aluminum fuel lines are typically constructed from
When working with Teflon fuel lines, keep in mind 5052-O aluminum alloy. This material has good cor-
that, although Teflon offers a high degree of heat and rosion resistance, is reasonably easy to fabricate,
chemical resistance, certain precautions must be fol- and weighs less than comparable strength materials.
lowed to maintain their serviceability. For example, For these reasons, aluminum tubing is used to fabri-
Teflon hoses tend to assume a permanent set when cate aircraft fuel lines. However, since aluminum
exposed to high temperatures. Therefore, to prevent tubing does not transfer heat well and corrodes
a Teflon hose from cracking or splitting when being when exposed to high concentrations of corrosive
removed, a support wire should be tied between the elements, it is rarely used in an engine compart-
end fittings of the hose to maintain its shape. ment.
Another consideration when working with flexible For fuel tubing applications where high tempera-
hose is that, if a hose is allowed to remain twisted tures and corrosive conditions exist or where high
after installation, it is possible for the resulting strength is required, stainless steel tubing is used.
torque on the hose to loosen the end fittings. Reciprocating engine aircraft typically use a limited
Additionally, twisting a hose tends to weaken it amount of stainless tubing, however, turbine engine
which could lead to premature hose failure. To help aircraft use it rather extensively.
you identify when a hose is twisted, many manu-
facturers incorporate a lay line. When a flexible Another critical aspect of fuel lines is how they are
hose is properly installed, the lay line should be routed through the airframe and engine compart-
straight, with no signs of spiraling. [Figure 7-4] ment. Several guidelines for the installation and
routing of fuel lines include:
On aircraft equipped with rigid fuel lines, the rigid
lines may be constructed from a number of materi- 1. Whenever possible, fuel lines should be
als including copper, aluminum, or stainless steel. routed in separate sections of an aircraft.
Copper lines, although slightly weaker than alu- However, if this is not possible, a fuel line
minum, have the advantage of being able to transfer should be installed below electrical wiring
heat more readily than other types of materials. To and clamped to the airframe. Under no
further increase the cooling ability of a copper line, circumstances should an electrical wire
the line may be coiled to increase the tube's surface bundle ever be clamped to a fuel line.
7-8 Engine Fuel and Fuel
Metering
2. Support all fuel lines in a manner to avoid strain
on the fittings and, during installation, never
pull a line into place by the fitting.
3. Rigid tubing must always have at least one
bend to compensate for slight misalignments
and vibration. In addition, a bend relieves ten
sion caused by expansion and contraction of a
fuel line due to temperature and pressure
changes.
4. All metal fuel lines should be electrically
bonded at each structural attachment point with
bonded cushion clamps.
5. Fuel lines should be installed in a way that
protects them from being used as a handhold
while performing other maintenance. Figure 7-5. A fuel strainer represents the lowest point in an
aircraft's fuel system and should be checked periodically for
6. Where possible, fuel lines should be routed contaminants that could restrict fuel flow to the engine.
along the top or along the sides near the top in
compartments so they cannot be stepped on or
be damaged by cargo. splined shear-shaft. A vane-type pump consists of a
7. Sharp curves, steep rises, and steep falls should housing that contains a steel sleeve with an off-
be avoided in fuel line installations to help center bore, four vanes, a hollow steel rotor, and a
prevent vapor lock. coupling that turns the rotor. In this type of pump,
the rotor turns on its center axis while the vanes are
FUEL STRAINERS free to slide in and out of the rotor. As each pair of
vanes passes the pump inlet, the volume between
FAR Part 23 requires a main strainer or fuel filter to the vanes increases and fuel floods between the
be installed in the fuel system to remove vanes at the pump inlet. As the vanes rotate toward
contaminants and to provide a method for draining the outlet, the volume between the vanes
the contaminants from the system. The strainer decreases. This pressurizes the fuel so that when the
represents the lowest point in a fuel system and vanes reach the pump outlet, the fuel is forced out
must be located between the fuel tank and either of the pump. [Figure 7-6]
the fuel metering device or engine-driven fuel
pump. A fuel strainer removes contaminants from
the fuel by providing a low point in the system
where water and solid contaminants can collect.
These contaminants collect in the strainer's
sediment bowl and are then drained through a
strainer drain. Additional filtering is provided by a
fine mesh screen or filter element within the
strainer. [Figure 7-5]
Pulsating electric
pumps are normally
installed in parallel
with an engine-driven
fuel pump. This
arrangement allows
either pump to
provide fuel pressure
to the engine
regardless of the
other pump's
operation.
have an approved landing weight that is less than
the takeoff weight, a special valve is installed to
allow emergency fuel dumping. Most turbine fuel
systems also include a warning annunciator for low
fuel quantity and low fuel pressure conditions.
Lean best power and rich best power describe the Leaning the fuel/air mixture in an engine equipped
range of mixture ratios that provide the maximum with a constant speed propeller operating in its gov-
rpm or manifold pressure for a given throttle posi- erning range is accomplished in a different manner
tion. Although both mixtures produce the same than an engine with a fixed-pitch propeller. Simply
engine performance, a lean best power setting uses stated, a governing range is where the propeller
slightly less fuel than a rich best power setting. automatically changes pitch to maintain a constant
engine rpm. Based on this, it becomes obvious that,
The final term, best economy, describes the mixture if the rpm remains constant, the engine tachometer
ratio that will develop the greatest amount of does not reflect changes in engine power. In this sit-
engine power for the least amount of fuel flow. This uation, the manifold pressure gauge is used in the
condition is usually obtained by leaning the mix- same manner as the tachometer when leaning.
ture control until the highest exhaust gas tempera-
ture and rpm are achieved while throttle is in a set The most accurate method of leaning the mixture
position. Although this mixture ratio provides the requires the use of an exhaust gas temperature gauge.
best fuel economy, it can cause an engine to exceed An exhaust gas temperature, or EGT, gauge uses a
its rated temperature limits if it is used for temperature sensing thermocouple in the exhaust
extended periods of time. Therefore, most engine gas stream to measure the temperature of the exhaust
manufacturers recommend using the best power gases. If you recall from your earlier studies, as the
mixture ratio for extended operations rather than mixture is leaned, the temperature within the cylin-
the best economy ratio. ders increases. Therefore, by monitoring the exhaust
temperature you can set the fuel/air mixture for best
economy or best power. For example, leaning the
LEANING TECHNIQUES fuel/air mixture to obtain a peak EGT value indicates
To achieve a desired mixture ratio, the mixture con- a mixture that results in best economy and maxi-
trol must be adjusted to compensate for varying con- mum endurance. On the other hand, depending on
ditions. For example, as an aircraft climbs, the the engine manufacturer's instructions, a common
amount of air entering an engine decreases as air method of setting best power is to adjust the mixture
density decreases. Any time less air enters an to peak EGT then enrichen it to approximately 25℉
engine, the mixture ratio becomes excessively rich. cooler than peak EGT.
Therefore, to maintain adequate engine perfor-
mance as an aircraft climbs, the mixture must be
leaned. On some aircraft, this is accomplished auto- SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
matically; however, most reciprocating engines An engine's specific fuel consumption is the num-
require the operator to manually lean the mixture. ber of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce
one horsepower. For example, if an engine burns 12
When leaning the fuel/air mixture, different tech- gallons per hour while producing 180 brake horse-
niques may be used depending on the engine instru- power, specific fuel consumption (SFC) is .4 pounds
ments installed in the aircraft. Engine instruments per horsepower hour. Most modern aircraft recipro-
typically used to determine when the proper mix- cating engines have a brake specific fuel consump-
ture ratio has been obtained include the tachometer, tion that is between .4 and .5 pounds per horse-
manifold pressure gauge, or an exhaust gas temper- power hour. While not actually a measure of power,
ature gauge, if available. specific fuel consumption is used to determine the
efficiency of an engine.
When leaning is accomplished using a tachometer,
gradually pull the mixture control aft toward the A properly functioning engine should have the
idle-cutoff position. While accomplishing this, specific fuel consumption values specified by the
monitor the tachometer to determine when the rpm manufacturer. To verify specific fuel consumption
7-22 Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
reciprocating engines promotes a complete even
burn of the fuel/air charge by providing two ignition
sparks at the same time. The plugs are located
across from one another so that as the flame
advances from each spark plug, the mixture burns
in a wavelike pattern toward the center of the cylin-
der. This type of combustion causes a smooth
buildup of temperature and pressure so that maxi-
mum force is applied to the piston at exactly the
right time in the power stroke.
CARBURETOR SYSTEMS
To provide for proper engine operation under vari-
ous engine loads, speeds, and air densities, most car-
buretors include at least the following five systems:
1. Main metering
2. Idling
3. Mixture control
4. Accelerating
5. Power enrichment or economizer
Although most carburetors utilize each of these sys-
tems, the construction and principle of operation of Figure 7-21. All float-type carburetors store a quantity of
fuel in a float chamber. The amount of fuel allowed into a
these systems varies among carburetor types. float chamber is controlled by a float actuated needle valve.
Therefore, each system will be described in detail as
it relates to the type of carburetor it is installed on.
The two types of carburetors that are discussed here
are the float-type carburetor and the pressure-injec- MAIN METERING
tion carburetor. The purpose of the main metering system is to sup-
ply the correct amount of fuel to the engine at all
FLOAT-TYPE CARBURETORS speeds above idle. The main metering system is
comprised of one or more venturi tubes, a main
The float-type carburetor is so named because it uses
metering jet and discharge nozzle, and a throttle
a float to regulate the amount of fuel that enters a
valve. [Figure 7-22]
carburetor. In a float-type carburetor, fuel is stored in
a float chamber. The amount of fuel allowed to flow
into a float chamber is controlled by a float-operated
needle valve installed in the fuel inlet. With this
type of system, as fuel enters the float chamber, the
float rises and begins to close the needle valve. Once
the fuel in the float chamber is at the correct level,
the float completely closes, or seats the needle valve
to stop the flow of fuel. [Figure 7-21]
A carburetor float typically is constructed of brass
or some composite material. When brass is used, the
float is hollow and the air sealed inside the float
provides its buoyancy. However, when composite
materials are used, the float is typically constructed
as a solid piece. In this case, float buoyancy is pro-
vided by the air trapped in the porous composite
material used for construction.
To allow the air to enter and leave the float chamber
as the fuel level rises and falls, all float chambers
are vented. A typical vent passage opens directly to
the atmosphere or into the air intake. This way, the Figure 7-22. The primary components of a float-type carbu-
air pressure within the float chamber is always the retor's main metering system include one or more venturi
tubes, a metering jet and discharge nozzle, and a throttle
same as atmospheric. valve.
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-25
Fuel metering begins with the venturi. If you recall,
as air flows through the venturi, its pressure
decreases. It is this drop in pressure that the meter-
ing system relies on to meter the appropriate amount
of fuel. In some carburetors, a single venturi is
unable to create the pressure drop necessary to
meter fuel. In this case, a second boost venturi is
installed inside, or just prior to, the primary venturi.
The operation of the discharge nozzle is based on the In most cases, a pressure differential of at least 0.5 in.
difference in pressure between the venturi and the float Hg. is required to raise the fuel past the fuel metering
chamber. For example, when no air flows through the head. At high power settings, the pressure differen-
venturi, the pressure in the float chamber and venturi tial is more than high enough to ensure a continuous
are the same. However, once air starts flowing through flow of fuel. However, at low engine speeds, when
the venturi, the air pressure in the venturi decreases the pressure differential is low, fuel delivery from the
below the air pressure in the float chamber. This pres- discharge nozzle is hampered by the fuel's surface
sure differential, or metering force, forces fuel to flow tension. Surface tension is a physical property of flu-
through the main metering jet and out the discharge ids that is created by the cohesive forces of mole-
nozzle into the airstream. Based on this, the greater the cules. Because of this cohesiveness, liquids tend to
pressure differential between the float chamber and hold together instead of spread out or break up. An
discharge nozzle, the more fuel is discharged. example of a liquid's cohesive force is seen when a
However, the maximum amount of fuel that can flow container is slightly overfilled. [Figure 7-24]
through the discharge nozzle is ultimately limited by
the size of the main metering jet. [Figure 7-23]
Air Bleed
When fuel enters a discharge nozzle, its surface ten-
sion tends to cause the fuel to adhere to itself and the
walls of the nozzle. This can cause the fuel to inter-
mittently discharge from the nozzle in large droplets
instead of a fine, continuous spray. To decrease the
surface tension of the fuel, an air bleed system is typ-
ically incorporated into the metering system.
Cleaning
Once a carburetor is completely disassembled and a
preliminary visual inspection has been accom-
Figure 7-35. To adjust the idle speed on most carburetors, a plished, you must clean all the components that
spring-loaded screw is rotated to provide a contact for the will be reused. Recommended cleaning procedures
idle stop on the throttle valve linkage.
and solvents are normally specified in the overhaul
manual; however, some general procedures apply to
most carburetors. For example, all metal parts are
first placed in an approved carburetor cleaner, such
Typical idle speeds range from 600 to 800 rpm. To as Stoddard Solvent, to remove grease and oil. After
allow you to adjust the idle speed, most carburetors rinsing in fresh solvent, all parts should be air-
are equipped with a spring-loaded adjustment dried. Do not use wiping cloths or shop rags for dry-
screw. [Figure 7-35] ing because lint and threads which are deposited on
the parts can obstruct metering jets and cause close-
When checking the idle speed, it is important that fitting parts to bind.
the engine be warm before any adjustments are
made. In addition, you should check the ignition Removal of carbon and gum deposits typically
system for proper operation. If everything is operat- requires the use of a decarbonizing solution.
ing properly, open the throttle to clear the engine, However, be aware that certain decarbonizers attack
then close the throttle and allow the rpm to stabi- some of the metals used in carburetor components.
lize. If the engine does not idle at the appropriate For that reason, always select decarbonizers
rpm, adjust the idle speed screw as needed and approved by the manufacturer and check the
recheck the idle speed. To help ensure an accurate instructions before use. In addition, decarbonizing
idle speed check, open the throttle to clear the fluids pose a potential health hazard and, therefore,
engine after each adjustment. you should always wear vision and hand protection
when working with decarbonizer solutions.
CARBURETOR OVERHAUL
After the parts have been decarbonized for the
Typically, carburetor overhaul intervals are not appropriate time, remove them from the decar-
specified by the manufacturer. However, it is com- bonizer bath. Rinse the clean parts with hot water,
mon practice to overhaul the carburetor at the time then dry them with clean, dry, compressed air.
of engine overhaul. Overhaul procedures require a Give special attention to the internal passages,
complete teardown of the carburetor and a visual bleeds, and recesses when rinsing and drying.
inspection of all internal components. In addition, Carbon deposits which remain on aluminum parts
dimensional checks are made to determine service- may be removed with No. 600 wet sandpaper and
ability of each reusable component. water. In addition, corrosion on aluminum parts
7-34 Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
may be removed by immersion in an alkaline In addition to inspecting the float, the float needle
cleaner or an equivalent agent recommended by valve and seat must be inspected for excessive wear,
the manufacturer. grooves, scratches, and pits. If any sign of wear is
visible, the needle valve may not seat properly.
Typical symptoms of a needle valve that does not
Inspection seat properly include a leaking discharge nozzle
Once all parts are thoroughly clean, complete a when the engine is shut down and carburetor flood-
visual inspection to determine the serviceability of ing. Since a typical needle valve is constructed of
each component. In particular, look for corrosion, hardened steel and the needle valve seat is made
cracks, bent parts, and crossed threads. Also, parts from bronze, the seat usually wears faster than the
which are subject to wear should either be dimen- needle. In some cases, the needle valve may have a
sionally checked and compared against a table of synthetic rubber tip to provide a more effective seal-
limits or replaced. ing surface and reduce wear between the valve tip
and seat. If a rubber tip is installed, it should be
checked for deterioration and tearing. In most cases,
When inspecting the float bowl and venturi cast- if either the needle valve or its seat show signs of
ings, pay particular attention to the numerous fuel wear, both must be replaced. In rare instances, you
and air passages. To adequately inspect these pas- may encounter some older models of carburetors
sages requires the use of a magnifying glass and that have a needle valve and seat that can be lapped
light. You should never insert a piece of wire in a together to re-establish a tight seal.
passage because a piece of the wire could become
lodged in the passage rendering the component
Once the float and needle valve assembly have been
useless.
inspected and repaired or replaced as necessary, the
components may be reassembled to check the float
The float assembly must be checked for freedom of level. As mentioned earlier, the fuel level in a float-
motion, proper fit, and proper clearance. In particu- type carburetor is between 3/16 and 1/8 inch from
lar, the fulcrum pin and bushing on which a float the top of the discharge nozzle. This is important
assembly is hinged should be inspected for binding. because if the fuel level is too low, a greater pressure
Additional inspections that should be made to a differential between the float chamber and venturi
float assembly depend on what the float is con- is required to draw fuel into the engine. On the
structed of. However, all float assemblies should be other hand, if the fuel level is too high, an excessive
checked for leaks and buoyancy. This is important amount of fuel could be drawn into the engine. As
because if a float loses its buoyancy, it will sink in you recall, the fuel level in a carburetor is deter-
the float bowl and allow the fuel level to rise. If this mined by the position of the float; therefore, an
happens, the carburetor may supply an excessively important thing that should be checked when over-
rich mixture. On carburetors that use a hollow brass hauling a carburetor is the float level.
float, the float should be immersed in hot water to
check for possible leaks. Immersing the float in hot The method used to check float level depends on the
water causes the air and any fuel vapor present in carburetor model. For example, on carburetors where
the float to expand and bubble through any existing the float is suspended from the throttle body, the float
holes or cracks. If bubbles appear during the inspec- level is measured with a ruler or by slipping the
tion, mark their location with a pencil. In most shank of the proper size twist drill between the gasket
cases, a leaky float must be replaced; however, some and float with the throttle body inverted. When the
manufacturers do permit minor leaks to be repaired. correct clearance exists, the drill should just touch the
A typical repair begins with drilling a very small float without causing it to rise. [Figure 7-36]
hole in the float to allow trapped fuel to drain. Next,
immerse the float in boiling water to ensure that all
When checking the float level in this way, it is
fuel has evaporated. Once this is done, the leaks are
important that you verify the clearance on both
filled with solder.
sides of the float. If the float clearance is incorrect,
an adjustment tab is generally provided so you can
On carburetors that use a solid composite float, the correct the clearance as necessary.
float's buoyancy is derived from the air trapped
inside the porous material. Because of this, any In other carburetors, the float and needle valve
defects or loss of buoyancy is typically not assembly are mounted in the float bowl and fuel
repairable and requires float replacement. must be used to check the float level. To do this,
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-35
Figure 7-37. To determine the float drop, hold the throttle
body in an upright position and measure the distance
Figure 7-36. The float clearance on some carburetors is between the throttle body mounting flange and the top of
measured with a ruler or by slipping the shank of the the float. Once the float drop is known, you can calculate
proper size twist drill between the gasket and float with the the total float travel by subtracting the float clearance from
throttle body inverted. the float drop.
level the carburetor body on a flow bench and attach mounts to the bottom of the throttle body. After
a fuel supply of the correct pressure to the fuel inlet. placing the test fixture on the throttle body, the dis-
As the float bowl fills, the float will close the needle tance between the float and test fixture is measured
valve. Once the needle valve completely closes, a with a drill rod gauge of specified size. The gauge
depth gauge is used to measure the distance must pass completely around the float without
between the surface of the fuel and the carburetor's binding. [Figure 7-38]
parting surface. To help ensure an accurate mea-
surement, the fuel level should be measured away In addition to checking the float and needle valve
from the edge of the float chamber. Measurements assembly, you must visually inspect and dimen-
taken at the edge of the float bowl tend to be inac- sionally check the main metering system compo-
curate because surface tension causes fuel to rise nents. For example, verify the size of a metering jet
near the float bowl wall. If the fuel level is incorrect,
it can be adjusted by inserting or removing shims
from underneath the needle valve seat.
ACCELERATION SYSTEM
Figure 7-43. To provide a way of controlling the fuel/air mix-
ture, an air bleed is provided between chambers A and B. If you recall, when the throttle is rapidly opened, the
By controlling the size of the air bleed, the pressure differ- airflow through the carburetor increases faster than
ential between chambers A and B is regulated and the the fuel flow. This delayed response creates a momen-
amount of fuel allowed into the carburetor is controlled.
tary leaning of the fuel/air mixture that can cause an
engine to initially stagger before accelerating. To pre-
vent this, many carburetors are equipped with an
from the inner diaphragm. To do this, a release acceleration system. An acceleration system provides
contact lever is installed in the regulator unit that an immediate, but brief, increase in fuel flow in the
extends from chamber A out to the mixture con- throat of the carburetor to enrichen the mixture. By
trol. When the mixture control is placed in the providing this extra fuel, the engine can accelerate
idle-cutoff position, the release contact lever com- smoothly and quickly until the carburetor can deliver
presses the idle spring and removes all pressure fuel at a rate that is prop'ortional to the air flow.
from the diaphragm. With no pressure on the
diaphragm, the poppet valve closes and cuts off
the fuel flow to the carburetor. A typical acceleration system on a pressure carbure-
tor consists of a single diaphragm pump consisting of
Some pressure carburetors utilize an automatic mix- three chambers: an air chamber and a primary and
ture control, or AMC. On carburetors with an auto- secondary fuel chamber. The air chamber and primary
matic mixture control, the fuel/air ratio is fuel chamber are separated by a diaphragm while the
7-42 Engine Fuel and Fuel
Metering
primary and secondary fuel chambers are separated POWER ENRICHMENT SYSTEM
by a rigid divider with a combination check/relief The power enrichment system provides extra fuel
valve and a single fuel bleed. [Figure 7-44] for operations above cruise power settings. The
extra fuel is used to aid in engine cooling and help
When the engine is started, the manifold pressure prevent detonation. Power,, enrichment on pressure
decreases and partially compresses the spring in the carburetors may be accomplished with either a dou-
accelerator pump's air chamber. At the same time, ble step idle valve or by incorporating an airflow
fuel fills the two fuel chambers. When the throttle is power enrichment valve.
opened rapidly, manifold pressure increases and
forces the pump diaphragm over. This forces fuel
from the primary fuel chamber into the secondary Double Step Idle Valve
fuel chamber and on to the discharge nozzle. The
combination check/relief valve allows a rapid dis- In carburetors that utilize a double step idle valve
charge of fuel when the throttle is first opened. for power enrichment, the idle needle valve is
However, the valve soon seats after the initial surge stepped to vary the amount of fuel that flows to the
and the remaining fuel discharges through the fuel discharge nozzle. At low power settings, the first, or
bleed to provide a sustained stream of fuel to the idle step of the idle needle valve off seats and allows
discharge nozzle. only idle fuel to flow to the discharge nozzle. Once
the engine is accelerated above idle to cruise power,
When the throttle is retarded rapidly, the corre- venturi suction increases and the needle valve off
sponding decrease in manifold pressure causes the seats further so that the second, or cruise step of the
pump spring to collapse rapidly and draw fuel into needle valve regulates the fuel flow. Above cruise
the primary fuel chamber. To prevent the rapid power, venturi suction increases enough to com-
diaphragm movement from starving the discharge pletely off seat the needle valve so that additional
nozzle of fuel as the pump fills, the combination fuel can flow to the discharge nozzle to enrichen the
check/relief valve remains seated and permits fuel fuel/air mixture. At these high power settings, the
to fill the primary fuel chamber through the fuel only thing that limits the fuel flow is the main
bleed only. metering jet. [Figure 7-45]
Figure 7-44. A typical accelerator pump on a pressure injection carburetor consists of a single diaphragm pump with an air chamber
that is vented to manifold pressure and two fuel chambers.
Figure 7-45. In carburetors that use a double step idle valve for power enrichment, the needle valve is cut in steps to regulate the
amount of fuel that flows to the discharge nozzle for idle and cruise power settings.
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-43
causes the air pressure within the enrichment valve
housing to decrease enough to off seat the enrich-
ment needle valve. Once the enrichment valve
opens, fuel is allowed to bypass the metering jet.
This increases the amount of fuel that flows to the
discharge nozzle which, in turn, enriches the
fuel/air mixture.
WATER INJECTION
Water injection systems were once used on some
large reciprocating engines to allow the engine to
produce its maximum power without suffering from
detonation or preignition. Because of this, water
injection systems are also commonly referred to as
anti-detonation injection, or ADI systems. With a
typical ADI system, a mixture of water and alcohol
are injected into the carburetor to create a fuel/air
mixture that helps prevent detonation.
Figure 7-47. The adjustment screws used to vary both the Once installed, the carburetor must be operationally
idle mixture and the idle speed are typically collocated on tested. To start an engine with a pressure carburetor,
the throttle valve shaft. the engine is primed and then the mixture control is
placed in the idle-cutoff position. Once the engine
starts, the mixture is immediately moved to the full
are rigged properly, you can also check both the idle rich position. During a typical operational check,
mixture adjustment and the idle speed. Both the the idle mixture and idle speed are checked and
idle mixture and idle speed are manually adjusted adjusted as appropriate. In addition, the engine
by varying the length of one or more adjustment should be run up to full power for a few minutes to
screws on the side of the carburetor. [Figure 7-47] verify the appropriate power output. Once this is
done, the power should be reduced to recheck the
When checking the idle mixture adjustment, the idle speed. If the engine idles properly, pull the
procedures used with float-type carburetors are also mixture control to the idle-cutoff position and ver-
used on pressure carburetors. In other words, when ify that there is positive fuel cutoff.
the engine is running and at operating temperature,
slowly move the mixture control toward the idle- FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
cutoff position while simultaneously observing the
tachometer. If the mixture is adjusted properly, the Although carburetors provide an extremely reliable
engine rpm will increase slightly before it drops off means of metering the amount of fuel that flows into
rapidly. If the aircraft is equipped with a manifold an engine, they do have two major limitations. First,
pressure gauge, an optimum idle mixture will result because intake manifolds differ in length and shape,
in the manifold pressure decreasing just before the the fuel/air mixture is not distributed evenly in car-
engine ceases to fire. bureted engines. This is critical in modern aircraft
engines with high compression ratios since the intro-
Once the idle mixture is adjusted, you may adjust duction of a lean mixture in any one cylinder can
the idle speed. To do this, begin by verifying the result in detonation and possible engine damage. The
ignition system is operating properly and the mix- second disadvantage shared by all carbureted
ture in the cockpit is set. If everything is operating engines is their susceptibility to carburetor icing.
properly, open the throttle to clear the engine and
then close the throttle and allow the rpm to stabi- To overcome these limitations, fuel injection sys-
lize. If the engine does not idle at the appropriate tems have been incorporated into many aircraft
rpm, adjust the idle speed screw as needed and designs. A fuel injection system differs from a car-
recheck the idle speed. buretor in that, with fuel injection, fuel is injected
either directly into each cylinder or into the intake
port just behind the intake valve. When fuel is
CARBURETOR OVERHAUL injected directly into the engine cylinders, the injec-
As mentioned earlier, the maintenance you can per- tion system is referred to as a direct fuel injection
form on pressure-injection carburetors is limited. In system. This type of fuel injection system was used
fact, because of the requirement for precision equip- on some early radial engines and offered the benefit
ment and a flow bench, the overhaul of a pressure of even fuel distribution and reduced chance of
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-45
Figure 7-48. The primary components of an RSA fuel injection system include a venturi housing, a fuel metering unit, a fuel regu-
lator, a flow divider, and several fuel nozzles.
backfiring. A typical flow fuel injection engines. The first is separate unit. [Figure
direct fuel injection systems used on the Precision 7-48]
system is similar to a modern Airmotive RSA
large pressure reciprocating system and the
carburetor that second is the
meters the correct Teledyne-
amount of fuel into Continental system.
two multi-cylindered Because of the
piston pumps. These differences between
pumps then forced the two systems,
the metered fuel they are both
directly into the discussed in detail.
combustion
chambers of the
individual cylinders RSA SYSTEM
as timed, high Precision Airmotive
pressure spurts. produces two widely
Although a direct used fuel metering
fuel injection system systems known as
worked well, the the RS system and
close manufacturing the RSA system. Of
tolerances and the two, the RSA
complex system is the most
components modern and,
required by this therefore, is the
type system made it system discussed in
impractical and too this section. A typical
expensive for aircraft RSA fuel injection
use. system consists of
five primary
components: a
The most common venturi housing, a
type of fuel fuel metering unit, a
injection system fuel regulator, a flow
used in aircraft is divider, and several
the continuous-flow fuel nozzles. With
system. A this type of fuel
continuous-flow fuel injection system,
injection system fuel flows into the
differs from a direct fuel metering unit
fuel injection where the position of
system in that fuel is the idle lever and
injected and mixed mixture control
with air in each determine how much
intake port just fuel is metered to the
behind the intake fuel regulator. Once
valve. In addition, in the fuel regulator,
fuel is continuously a combination of air
injected throughout and fuel metering
the entire forces regulate how
combustion cycle much fuel is sent to
instead of only the flow divider for
during the intake distribution to each
stroke. This allows of the fuel nozzles.
the fuel plenty of In most cases, the
time to vaporize and venturi housing, fuel
mix with the air metering unit, and
before it is drawn fuel regulator are
into the cylinder generally cast as a
when the intake single unit. However,
valve opens. for ease of
understanding, the
Today, there are two fuel metering unit is
types of continuous- illustrated as a
7-46 Engine Fuel and Fuel
Metering
To control the airflow through the venturi, a throttle
valve is installed at the top of the venturi housing.
To provide adequate airflow for engine idling, three
holes are sometimes drilled through the throttle
valve near its edge. [Figure 7-49]
HYDRO-PNEUMATIC
As mentioned earlier, hydro-pneumatic fuel con-
trols are often used on turboprop engines. A hydro-
pneumatic fuel control differs from a
hydromechanical fuel control in that a hydro-pneu-
matic fuel control utilizes a pneumatic computing
Figure 7-69. The computing section in a typical section that determines fuel flow rates based on the
hydromechanical fuel control unit consists of a pilot servo
valve that controls acceleration and deceleration rates, a
position of the power lever, N1 rpm, compressor dis-
governor that senses engine speed, and two pressure charge air (P3), and outside air pressure (Po).
sensitive bellows.
7-64 Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
Two governors, an N1 governor, and an N2 governor the electronic control monitors several engine
are also used in this type of fuel control unit. The N1 operating parameters and adjusts the fuel control
governor controls compressor turbine speed while unit to obtain the most effective engine operation
the N2 governor controls the power turbine speed. based on the position of the power lever. With this
The propeller of a free-turbine type of turboprop type of system, once the operator sets the power
engine is driven by N2 and, therefore, propeller rpm lever to obtain a specific engine pressure ratio
is controlled by the N2 governor. Both governors (EPR), the electronic engine control adjusts the
sense compressor discharge air and are connected to fuel control unit as necessary to maintain the
the pneumatic computing section. Therefore, func- selected EPR as the aircraft climbs or as atmos-
tions of the governors and pneumatic computing pheric conditions change. In addition, most EECs
section are interdependent. also limit an engine's operating speed and temper-
ature to prevent over-speed and over-temperature
A starting flow control unit also is utilized in this occurrences. In fact, some supervisory EECs may
type of fuel control and is installed between the be used primarily as an engine speed and temper-
main metering valve and fuel nozzles. A starting ature limiting control. For example, the supervi-
flow control unit consists of a casing which con- sory EEC used on a Rolls Royce RB-211 works on
tains a ported plunger that slides in a ported sleeve. a hydromechanical schedule until the engine is
A rack and pinion assembly converts rotational accelerated to near full engine power. However,
movement of the input lever into linear motion for once the engine nears its maximum rotational
moving the plunger. The starting flow control unit speed and operating temperature, the EEC begins
ensures the correct fuel pressure to the nozzles and operating as a limiter to limit the amount of fuel
provides a means of draining residual fuel from the that goes to the engine. [Figure 7-70]
fuel manifolds when the engine is shutdown. This
helps to prevent fuel from boiling and fouling the As a safety feature, if a supervisory EEC should mal-
system with carbon due to heat absorption after function, control automatically reverts back to the
engine shutdown. hydromechanical fuel control. In addition, a warn-
ing light illuminates in the cockpit to warn the air-
ELECTRONIC craft operator that the EEC is no longer inputting
information to the fuel control unit. By the same
As turbine engines advanced in technology, sched- token, an aircraft operator can manually revert to
uling the proper amount of fuel to the engine the hydromechanical control whenever it is deemed
became more important. In fact, the only way a necessary.
modern turbofan engine can realize its optimum
designed efficiency is if the fuel is precisely
FULL-AUTHORITY EEC
scheduled to the engine while several engine
parameters are monitored. To obtain the monitoring A full-authority digital engine control, or FADEC,
and control needed, most modern turbofan engines performs virtually all the functions necessary to
utilize an electronic engine control, or EEC, to support engine operation during all phases of flight.
schedule fuel. In addition, all FADEC systems are fully redundant
and, therefore, eliminate the need for a hydrome-
In addition to its ability to monitor and precisely chanical fuel control unit. A typical FADEC system
meter fuel, an EEC offers the benefit of saving fuel, consists of a redundant, two-channel EEC that can
increasing reliability, reducing operator workload, pull information from either channel. In most cases,
and reducing maintenance costs. Furthermore, a the EEC receives input on engine speed (Na and N2),
properly functioning EEC can prolong engine life by throttle lever position, bleed-air status, aircraft alti-
preventing over-temperature and over-speed occur- tude, total inlet air pressure and temperature, stator
rences. Today, there are two types of electronic vane angle, fuel flow rate, fuel and oil temperature,
engine controls used; the supervisory engine con- turbine exhaust pressure and temperature, and
trol system and the full-authority control system. burner pressure. This input information is analyzed
by the EEC and then a series of commands are
SUPERVISORY EEC issued to a set of actuators that control engine oper-
ating parameters.
A supervisory EEC consists of an electronic con-
trol and a conventional hydromechanical fuel con- On aircraft equipped with a FADEC system, the air-
trol unit. With this type of system, the hydrome- craft operator simply places the power lever in a
chanical fuel control unit controls most engine specific position to obtain a given EPR, or power
operations including starting, idle, acceleration, output, and the EEC automatically accelerai.es or
deceleration, and shutdown. On the other hand,
Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering 7-65
Figure 7-70. In the figure above, the control amplifier acts as the electronic control and receives input on N-,, N 2, and turbine gas
temperature (TGT). With this type of system, the control operates on a hydromechanical schedule until the engine output
approaches its maximum speed. At that point, the electronic circuit begins to function as a fuel limiter. To do this, the control
amplifier sends a signal to the differential pressure regulator to divert more fuel back to the inlet side of the high pressure pump.
decelerates the FUEL 7 E
engine to the EPR - n
desired. In addition, NOZZLES
the EEC maintains Fuel nozzles,
the selected EPR as sometimes referred
the aircraft changes to as fuel
altitude or ambient distributors, are the
conditions change. last component in a
This greatly reduces turbine engine fuel
pilot workload as metering system.
well as over-speed Fuel nozzles are
and over-speed typically located in
occurrences. In the diffuser or inlet
addition, since an of the combustion
EEC closely chamber where they
monitors and deliver fuel in a
controls the engine specified quantity. In
operating addition, since liquid
parameters so that fuel does not burn
maximum thrust is efficiently, the fuel
obtained for a nozzles must mix
given amount of the fuel with air and
fuel, engines that vaporize it as it
are equipped with an enters the
EEC are usually combustion
more fuel efficient. chamber. Most fuel
nozzles can be
To provide a high classified as either
degree of reliability, an atomizing nozzle
FADEC systems are or a vaporizing
designed with nozzle.
several redundant
and dedicated
subsystems. For ATOMIZING
example, as NOZZLES
mentioned earlier, an Atomizing fuel
EEC consists of two nozzles receive fuel
redundant channels from a manifold,
that send and receive mix the fuel with air,
data. Each channel and then deliver it to
consists of its own the combustor in an
processor, power atomized spray
supply, memory, pattern. In most
sensors, and cases, the spray
actuators. In pattern is cone
addition, any one shaped to provide a
channel can take large fuel surface
information from the area of very fine
other channel. This fuel droplets. This
way, the EEC can spray pattern is
still operate even if designed to provide
several faults exist. optimum fuel/air
As a second backup mixing as well as
should both channels prevent the
fail, the actuators are combustion flame
spring loaded to a from contacting the
fail safe position so combustor lining.
the fuel flow will go The
to minimum.
most common types of atomizing fuel nozzles cles the center orifice and discharges main, or
include the Simplex nozzle, the Duplex nozzle, the secondary, fuel when fuel flow increases above
spill-type nozzle, the variable-port nozzle, and the that needed for idle. Since the secondary fuel is
air-spray type nozzle. discharged at higher flow rates and higher pres-
sures, it narrows the spray pattern which, in turn,
SIMPLEX NOZZLE helps hold the flame in the center of the combus-
A Simplex nozzle is used on early jet engines and tion liner at higher power settings. In addition,
provides a single spray pattern. The nozzle itself the high pressure secondary flow helps prevent
incorporates an internally fluted spin chamber that orifice fouling caused by entrained contaminants.
imparts a swirling motion to the fuel as it exits the [Figure 7-72]
nozzle. The swirling motion reduces the fuel's Two common types of Duplex fuel nozzles are the
forward velocity which promotes better single-line and dual-line. A single-line Duplex noz-
atomization. To prevent fuel from dribbling out of zle receives fuel at one port. Once the fuel enters the
the fuel manifold and into the combustor after nozzle body, it enters a flow divider that distributes
engine shutdown, Simplex nozzles incorporate an fuel through a primary and a secondary spray ori-
internal check valve that shuts off the flow of fuel fice. The flow divider always allows primary fuel to
at the base of the nozzle. [Figure 7-71] flow to the primary discharge orifice while sec-
A disadvantage of Simplex nozzles is that they do ondary flow begins only when the inlet fuel pres-
not atomize the fuel well or produce a desirable sure rises enough to open the flow divider valve.
flame pattern when the engine is turning at slow [Figure 7-73]
speeds and the fuel is supplied at a low pressure. To Duplex nozzles also utilize spin chambers for each
help remedy this problem, some fuel systems incor- orifice. In addition, the head of a Duplex nozzle is
porate a second set of smaller Simplex nozzles. The designed with air bleed holes which cool and clean
small nozzles are sometimes referred to as primers, the head and spray orifices. In addition, some pri-
or starting nozzles, and spray a very fine atomized mary air is provided for combustion by the holes.
mist for improved engine starting. During engine start with only primary fuel flow, the
cooling airflow helps prevent primary fuel from back-
DUPLEX NOZZLE flowing into the secondary orifice and carbonizing.
A Duplex nozzle differs from a Simplex nozzle in
that a Duplex nozzle has two independent dis-
charge orifices; one small and the other large. The
use of two orifices provides several benefits
including better fuel vaporization and a more uni-
form spray pattern. The small orifice is located in
the center of the nozzle and discharges pilot, or
primary, fuel at a wide angle during engine start
and acceleration to idle. The second orifice encir-
VAPORIZING NOZZLES
Vaporizing nozzles differ from atomizing nozzles in
that instead of delivering the fuel directly to the pri-
mary air in the combustor, a vaporizing nozzle pre-
mixes the primary air and fuel in a vaporizing tube.
In most cases, the vaporizing tube extends into the
combustion chamber so that when the fuel/air mix-
ture is in the vaporizing tube, the heated air sur-
Figure 7-73. With a single line Duplex nozzle, fuel enters the
rounding the tube causes the mixture to vaporize
nozzle body where it passes through a filter screen and a
flow divider. Primary fuel always flows through the flow before exiting into the combustor flame zone. Some
divider while secondary fuel only flows when inlet fuel vaporizing type nozzles have only one outlet and
pressure rises enough to open the flow divider valve. are referred to as cane-shaped vaporizers. However,
another type of vaporizing nozzle is T-shaped and
provides two outlets. [Figure 7-74]
SPILL-TYPE NOZZLE
On some turbine engines that supply high pressure One shortcoming of vaporizing nozzles is that they
fuel to the fuel nozzles at all times, spill-type nozzles do not provide an effective spray pattern for start-
may be used. A spill-type nozzle is basically a ing. To help alleviate this problem, an additional set
Simplex nozzle with a passage leading away from the
spin chamber. This passage is referred to as a spill
passage and is required to return the excess fuel sup-
plied during low power output operations back to the
nozzle inlet. The advantage of supplying fuel at high
pressure to the nozzle at all times is improved
atomization at all engine speeds. One disadvantage
of this type of nozzle is the extra heat generated by
recirculating large amounts of fuel at low engine
speeds.
VARIABLE-PORT NOZZLE
A variable-port nozzle, or Lubbock nozzle, was
developed to properly atomize fuel over a wide
range of fuel flow rates. To do this, an internal
spring-loaded piston regulates the swirl chamber
inlet port size according to the fuel flow rate. For
example, at low flow rates, the inlet ports are par-
tially covered; however, at high flow rates, they are
fully uncovered. One disadvantage of this type of
nozzle is the tendency for the sliding piston to stick
because of dirt particles in the fuel.
Figure 7-74. With a T-shaped vaporizing nozzle, fuel and air
enter the nozzle body and are mixed and vaporized in two
AIR-SPRAY NOZZLE vaporizing tubes before being ejected into the combustion
The final type of atomizing nozzle discussed here is chamber.
the air-spray type nozzle used in some Rolls Royce
7-68 Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering
of small atomizing-type spray nozzles may be
installed to aid in engine starting. This system is
generally referred to as a primer, or starting, fuel
system. The Olympus engine in the Concord SST
utilizes vaporizing fuel nozzles with separate
primer fuel nozzles.
NOZZLE MALFUNCTIONS
A normally functioning fuel nozzle produces a
spray pattern that holds the flame in the center of
the liner. However, anytime an internal passage or
air bleed hole becomes plugged a distorted spray
pattern or incomplete atomization can result. In
cases where spray pattern distortion occurs, the
combustion flame can come in contact with the
combustion liner. On the other hand, if the fuel
doesn't atomize properly, an unatomized stream of
burning fuel may extend beyond the combustion
chamber and strike turbine components. When this
occurs, the burning fuel leaves visible streaks on the
components it contacts. This is often referred to as
hot streaking and must be corrected immediately.
Figure 7-75. A typical pressurization and dump valve con-
sists of a spring-loaded pressurizing valve and a dump
PRESSURIZATION AND valve that is positioned based on a control signal that cor-
DUMP VALVE responds to the power lever position.